Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Rosema, A.
Guan, H.
van Genderen, J.
Veld, H.
Vekerdy, Z.
ten Katen, A.M.
Prakash, A.
Sharif, M.
1
Development and implementation of a coal fire
monitoring and fighting system in China
Rosema, A., Guan, H., van Genderen, J., Veld, H., Vekerdy, Z., ten Katen, A.M.,
Prakash, A. and Sharif, M. (1999) ‘Manual of Coal Fire Detection and
Monitoring’. Report of the project ‘Development and implementation of a coal fire
monitoring and fighting system in China’. Published by the Netherlands Institute of
Applied Geoscience as report NITG 99-221-C, ISBN 90-6743-640-2, 245 p.
@ Copyright 1999 BRSC/EARS/ITC/NITG-TNO
This PDF version was re-edited from the original files (ed. Harry Veld, 1999) by
Zoltán Vekerdy in January 2009; without changing the contents.
Acknowledgments
This manual is a joint effort of all partners involved in the project. The
following people have made contributions:
Harry Veld, Peter van Tongeren, Jean Weijers, Leo Jegers, Henk
Schalke, Hans van Duijne (NITG-TNO)
Rosema, A., Guan, H., van Genderen, J., Veld, H., Vekerdy, Z., ten
Katen, A.M., Prakash, A., and Sharif, M. (1999) ‘Manual of Coal Fire
Detection and Monitoring’. Report of the project ‘Development and
implementation of a coal fire monitoring and fighting system in
China’. Published by the Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience
as report NITG 99-221-C, ISBN 90-6743-640-2, 245 p.
© Copyright 1999 BRSC/EARS/ITC/NITG-TNO
This PDF version was re-edited from the original files (ed. Harry Veld,
1999) by Zoltán Vekerdy in January 2009; without changing the
contents.
i
ii
Contents
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 The project and its objectives 2
1.1.1 Objectives and deliveries 3
1.1.2 Brief description of the work done in phase 1 of the
project 3
1.2 Set-up of this manual 6
1.3 The coal fire monitoring and management system 6
1.3.1 Functions of CoalMan 7
1.3.2 Users of CoalMan 8
1.4 General description of the study area 9
1.4.1 Climate 10
1.4.2 The Rujigou coalfield 10
1.4.3 Coal mining 11
1.4.4 Geology 13
1.4.5 Structural features 14
1.4.6 Stratigraphy and depositional environment 15
1.4.7 Coal seams 16
1.4.8 Coal fires 18
iii
Contents
iv
Contents
v
Contents
vi
Contents
vii
Introduction
Chapter 1
1 Introduction
In the People's Republic of China (PRC), coal is the most important
mineral resource for the national economy. The PRC is also the largest
producer of coal in the world.
The coal basins of China are widely distributed over the country. The
estimated total reserves, ranging in quality from lignite to anthracite,
amount to 115 Gt (1.15 x 1011 tonnes). China produced 1348 Mt (1.3 x
109 tonnes) of hard coal in 1997 (World Coal Institute, December 1998).
Exploitation is mainly in the northern half of the country, both by open
pit and by underground mining. There are many outcrops of coal seams,
due to both the geological conditions and the mining activities. Many
outcrops of these coal seams are burning. It is estimated that 100 – 200
Mt (1 – 2 x 108 tonnes) of high quality coal are lost every year. This
amounts to approximately five times the annual export.
Coal fires originate at the interface of the coal seams and the atmosphere
and have both natural and man-made causes. The fires occur mainly in
the northern part of the country, where semi-arid to arid conditions
prevail. The annual precipitation equals 300 – 450 mm; the potential
evapotranspiration per year is about 750 mm. Conditions that influence
the development of coal fires are:
The type of coal. Its vulnerability to spontaneous combustion
decreases with the maturity of the coal.
The presence of mining works or faults and fissures in the geological
formations, which facilitate the exchange of oxygen and exhaust
gasses with the atmosphere.
1
Chapter 1
The social and economic impact of these hazards is high. The coal fire
problem cannot be solved easily. Much attention should be paid to coal
fire detection, prevention and fighting. Since 1988 about 300 fire-
fighters have been active in the Rujigou coal basin, their work was
interrupted for two years (1994 – 1995). Notwithstanding their efforts
the active fire area has increased.
