See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/311949744

Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Technical Report · December 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24315.92965

CITATION READS
1 7,086

1 author:

Prakash Bahadur Thapa

Memorial University of Newfoundland
137 PUBLICATIONS   718 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Identify Assess, Select, Define and Execute - GHG and Energy Management View project

Oil Gas Offshore Safety Case (Risk Assessment) View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Prakash Bahadur Thapa on 28 December 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry
Prakash Thapa
Centre for Risk, Integrity and Safety Engineering (C-RISE)
Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science
Memorial University, St John’s, NL, A1B 3X5, Canada

Abstract
This tutorial covers equipment types, selection criteria, and operating principles regarding flow
instruments that are frequently used for oil and gas production. The most commonly used types are
emphasized; other types are mentioned briefly, and references are provided. Also discussed are
criteria for sizing orifice meters.
There are several methods of flow measurements employed in the oil and gas industry. These are
discussed herein briefly. A broader discussion of each as well as some other methods is presented in
Chapter 2.
Although several methods are presented here, the most common employed are orifice, turbine,
positive displacement, and rotameters. Differential pressure (also known as head type) flow
measurement devices are designed to change the fluid flowing velocity or direction to create a
difference in pressure between two points along a flowing stream. Common devices using these
principles are orifice plates, venture tubes, pitot tubes, and annuals.
Introduction
Orifice Plates
These devices are the type most used in production and processing operations. Orifice meters are
the most common form of custody transfer meter for natural gas. Numerous types of devices are
available for transmission, recording, and accumulation of data from orifice meters.
An orifice plate is a thin plate with a precisely machined circular opening. When the plate is
inserted in the flow stream and flow passes through the opening (orifice), some of the upstream
pressure head is converted into velocity head. The velocity head is greatest and pressure head
smallest at the "vena contracta" located slightly downstream of the orifice (see Figure 1).
The differential pressure across the orifice is related to velocity by Bernoulli's equation. When the
differential pressure and static pressure are measured and the orifice size, pipe size, and the gas
properties are known, the flow rate can be calculated.
For custody transfer applications, the industry standard is AGA Report Number 3 (API MPMS
14.3.3). The equations specified for orifice plate calculations are described in detail in Section 5 of
this tutorial.

1 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 1: Flange Taps (Preferred) (Source: p. 100, Instrument Engineers' Handbook, Bela G.
Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company).

3. At some point downstream, the velocity head returns to its original value, and the
pressure returns to very nearly what it was before the orifice. The difference between the
upstream pressure and the pressure at the point of recovery, which is generally considered
to be eight pipe diameters downstream of the orifice, is called the permanent pressure
loss. Orifice meters have a relatively high permanent pressure loss compared to other
meters. The permanent pressure loss could be as high as 90 percent of the maximum
pressure differential. In most installations, this will be less than 35 kPa (5 psi).
4. Several factors affect orifice meter accuracy. Some factors are based on the accuracy of
measuring the differential pressure. Other factors are based on how accurately the flow
rate is related to the differential pressure.
5. Upstream disturbances, flow turbulence, and pipe roughness influence the relationship of
flow to differential pressure. Accuracy is improved by honing welding burrs and
main
but it can be improved to about 1 percent when all sources of inaccuracy are minimized.
6. Orifice meters are limited in practical range ability to about 3 to 1 because the differential
pressure output is proportional to the square of the flow. The graduations on the readout
device get too close to each other for accurate reading below about one third of the flow
range (except where a computerized readout is employed). The differential pressure shall
normally be between 50 percent and 70 percent of the full scale reading at normal design
flowrate.
7. Accurate measurements require flow without large swirls. Therefore, there are
requirements for straight runs of piping upstream and downstream of the orifice;
straightening vanes are sometimes used.
8. The simplest method of mounting an orifice plate is to insert it between two flanges.
Ordinary piping flanges can be used, but orifice flanges allow easy centering of the
orifice plate. It is most common to purchase special flanges properly bored and tapped

2 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

for the connection of differential pressure sensing instruments. This type of installation is
commonly known as "flange tap" installation.
9. Measurement is not as accurate when pressure sensing taps are installed in the piping,
since the pressure differential is not as great at these locations as at flange taps for a given
situation. This type of installation is known as full flow taps or, more commonly, "pipe
taps." It is not normally used and shall be discouraged. Figure 2 shows full flow pipe
taps.

Figure 2: Pipe Taps (Discouraged). (Source: p. 126, Principles and Practices of Flow Meter
Engineering, L.K. Spink, (1975) 9th Edition, Published by the Foxboro Company)
10. Another form of pipe taps is vena contract taps, shown in Figure 3. In this type, one tap
is located upstream about one pipe diameter and the other is located downstream at the
point of minimum pressure. The location of the downstream tap is critical and depends
on the orifice size. For beta ratios up to 0.72, placing the downstream pressure tap 1/2
pipe diameter from the orifice provides a good approximation to vena contracta taps.
Vena contracta taps are rarely used on production facilities.

Figure 3: Vena Contract or Radius Taps. (Source: p. 126, Principles and Practices of Flow
Meter Engineering, L.K. Spink, (1975) 9th Edition, Published by the Foxboro Company)
11. Flanged orifice meters require the line to be depressed and the flanges unbolted and
spread, in order to change or inspect the orifice plate. Manufactured orifice flanges are
equipped with a "jacking" screw to spread the flanges for plate removal.