In 1985, the Chinese Government selected the Rujigou coal field in the
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region as a test area for testing fire-fighting
techniques. The Beijing Remote Sensing Corporation (BRSC) was set
up at the end of 1992 affiliated to six government organisations: the
Ministry of Coal Industry, the Ministry of Geology and Mineral
Resources, the Nuclear Industry Corporation, the Ministry of
Metallurgical Industry, the China Non-Ferrous Metal Industry
Corporation and the China Petroleum Corporation. Since the end of
1996, the BRSC has been owned by the State Planning Committee.
Using an existing contact with the International Centre for Aerospace
Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC, the Netherlands), the BRSC has
sought the possibility of strengthening their effort and 'know-how’ by
co-operation with Dutch experts in this field. In response to their
request, a Dutch counterpart consortium was formed. This consortium
consists of:
2
Introduction
Inventory
A theoretical study was made of the possibility of, and conditions for,
spontaneous combustion. Using the thermal properties of the coal and
rock, a computer model was developed to simulate coal and rock
temperatures under variable insulation and climatic circumstances. This
3
Chapter 1
In addition, the heat flow from the coal fire at a given depth to the
surface was investigated. Two mechanisms play a role: conduction and
convection. Calculations were made of their relative significance and a
theoretical model was elaborated that related the depth and burning rate
of the coal fire to the surface temperature anomaly. This temperature
increase is the main way in which underground coal fires are expressed
at the surface. Temperature anomalies can be detected, mapped and
monitored by means of airborne or satellite thermal infrared scanning.
Software was developed to evaluate this thermal information.
Another way in which coal fires of the present or of the past may be
detected is by the presence of outcrops of 'burnt rock' (also named
'micrite'). Due to the high temperature of the fire and the exhaust gases
the cap rock of the coal layer is metamorphosed. This results in a typical
reddish colour change. Once coal fires have been detected by thermal
scanning, visual imagery may reveal the presence and extension of burnt
rock. The spectral reflection of burnt and original rock samples was
measured and studied. The question of which spectral bands allow for
the best discrimination between the burnt and unchanged rock was
investigated.
Theoretical studies were also made on the integration of the various data
sources, including remote sensing imagery, geological and petrophysical
maps and point data, topographical data, etc., into a user friendly
information system. The required input data was defined and collected.
Output was created in various formats: maps of coal fire extension,
estimated burning rates, coal fire hazard etc.
4
Introduction
Methodology development
The possibilities for the mapping of burnt rock and coal seams based on
the use of LANDSAT and airborne multispectral imagery were
investigated. Rock spectra were measured; this information was used to
develop manual and automatic data processing procedures for the
classification of rock types, in particular to discriminate burnt rock from
unchanged rock. The interpretation of the thermal data gathered by
satellite and airborne survey was also addressed. Special data processing
procedures to quantify the gravity of the fires and estimate the coal loss
rates were developed.
An experimental coal fire monitoring system was set up. For this system
the following requirements have been met: the hardware and software
have been selected, data acquisition methods and interpretation
procedures have been defined, simultaneous ground truth collection
equipment and procedures have been described, manpower and
management requirements for the system have been set and system
products and end-users have been defined.
This manual
This manual marks the end of the first phase of the project and serves as
a user reference. For the users of the coal fire monitoring system, the
equipment, data acquisition, data processing and interpretation
5
Chapter 1
Coal fires in the Rujigou coalfield cause several million dollars worth
of damage per year, and the fight against them further decreases the
revenues from coal mining. The losses and costs have to be minimised,
so making the fire-fighting the most efficient is of the primary interest
of the mining community.
6
Introduction
7
Chapter 1
The best way to avoid loss of data due to hardware or software failure
is to create regular backups. When the database being used is damaged,
these backups can help to restore the database and minimise the losses.
CoalMan contains both backup and restore functions. It is designed to
use a CD-ROM for storing the backup data.
8
Introduction
The system is designed to fit the information flow both during the day-
to-day fire-fighting and in emergency cases. The requirements of the
Fire-Fighting Group of Ningxia were given prime consideration during
the development of CoalMan.