3 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

12. Quick change fittings are available to use in installations that require periodic orifice
plate service or changing. These fittings are manufactured by several companies but are
usually called by the trade names "Junior" and "Senior" even if they are not purchased
from the company that holds those trademarks. The "junior" fitting allows the orifice
plate to be changed without jacking the fittings apart, but it does require that the meter
tube be depressed. The "senior" fitting allows the plate to be changed without
depressing. Figure 4 shows a "senior" fitting. Manufacturers' instructions for changing
orifice plates shall be followed carefully to avoid danger to personnel.

Figure 4: Senior Orifice Fitting. (Source: Daniel Industries, Catalog 100, 1988)

4 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 4B: Senior Orifice Fitting. (Source: Daniel Industries, Catalog 100, 1988)
13. Orifice plates can be manufactured of any metal that is compatible with the measured
fluid. Type 316 stainless steel is used for most hydrocarbon service. Orifice flanges and
quick change fittings are usually made from carbon steel.
14. The most common shape for orifice plates for gas measurement is circular, with an
orifice that is round and located in the center of the plate. The ISA standard orifice has a
sharp edged straight bore.
15. Eccentric orifice plates have the hole placed with its edge tangential with either the top or
the bottom of the pipe. This type of orifice is sometimes used for measurement when
either liquids or gases are expected to be entrained in the process fluid. The hole will be
at the top when gases are present and at the bottom when liquids are present.
16. It is also possible in liquid service to use a segmental orifice for the same purpose as the
eccentric orifice. In a segmental orifice, the opening is semicircular.
17. Special edges milled on the orifice hole can improve performance at low Reynolds
numbers of flow in the pipe. Several different shapes have been tried and are somewhat
effective, but more common practice is to reduce the pipe size to increase the Reynolds
number to a value above 10,000.

5 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

18. A detailed discussion is presented in section 2.12 of the Chilton Process Measurement
Handbook.

Venturi Tubes
1. The Venturi Tube, also known as a low-loss flow tube, works by the same principles as
an orifice plate. The venturi tube has a gradual reduction in diameter to its narrowest
point, the vena contracta, and then a gradual expansion back to the original pipe diameter.
This device is more expensive to manufacture than an orifice plate, but it has a much
lower permanent pressure loss. The internal path of the venturi meter is machine-finished
and specifically contoured to minimize this pressure loss. Permanent losses on the order
of 5 percent of the measured pressure differential are obtainable. A typical Venturi meter
is illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5: The Critical Dimensions of the Classical Venturi Tube. (Source: p. 24, Principles
and Practices of Flow Meter Engineering, L.K. Spink, (1975) 9th Edition, Published by the
Foxboro Company)
2. A detailed discussion is presented in section 2.23 of the Chilton Process Measurement
Handbook.

Pitot Tubes and Annubars

1. The basic tube, as shown in Figure 6, has two concentric tubes. The end of the center
tube is open and pointed into the flow. The other tube is closed at the end but has holes
in the side that are perpendicular to the flow, to sense static pressure. The flow is
calculated from the difference between the ram pressure in the center tube and the static
pressure in the outer tube.

6 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 6: Pitot tube Flow Sensor. (Source: Modification of Fig. 2.13d, p. 113, Instrument
Engineers' Handbook, Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)
2. An annubar is a more accurate device based on the pitot tube concept. It employs several
velocity sensing openings subjected to the fluid flow. The resulting ram and static
pressures are averaged to obtain an accurate indication of the flow rate.
3. A detailed discussion of both pitot tubes and annu bars is presented in section 2.13 of the
Chilton Process Measurement Handbook.

Turbine

1. Turbine meters (Figure 7) consist of a propeller mounted in a precisely machined

housing. One or two pickup devices are mounted externally in the body in the same
plane as the rotor blades. Fluid flowing through the meter causes the rotor to rotate at a
speed proportional to the flow velocity. As each blade tip passes the pickup, a single
pulse is generated (See Figure 8). The number of pulses per unit time allows calculation
of the flow velocity, which can be used to determine flow rate.

7 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 7: Turbine Meter. (Source: p. 146, Instrument Engineers' Handbook, Bela G. Liptak,
1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)

Figure 8: Turbine Meter Principle of Operation. (Source: p. 146, Instrument Engineers'

Handbook, Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)

8 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

2. Most turbine meters are threaded or mounted between flanges. Some turbine meters that
insert into user supplied piping are available.
3. Refer to section 2.20 of the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook for a more detailed
discussion.

Positive Displacement

Positive displacement meters are mechanical devices that split the flow into incremental volumes
and then count the number of these volumes that pass. Several techniques have been developed for
positive displacement flow measurement. Figure 9 shows several of these techniques. Almost all
positive displacement meters used in common production facility liquid metering are rotating vane
types.

Figure 9: Typical Positive Displacement Meters. (Source: p. 122, Instrument Engineers'

Handbook, Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)

9 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 9B: Typical Positive Displacement Meters. (Source: p. 122, Instrument Engineers'
Handbook, Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)

Figure 9C: Typical Positive Displacement Meters. (Source: p. 122, Instrument Engineers'
Handbook, Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)
The most accepted method of custody transfer of crude oil is by positive displacement meters.

can be achieved with proper installation and calibration. Positive displacement meters are used for
custody transfer of low pressure gas in commercial and residential service but are not usually used
for gas measurement in production facilities.

10 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Positive displacement meters have many closely machined parts, making them more expensive than
other flow metering instrument and producing higher maintenance costs. Wear of the machined
surfaces causes accuracy loss; thus, care shall be taken to prevent abrasives from passing through the
meters.
Some manufacturers make positive displacement meters for use where abrasives are present.
However, these meters are not as accurate as positive displacement meters used for custody transfer.
Refer to sections 2.14 and 2.15 of the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook for more details.

Variable Area

Variable area meters, which are also known as "rotameters," have a vertical tapered tube that is
partially blocked by a piece of material called a "float." The float is not actually buoyant in the
process fluid and is constructed from a heavy material, often stainless steel. When fluid enters the
bottom of the rotameter, it exerts pressure on the float and causes the float to rise in the tube. As the
float rises, the space around the float in the tube increases and allows the pressure above and below
the float to equalize. When the difference in pressure is such that the weight of the float is
counterbalanced, the float becomes stationary and the flow can be determined. The float height is
proportional to the flow rate.
The tube can be transparent to allow observation of the float if the pressure is low enough for safety.
If the pressure is high enough to cause safety concerns or the fluid is considered too dangerous for
other reasons, the tube can be made of stainless steel and the position of the float sensed
magnetically. This type is known as an armored rotameter. Figure 10 shows a typical rotameter.

Figure 10: Rotameter. (Source: p. 159, Instrument Engineers' Handbook, Bela G. Liptak,
1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)
More details are presented in section 2.22 of the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook.

11 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Vortex

Vortex meters use a non-streamlined body inserted into the flow to generate turbulence. Vortices or
eddies leave a body at a rate proportional to the flow rate. These vortices can be detected by several
methods and the flow rate calculated. Figure 11 illustrates several methods used to generate and
detect vortices.

Figure 11: Vortices Generators and Detectors. (Source: p. 171, Instrument Engineers'
Handbook, Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)
A detailed discussion is presented in section 2.24 of the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook.

Mass

Mass flow meters, as the name implies, measure the mass flow directly. In general, these meters are
based on Newton's second law of angular motion. That is, mass flow is proportional to the angular
force (torque) or pressure exerted on a body by the flowing fluid. Refer to section 2.10 of the
Chilton Process Measurement Handbook for a detailed discussion.

12 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Magnetic

Magnetic flow meters operate in accordance with Faraday's Law, which states that a conductor
passing through a magnetic field will produce a voltage that depends on the conductor's velocity. If
a conducting liquid passes through a magnetic field, the path between two electrodes acts as a
conductor, thus inducing a voltage between the electrodes. Figure 12 shows a magnetic flow meter.

Figure 12: Magnetic Flow Meter. (Source: p. 82, Instrument Engineers' Handbook, Bela G.
Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)
Magnetic flow meters can be used to measure the flow of most conducting liquids. The primary
advantages of magnetic meters are that they have no obstructions in the pipe and no holes to clog.
The pressure loss is no greater than for an equivalent length of pipe, and solids present little
problem. Magnetic flow meters are not used in the oil and gas industry because hydrocarbons are
nonconductive.

Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic flow meters measure flow by timing an ultrasonic signal's passage through a flowing
fluid. Several techniques (across flow, against flow, with flow, etc.) are used with varying degrees
of accuracy. Some specific techniques are discussed in section 2.21 of the Chilton Process
Measurement Handbook. The systems are seldom used, and, when they are used, they are used for
indication only.

13 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Thermal

Thermal flow meters use a form of mass flow measurement based on the principles of heat transfer.
There are two basic types. In one type, the change in temperature of the fluid is measured based on a
known heat input; the other type is based on the effect on a heated sensor of the flowing stream.
Both of these concepts are discussed in detail in section 2.19 of the Chilton Process Measurement
Handbook. These units have limited use in protection and processing facilities.

Sight Flow Indication

A sight flow indicator is basically a device that provides a window into the process line for visual
observation of fluid flow. Various techniques are used to enhance the visibility of the fluid, e.g.,
flappers, turbine blades, etc. A typical sight flow indicator with turbine blades is shown in Figure
13.

Figure 13: Typical Site Flow Indicator

Refer to section 2.16 of the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook for a more detailed discussion.

Flow Switches

Flow switches employ techniques similar to those used by site flow indicators to detect whether or
not flow exists above or below some set point. A typical flow switch is shown in Figure 14. Details
of the basic device are presented in section 2.6 of the Chilton Process Measurement Handbook.

14 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 14: Swinging Vane Flow Switch. (Source: p. 69, Instrument Engineers' Handbook,
Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)

Device Selection

Orifice Meter

These devices, sometimes referred to as differential pressure or head meters, constitute the most
common type of flow meter used in production and processing operations. The orifice meter is the
common means of measurement used in custody transfer of natural gas.
Orifice meters are occasionally used for liquids when a turndown ratio of three to one is satisfactory
and the liquid's viscosity is low. An indication that the liquid viscosity may be too high is that the
correction factor gets large or goes off the chart. The viscosity correction factor shall be taken into
consideration for viscosities above 0.005 Pa s (5 cp). The Reynolds number shall be 10,000 or more
to ensure fully turbulent flow.
Turndown ratios of over three to one can be accommodated by using multiple orifices in a quick
change fitting if the flow rate changes in a manner that allows time to change the orifice.
Orifice meters require straight runs of pipe upstream and downstream. This can become a limiting
factor when space is a consideration. The following figures are from the AGA Report No. 3, which
shows the required minimum straight lengths for various piping configurations:
1. Figure 15 - Valve upstream.
2. Figure 16 - Two ells in different planes.
3. Figure 17 - Two ells in the same plane.
4. Figure 18 - Two ells separated by 10 diameters of pipe.
5. Figure 19 - Reducers