The Helan Mountains are situated roughly at the western edge of the
Ordos Basin. The chain generally strikes in a direction of about 30
degrees northeast and its extension is somewhat over 200 km. Its width
varies mostly from 20 to 30 km, but reaches about 130 km in its
middle part. Based on morphological features, the Helan Mountains
can be divided into a western side with mainly gentle hillslopes and a
maximum internal relief of 1556 m, and an eastern part with much
shorter, rather steep hillslopes and a maximum internal relief of 2056
m. The transition from the western part of the mountains to the
adjacent Gobi-desert is through large and well-developed, broad
alluvial fans and related sediments. In contrast to this, the transition at
the eastern side to the alluvial plains of the Yellow River is much more
abrupt and the alluvial fans here are smaller and shorter.
9
Chapter 1
1.4.1 Climate
The region has a continental climate with long, cold winters, hot
summers, low precipitation and strong winds. The average temperature
varies from -10 ºC to -7 ºC in January and 17 ºC to 24 ºC in July.
Rainfall varies from 190 to 700 mm. Precipitation increases from north
to south and varies greatly from year to year.
10
Introduction
The coalfield has been studied since the beginning of this century, due
to its increasing importance to the coal mining industry. The coals,
with ranks varying from low volatile bituminous coal to meta-
anthracite, constitute very valuable sources of energy and income. The
topography of the region is mountainous with an average altitude of
2000 m. The southwestern part generally lies between 2100 to 2300 m
above sea-level. The highest peak in this area, however, reaches 2451
m. The middle part of the area is generally not much higher than 2000
m, and the peaks in the northern and north-western parts are around
1900 m high. The lowest part of the area is at its northeastern limit,
were heights are around or just below 1800 m.
The basin has some valleys running across the general strike of the
basinal axis. Three river systems cross the basin, eventually running in
a southwesterly direction. The first river rises in the Yushugou and
Bajigou areas, the second springs in the Shang Yi and Dafeng areas
and the third in the Rujigou area. These rivers have created incised
valleys and are of a braided type and have a very high intermittent and
seasonally determined run off, especially during the occasionally short,
torrential rains in springtime. Often, this causes damages to the local
transport infrastructure, to the mines and to the telecommunication
systems.
Coal mining and its related activities are the main local providers of
employment. The most important towns accommodate the workforces
of the two major underground mines, i.e. Bajigou and Rujigou. There
are small settlements, Nan Er and Gulaben, located around the Dafeng
open cast coalmine. This latter is just across the provincial border in
the province of Inner Mongolia.
11
Chapter 1
tons per year. The Bajigou mine has an annual coal production of
approximately 2 million tons and employs 5100 people.
12
Introduction
1.4.4 Geology
The Rujigou basin is situated in the Helan Mountains, which form the
fold-and-fault belt of the western rim of the Ordos basin. These
mountains are bounded on their western edge by the large
Xiaosongshan thrust fault system and by the Helanshan normal fault
zone on their eastern margin. Both fault zones have a general northeast
strike. In the south-central part of the Helan mountains the
Xiaosongshan fault zone joins the north-south striking ‘westfoot fault
zone’.
The (partially lateral) movements along the faults during the various
tectonic phases of the Yanshan orogeny (Jurassic) created a
compressional regime between the two fault zones. This initially
created folding, resulting in basin formation, and during the Late
Jurassic caused uplift and erosion of the Helan Mountains. In the same
period, the Liupanshan area subsided. The uplift was renewed during a
second period of intense movement in the Himalayan period, which
started approximately 25 My ago and is still active today. The two
orogenic events above mentioned caused the present outline and
position of the Helan Mountains.
The compression of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata resulted in a
13
Chapter 1
14
Introduction
The eastern limb of the northern part of the synclinal basin generally
displays a rather modest dip angle of about 5 to 12 degrees. The
western limb in this part usually exhibits a much steeper dip of
approximately 25 to 35 degrees at the outer areas of the syncline, but
towards the centre of the structure the dips decline, varying here from
20 to 13 degrees. In the more southern part of the structure, dips stay
relatively high at both the eastern and western synclinal limbs. They
vary from 20 to 34 degrees. In the more central part of this area, the
dips become less steep, varying from about 6 to 15 degrees.
Apart from some Quarternary alluvial deposits along the rivers, the
Rujigou coal basin consists of Triassic and Jurassic strata. Minable
coal seams occur exclusively in the Jurassic sediments. These coals are
15
Chapter 1
The unconformity covers a time span from the Late Triassic to the
Middle Jurassic and is marked by the presence of a gravel bed.