15 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 15: Minimum Straight Length for Various Piping Configurations-Valves Upstream. (Source:
AGA Report No. 3, 2nd Edition, Sept. 1985, June 1987, Reprint "Orifice Metering of Natural Gas
and Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids". Published by the American Gas Association and the
American Petroleum Institute)

16 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 16: Minimum Straight Lengths for Various Piping Configurations-Two Ells in Different
Planes. (Source: p. 16, AGA Report No. 3, 2nd Edition, Sept. 1985, June 1987, Reprint "Orifice
Metering of Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids". Published by the American Gas
Association and the American Petroleum Institute)

Figure 17: Minimum Straight Lengths for Various Piping Configurations-Two Ells in the Same
Plane. (Source: p. 17, AGA Report No. 3, 2nd Edition, Sept. 1985, June 1987, Reprint "Orifice
Metering of Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids". Published by the American Gas
Association and the American Petroleum Institute)

Figure 18: Minimum Straight Length for Various Piping Configurations-Two Ells Separated by 10
Diameters of Pipe. (Source: p. 18, AGA Report No. 3, 2nd Edition, Sept. 1985, June 1987, Reprint

17 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

"Orifice Metering of Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids". Published by the
American Gas Association and the American Petroleum Institute)

Figure 19: Minimum Straight Length for Various Piping Configurations-Reducers. (Source: p. 19,
AGA Report No. 3, 2nd Edition, Sept. 1985, June 1987, Reprint "Orifice Metering of Natural Gas
and Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids". Published by the American Gas Association and the
American Petroleum Institute)
Where adequate meter run space is not available, straightening vanes shall be considered for
allocation meter installations. For other applications (e.g., flow control, indication, etc.), deviations
from the required lengths to fit physical constraints are acceptable. A minimum allowable upstream
length of four pipe diameters and downstream length of two pipe diameters shall be provided.
The design orifice differential pressure shall be 25 kPa (100 in of water column). However, designs
of 12.4 to 75 kPa (50 to 300 in) are sometimes used in control applications. For gas meters,
erroneous readings will be obtained if a liquid buildup occurs in one of the process connections. For
liquid meters, erroneous readings will be obtained if a vapor buildup occurs in one of the process
connections. The usual method to prevent this error is to slope the process connections downward
from the meter for liquid runs and upward for gas runs. If this is not practical, small vessels (called
seal pots) can be installed to drain liquid buildup in gas runs and vent gas buildup in liquid runs.
Orifice meter runs used for custody transfer shall be factory assembled and calibrated for the greatest
possible accuracy. The cost of orifice meters can vary from $800 (U.S.) to over $4000, depending on
requirements.

Venturi Meters

A venturi or low loss flow tube is a good substitute for an orifice plate installation if the permanent
pressure loss of an orifice plate is not acceptable or if there is not adequate room for proper orifice
meter installation. Venturi meters provide accuracy within about 1 percent and 3 to 1 rangeability.
The required straight pipe run upstream of the venturi meter is less than that required by an orifice.
Figure 20 shows the upstream pipe requirement. There is no requirement for the downstream
straight piping run. Figure 21 shows permanent pressure loss curves.

18 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Figure 20: Upstream Straight Pipe Length for Venturi Meters. (Source: p. 166, Instrument
Engineers' Handbook, Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)

Figure 21: Head Loss vs. Diameter Ratio. (Source: p. 165, Instrument Engineers' Handbook, Bela
G. Liptak, 1982 Edition, Chilton Book Company)

19 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Pitot Tubes & Annubars

Pitot tube and annubars are a low cost approach to metering. A common application is in services
where a line pressure drop is unacceptable. These devices are well united for compressor suction
line and system vent line flow indication. Unit costs vary from $500 to $1000 (U.S.).

Turbine

Very accurate measurement of flow for low viscosity liquids is possible with turbine meters. These
meters are quite suitable for custody transfer applications. Accuracy varies but is usually on the
order of 0.25 percent for liquids. The turndown ratio for turbine meters is at least 10 to 1, with some
manufacturers claiming much greater ratios.
Turbine meters are slightly more expensive than orifice meters and require more maintenance but are
simpler to read than orifice meters. Liquid slugs in a gas turbine meter can exert large forces on the
bearings and cause damage. Metering accuracy is severely affected by the presence of liquid slugs
even if mechanical damage does not occur.
Like orifice meters, turbine meters require a straight run of pipe upstream for accurate measurement.
Typically, 10 pipe diameters upstream and five diameters downstream are required for accurate flow
measurement.
Viscosities above 0.02 Pa s (20 cp) are not easily handled by turbine meters. For higher viscosity
liquids, either select a positive displacement meter or consult the manufacturer for guidance.

Positive Displacement

Positive displacement meters are usually the best choice for flow measurement of liquids with
viscosities above 0.02 Pa s (20 cp). The viscosities below 0.02 Pa s (20 cp) cause rapid decreases in
range ability, so a turbine meter is usually a better choice for such liquids.
Standard positive displacement meters can be used for fluid viscosities as high as 0.4 Pa s (400 cp),
and special models can be used up to around 2 Pa s (2000 cp). The manufacturer's literature gives
limits specific to the particular model under consideration. Accuracy from 0.5 to 1 percent is
common, with range ability of 20 to 1.
Positive displacement meters do not require a straight meter run. An air eliminator and a strainer are
often used upstream of the meter to eliminate gas bubbles and abrasive particles, which can cause
damage and/or inaccuracy.
A positive displacement meter designated for severe service shall be chosen for test separator
measurements. This service often has sand and other abrasives entrained in the liquid and can cause
meter damage. Well test measurements normally need not be as accurate as custody transfer
measurements. Severe service meters are manufactured with large clearances and easily changed
internals for this type of service.

Variable Area

Variable area meters (or rotameters) are simple and inexpensive and are widely used for low gas
flows where high accuracy is not important. Rotameters can be specified with nominal connections

20 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

of 6.4 to 101.6 mm (1/4 to 4 in). Their accuracy ranges from 1 to 10 percent depending on the type
and model selected.
Rotameters are often used for measurement of purge gasses, stripping gas, chemical additives, and
other small flow applications.
Armored rotameters can be used if remote signaling is required. Armored rotameters that give only
local indication are also available.

Vortex

The vortex shedding meter offers a low installed cost in comparison to an orifice meter, particularly
in lines below 152 mm (6 in). This type generally offers minimal fixed line pressure loss. In some
cases, the same meter can be used on both gas and liquids; however, in the case of liquids, line
pressures shall be such that no cavitation can exist. Vortex shedding meters require a fully
developed flow profile; this means that the upstream and downstream lengths are critical. Required
upstream lengths can vary from 5 to 150 pipe diameters. Refer to section 2.24 of the Chilton Process
Measurement Handbook for assistance.

Mass

Direct mass flow meters are relatively expensive, ranging from $2,500 to $8,000 (U.S.). However,
the advantages of direct mass flow measurement are self-evident
reading are available. Mass flow meter use is limited in production and processing facilities,
primarily due to cost.

Magnetic

In general, if the liquid conductivity is equal to or greater than 20 micro siemens per cm, a magnetic
meter can be used. Magnetic flow meters are not affected by viscosity or consistency. In addition,
changes in flow profile do not affect the meter performance. However, as with the case of mass
meters, the unit costs are relatively high, varying from approximately $4500 to $120,000 (U.S.)
depending on size. Magnetic flow meters have limited use in production and processing facilities
because hydrocarbons are nonconductive.

Ultrasonic

As with most flow meters, the ultrasonic meter is sensitive to the flowing profile. Upstream length
can vary from 10 to 20 pipe diameters, and the accuracy is greatly affected by solids and air bubbles
in the flowing fluid. Since unit costs can vary from approximately $4,000 to $12,000 (U.S.) and
installation is critical, these meters are seldom used in production and processing plants.

Thermal

Although thermal flow meters are suitable for both gas and liquid applications, there use in
production and processing facilities is limited. Meter unit costs range from approximately $4,000 to
$8,000 (U.S.).

21 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Dump Meters

Dump meters are sometimes built into the bottom of vertical test separators and treaters to provide
measurements for allocation purposes. Care shall be exercised to assure that while the meter vessel
is dumping (i.e., level falling from the high level switch to the low level switch) the liquid that builds
up in the vessel because the vessel outlet to the meter is blocked does not cause a process upset.

Flow Transmitters

Flow transmitters allow the readout or totalization device to be located in a convenient remote
location while the primary device is located where ease of mechanical connection is considered.
Transmitters for differential pressure indicative of flow convert the actual sensed differential
pressure to either a 20 to 100 kPa (3 to 15 psig) or 4 to 20 mA signal. The signal can then be
transmitted by tubing or wire to the receiver.
Positive displacement and turbine flow meters use either contact closures or electronic pulses for
transmission rather than 20 to 100 kPa (3 to 15 psig) or 4 to 20 mA signals. Special flow sensors use
a wide variety of schemes for transmission; these are described in the vendors' literature. The
receivers for these devices usually provide 4 to 20 mA analog output if it is needed for input to
recorders, controllers, or other analog instruments.
The use of pneumatic transmitters is decreasing; however, a number of manufacturers still make
them for the replacement market, and some new installations are still being made. Pneumatic
transmission may be advantageous when existing equipment is pneumatic and operating personnel
are familiar with pneumatics.
The sensing element's wetted parts shall be compatible with the process fluids. Type 316 stainless
steel is the most universally acceptable material for produced fluids. Most manufacturers provide a
compatibility chart with their recommendations. The transmitter body is usually carbon steel or
stainless steel. Carbon steel is adequate for most applications. Stainless steel bodies are sometimes
needed if the environment is severe.
Several companies offer microprocessor-based transmitters, sometimes called "smart transmitters."
These transmitters can be remotely programmed and/or calibrated for any desired range, either by
the main process computer or by a special programmer. These transmitters are usually used in
Distributed Control System (DCS) applications.

Flow Controllers

A flow controller is a device that senses the flow in the process and develops an output that controls
a device to regulate that flow. The sensing element is one of the various types discusses in Section
3, "Principles of Operation." The control device, or end element, is usually a pneumatic control
valve. The controller output is usually either a 20 to 100 or 40 to 200 kPa (3 to 15 or 6 to 30 psig)
pneumatic signals. In the case of electronic controllers, the output is 4 to 20 or 10 to 50 mA.

Flow Indication

An indication of flow rate can be obtained by a differential pressure gauge with a 0 to 10 square root
dial.

22 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Turbine meters can be provided with an electronic flow rate/cumulative flow readout mounted either
locally or remotely. Positive displacement meters can be specified with a mechanically linked dial
indicating flow rate and/or cumulative flow.
Local flow rate indication is built into variable area meters, and special flow meters are normally
purchased with special local or remote indicators for flow rate and/or cumulative flow.
Remote indication involves a transmitter and a receiver. The receiver is usually located on a control
panel and selected to match the other control panel instruments. Site flow indicators are common for
utilities and vessel drain systems.

Flow Switches

All instruments that can measure flow can be used as a switch or to activate a switch. However, in
applications where only a switch is needed, a direct-acting flow switch shall be employed. The
expected cost range of these devices varies from approximately $150 to $450 (U.S.).

Flow Provers

General
1. Liquid flow meters, usually turbine meters, particularly those used for custody transfer,
shall be calibrated to satisfy the buyer, seller, and applicable government regulations.
This is done by comparing the flow measured by the meter to a "known" value. In the
United States, a method of calibration of flow meters traceable to the National Bureau of
Standards is usually used. Allocation and other meters shall be "proven" periodically to
assure that they are still reading flow rates and volumes within acceptable accuracy.
2. Primary elements of orifice plates and flow meters are inspected periodically to assure
that the dimensions of tubes and surfaces, along with plate sharpness, flatness, and other
dimensions, have not changed due to corrosion, erosion, solids buildup, pressure surges,
or hydrate or ice damage. Secondary elements (chart recorders, pressure transmitters,
etc.) are checked and recalibrated to known standards.
3. Meters can be proven using a master meter, bidirectional prover loop (ball prover), or
calibration tank. API standards discuss meter proving methods.

Master Meter Prover

To prove with a master meter, the piping is arranged so that a calibrated meter can be installed in
series with the meter to be calibrated. The "Master Meter" is calibrated with a sphere prover or by
other means at a more convenient location. This method requires an additional meter and
considerable transportation and installation effort but avoids the installation of a dedicated prover for
each group of meters.

Ball Prover
1. A bidirectional ball prover is a u-shaped pipe with a calibrated volume between two limit
switches. Flow is directed through the meter into the prover. The flow pushes a ball
back and forth through the prover between the limit switches as controlled by a four way
valve. The volume measured by the meter is compared to the volume of the prover. The

23 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

design of the ball prover and its connection to the system is beyond the scope of this
tutorial.
2. Ball provers are extremely accurate, but they are costly items, and they are normally
installed only at points of custody transfer of large volumes of crude oil. Field
production equipment is routinely equipped with prover connections. A portable prover
is brought to the location on a periodic basis to prove the meter.

Calibration Tanks
1. Another method of proving a meter is to flow the liquid into a storage tank that can be
accurately gauged. Then the flow rate indicated by the meter over a period of time can be
compared to the volume accumulated in the storage tank. This method is less accurate
than a ball prover but may be used as a meter check in the same way.
2. The API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards presents detailed procedures for
measuring the volume of liquid contained in a tank. This procedure is called "tank
gauging" and is very commonly used for custody transfer at small production facilities
that do not have "Automatic Custody Transfer" facilities. Tank gauging is used in
inventory determination, meter checking, and verification.
3. Liquid is directed to a tank that has been previously "strapped." Strapping is a procedure
also detailed by API for developing a table converting measured height of liquid in a
specific tank to volume. By measuring the height of liquid before and after either filling
or emptying the tank, one may determine the volume of displaced liquid.
4. In gauging a tank or using a tank for proving a meter, the system shall be designed and
operated so that simultaneous flow into and out of the tank does not occur. It is normally
necessary to measure the liquid temperature and convert the recorded volume to volume
at a standard temperature.

Flow Totalizing

The standard method for determining the cumulative flow for pneumatic differential pressure meters
is to record the differential pressure, static pressure, and temperature with a chart recorder. The
charts are read with an Emco- Mc Gaughty Integrator to average the flow rate over time to determine
the total quantity transferred. The accuracy of the measurement depends on how stable the readings
are. Since the differential pressure reading may fluctuate a great deal, especially on gas lift wells,
the accuracy of this type of integration is not very high.
Electronic instruments that integrate the data from differential pressures, static pressure, and
temperature transmitters are usually microprocessor based and have both mechanical counters and
electronic readouts. The functions that are available vary widely from one manufacturer to another.
Common features are electronic readouts of instantaneous flow rate and accumulated flow, with
output in any desired engineering units, computation by any desired formula, 4 to 20 mA flow rate
output for remote reading or control, contact outputs for remote totalizers or alarms, and summing
for multiple meter runs.
Positive displacement meters develop enough torque to operate a mechanical flow totalizer. The
totalizer is connected through a gearing system to calibrate the counter in the desired engineering
units. A second counter that compensates the reading for temperature by using a bulb temperature

24 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

sensor and a clutch arrangement can be added. This feature is called Automatic Temperature
Compensation (ATC). Pulse transmitters that close a contact or send an electronic pulse can be
added for actuation of a remote device. These devices are especially important for ball provers and
sampling devices. The collection of these devices is mounted on the top of the positive displacement
meter and is called "the stack."
Positive displacement meters can provide remote flow rate measurement or totalization in much the
same manner as differential pressure devices. The primary difference is that the flow input signal is
a pulse that represents a discrete volume of fluid.
Turbine meters are treated similarly to positive displacement meters for remote reading. The pulse
rate for turbine meters is usually higher than for positive displacement meters. Turbine meters do
not develop enough torque to operate mechanically connected devices.

Meter Sizing

Most flow meters are specified by the manufacturer's catalog data for specific flow properties, flow
ranges, and operating pressures. Orifice meters require the engineer to chose a pipe diameter and
orifice size.

Orifice Plate Sizing

Sizing calculations for gas orifice flow meters are normally based on AGA 3 standard equations,
while those for liquid flow are typically based on the procedures developed by L.K. Spink.

Selecting Beta Ratio

Orifice meters are usually sized by selecting a pipe diameter and a diameter ratio, "beta," which is
defined as the ratio of the orifice bore diameter to the pipe inside diameter. These parameters are all
interrelated by the flow equations. AGA 3 states that sufficient accuracy can be obtained with beta
ratios between 0.15 and 0.75 for flange taps and between 0.2 and 0.67 for pipe taps. Some gas sales
contracts may limit the range of beta ratios even further.

Selecting Orifice Differential Pressure (DP)

1. The most common differential pressure hw meter range for flow measurement is 0 to 25
kPa (0 to 100 in of water). This is a convenient range for flow calculations and usually
can be achieved with an acceptable beta ratio without changing the line size.
2. The flow rate formulas are based on the flow through the orifice being well below sonic
velocity. A rule of thumb to ensure subsonic flow is to require the maximum meter
reading in inches of water not to exceed the static flowing pressure in psia. For flowing
pressures below 690 kPa (100 psia), a meter range of 0 to 12.5 kPa (0 to 50 in of water)
or 0 to 5 kPa (0 to 20 in of water) shall be considered.
3. For higher pressures, if the required measurement cannot be achieved with 0 to 25 kPa (0
to 100 in of water), an acceptable beta ratio, and a line sized meter run, then a higher
meter range may be considered.

25 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Appendix A–Example Problems - Metric Units

Gas Orifice Plate Calculation

Determine an orifice plate diameter for the following conditions:

Gas flowing temperature = 38°C
Gas flowing pressure = 6900 kPa(G)
Gas specific gravity = 0.65
Gas flow rate = 12000 std m3/hr
H2S and CO2 are not present
Base pressure = 100 kPa
Base temperature = 15°C
The meter run will be installed at the base of a glycol contactor, where the piping shall include two
ells in different planes.
Assumptions:
1. Flange taps are required
2. Carbon steel flange material and 316 stainless steel orifice plate will be acceptable
3. Ratio of specific heats C p/Cv = 1.3
4. Bellows type manometer will be used
5. Static pressure tap will be located up stream
6. Differential pressure range 0 to 25 kPa is preferred
7. Pipeline ID = 102.3 mm
Refer to AGA Report No. 3 (API MPMS 14.3.3) for specific details on gas flow orifice calculations.
The basic equation specified by AGA 3 (API MPMS 14.3.3) is:
(AGA 3, Equation 59)

Qh  C  hw P 2
1

where :
Qh  rate of flow at base conditions , SCFH
C   orifice flow constant
hw  measured differenti al pressure,inches H 2O
P  static pressure , psia

The orifice flow constant is calculated by the following equation:

26 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

C   Fb Fr Y Fpb Ftb Ftf Fgr Fpv

where :
Fb  basic orifice factor
Fr  Reynolds number factor
Y  expansion factor
Fpb  pressure base factor
Ftb  temperatur e base factor
Ftf  flowing temperatur e factor
Fgr  real gas relative density factor
Fpv  supercompressibilit y factor

The values of the various correction factors are dependent on the orifice configuration, pressure tap
location, and operating conditions. To simplify this analysis, only concentric round orifices are
considered. This is the most common and accepted configuration for accurate flow measurements.
AGA 3 includes all these correction factors in tabular form; refer to these tables as required.
Assu Then:
Fb  1089.9 Table B1
Fr  1 Table B2
Y  0.999 Table B3
Fpb  1.01 Table D1
Ftb  0.998 Table D2
Ftf  0.9636 Table D3
Fgr  1.2403 Table D4
Fpv  1.0609 Table D5

So:
C   1392

Qh  1392 100  1014.732

1

 443,400 SCFH

1192 std m 3 / hr
 10.6 MMSCF  12,600 std m 3 / hr
1MMSCFD

27 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Therefore, the orifice size of 57.15 mm is acceptable for the given flow rate.

Liquid Orifice Plate Calculations

Check an orifice plate sized for water service as follows:

Flowing Pressure = 297 kPa(A)
Flowing Temperature = 27°C
Line Size = 10.16 cm
Normal Flow Rate = 34 m3/hr
Orifice Pressure Drop = 12 kPa

Make the same basic assumptions as in Example 1. The accepted industry standard used for liquid
flow metering is L.K. Spink's Plant Equation, which for metric units is:
(Production Facilities Bookware Series, Flow Instrumentation, Equation 1)

0.4 S G f 2 Fa D 2 hw 2 Fm
1 1

QM 
GL

where :
QM  maximum liquid flow rate, m 3 / hr
S  orifice flow coefficien t  0.295 Spink,Table 12 
G f  specific gravity of fluid at flowing temperatur e  1
GL  specific gravity of fluid at the base temperatur e  1
Fa  correction factor for change in dimensions of the primary device
with change in temperatur e  1
hw  pressure drop across orifice, kPa  12
D  upstream pipe diameter, cm  10.16
Fm  manometer factor  1

This equation can be used with the following provisions:

1. The viscosity of the liquid does not exceed the limits shown in Figure B-2239, p. 140 of
Spink's Handbook. When liquid viscosities in excess of these limits are encountered,
positive displacement meters shall be used. Viscosity l
calculation tolerance.
2. The Reynolds number through the orifice is greater than 10,000.
The factor S corrects for the coefficient of discharge.
Refer to Chapter 10 of the Spink Handbook for details as needed.

28 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

0.4 0.295 12 110.16  12 2 1

1 1
2
Qm 
1

Qm  42.2 m 3 / hr

Appendix B–Example Problems - Customary Units

Gas Orifice Plate Calculation

Determine an orifice plate diameter for the following conditions:

Gas flowing temperature = 100°F
Gas flowing pressure = 1000 psig
Gas specific gravity = 0.65
Gas flow rate = 10 MMSCFD
H2S and CO2 are not present
Base pressure = 14.73 psia
Base temperature = 60°F
The meter run will be installed at the base of a glycol contactor, where the piping shall include two
ells in different planes.
Assumptions:
1. Flange taps are required
2. Carbon steel flange material and 316 stainless steel orifice plate will be acceptable
3. Ratio of specific heats C p/Cv = 1.3
4. Bellows type manometer will be used
5. Static pressure tap will be located up stream
6. Differential pressure range 0 to 100 in water column is preferred
7. Pipeline ID = 4.026 in
Refer to AGA Report No. 3 (API MPMS 14.3.3) for specific details on gas flow orifice calculations.
The basic equation specified by AGA 3 (API MPMS 14.3.3) is:

29 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

(AGA 3, Equation 59)

Qh  C  hw P 2
1

where :
Qh  rate of flow at base conditions , SCFH
C   orifice flow constant
hw  measured differenti al pressure,inches H 2O
P  static pressure , psia

The orifice flow constant is calculated by the following equation:

C   Fb Fr Y Fpb Ftb Ftf Fgr Fpv

where :
Fb  basic orifice factor
Fr  Reynolds number factor
Y  expansion factor
Fpb  pressure base factor
Ftb  temperatur e base factor
Ftf  flowing temperatur e factor
Fgr  real gas relative density factor
Fpv  supercompressibilit y factor

The values of the various correction factors are dependent on the orifice configuration,
pressure tap location, and operating conditions. To simplify this analysis, only concentric
round orifices are considered. This is the most common and accepted configuration for
accurate flow measurements. AGA 3 includes all these correction factors in tabular form;
refer to these tables as required.
Assume orifice diameter d = 2.25 in, diamete
Then:

30 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

Fb  1089.9 Table B1
Fr  1 Table B2
Y  0.999 Table B3
Fpb  1.01 Table D1
Ftb  0.998 Table D2
Ftf  0.9636 Table D3
Fgr  1.2403 Table D4
Fpv  1.0609 Table D5

So:
C   1381.7873

Qh  1381.7873 100  1014.73 2

1

 440,165 SCFH

 10.56 MMSCFD

Therefore, the orifice size of 2.25 in is acceptable for the given flow rate.

Liquid Orifice Plate Calculations

Check an orifice plate sized for water service as follows:

Flowing Pressure = 39.7 psia
Flowing Temperature = 80°F
Line Size = 4 in
Normal flow rate = 150 gpm
Orifice Pressure Drop = 50 inches H2O

Make the same basic assumptions as in Example 1.

The accepted industry standard used for liquid flow metering is L.K. Spink's Plant Equation,
which is:
Spink Handbook, Equation 6)

31 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

5.667 S G f 2 Fa D 2 hw 2 Fm
1 1

QM 
GL

where :
QM  maximum liquid flow rate, m 3 / hr
S  orifice flow coefficien t  0.295 Spink,Table 12 
G f  specific gravity of fluid at flowing temperatur e  1
GL  specific gravity of fluid at the base temperatur e  1
Fa  correction factor for change in dimensions of the primary device
with change in temperatur e  1
hw  pressure drop across orifice, inches of H 2O
D  upstream pipe diameter, inches  4
Fm  manometer factor  1

This equation can be used with the following provisions:

1. The viscosity of the liquid does not exceed the limits shown in Figure B-2239, p. 140 of
Spink's Handbook. When liquid viscosities in excess of these limits are encountered,

calculation tolerance.
2. The Reynolds number through the orifice is greater than 10,000.
The factor S corrects for the coefficient of discharge.
Refer to Chapter 10 of the Spink Handbook for details as needed.

5.667 0.295 12 14  50 2 1

1 1
2
Qm 
1

Qm  189 gpm

Reference

1.1. API–American Petroleum Institute

API MPMS Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards Chapter 14 - Natural

14.3.3 Gas Fluids Measurement Section 3 - Concentric, Square-Edged
Orifice Meters Part 3 - Natural Gas Applications Third Edition;
Errata - 1994

32 of 33
 Flow Measurement and Control system in oil gas industry

1.2. ISA–Instrument Society of America

ISA S20 Specification Forms for Process Measurement and Control

Instruments, Primary Elements and Control Valves
ISA S51.1 Process Instrumentation Terminology R(1993)

1.3. Miscellaneous

Spink, L.K., "Principles and Practices of Flow Meter Engineering,"

9th Edition, The Foxboro Company
Instrument Engineers' Handbook, Bela G. Liptak, 1982 Edition,
Chilton Book Company

33 of 33

View publication stats