16
Introduction
Coal is mined from the Middle Jurassic Yan’an Formation (J2y). The
Yan’an Formation contains more than 10 coal beds. Only some of the
coal seams are minable. The total minable thickness of these seams is
approximately 40 m. Most mining activities are concentrated in seam
no. 2.
Coal seam no. 22 has one main split, which varies in thickness from 0.5
to 2 m. The thickness of this seam varies from 6.5 to 40 m, with an
average thickness of approximately 20 m.
The average distance between coal seam no. 21 and the underlying
seam no. 22 is 22 m. A summary of the thicknesses is given in Table
1.1.
Table 1.1. Overview of the thicknesses of the coal seams in the Rujigou
coal basin
Seam Thickness (m)
Minimum Maximum Mean
1 0.0 7.8 1.2
21 2.1 38.7 10.1
22 6.5 39.6 18.8
3 0.4 8.3 3.6
4 0.0 4.8 1.0
5 0.0 8.6 2.7
6 0.0 7.0 0.9
71 0.0 7.0 1.0
72 0.0 6.7 1.4
73 0.0 8.7 2.3
17
Chapter 1
Figure 1.4. Depth of the bottom of coal seam no. 2 in the Rujigou basin
To date, more than 20 coal fires have been detected in the area, many
of which started after mining was intensified in the 1960s. Most coal
fires occur in coal seams 21, 22 and 3 and are mainly found at, or close
to, the coal outcrops up to an average depth of 100 m.
The total area affected by the coal fires is more than 2.3 km2. The main
characteristics of the coal fires in the area are given in more detail in
Chapter 7.
18
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Chapter 2
The theory behind the processes in a coal fire is important for the
understanding of what actually controls the occurrence of the fires. The
coal fires in the Rujigou coal basin are strongly related to the mining
activity. Where fresh coal comes into contact with oxygen, fires may
develop. The probability of this occurring depends on the area of the
surface of the coal that is exposed, the type of coal, the accessibility
for oxygen, the presence of water etc. Some of these factors may be
related to the activity of man. If, for some reason, the coal catches fire,
either due to external factors or spontaneous combustion, the rate of
combustion is controlled by a combination of the following factors: the
temperature, the availability of fuel and the oxygen supply.
19
Chapter 2
20
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
1. Chemical analysis
2. Physical analysis
3. Petrographic analysis
For the chemical analysis of the coal samples from the Rujigou area
the following (standard) procedures were applied in the different
analyses:
sample preparation NEN 3010
moisture content NEN-ISO 331
ash content NEN-ISO 1171
volatile matter NEN-ISO 562
carbon content NEN-ISO 609
hydrogen content NEN-ISO 609
nitrogen content NEN-ISO 333
oxygen content NEN-ISO 609
total sulphur content NEN-ISO 351
calorific value NEN-ISO 1928
The results are implemented in the monitoring system as tables and can
be updated or edited. On the basis of these tables, maps can be
prepared by using the ILWIS contouring or interpolation techniques.
21
Chapter 2
%VM
30
25
20
15
10
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
% Rmax
Figure 2.2. Correlation between vitrinite reflectance (% Rmax) and
volatile matter values (%VM, daf) for 27 samples of the Rujigou
coalfield and comparison with a standard correlation curve
22
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
23
Chapter 2
Figure 2.3 indicates the correlation between the oxygen content and
the carbon content of the Rujigou coal samples. The samples plot on
the standard correlation curve between these two parameters. A,
preliminary, conclusion is that both the oxygen content as well as the
carbon content of the Rujigou coals have values that can be expected
from the standard correlation.
%C (daf)
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
%O (daf)
Figure 2.3. Correlation between oxygen content and carbon content
for the samples of the Rujigou coal field and comparison with the
standard correlation curve
24
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Figure 2.4 is a ‘Van Krevelen’ diagram for the Rujigou coals. The
correlation curve as displayed in this figure is the standard curve for
vitrinite-rich coals. Also indicated is the degree of coalification in
terms of vitrinite reflectance values. Although most of the samples lie
on the standard curve, their inferred vitrinite reflectance value is much
too low. In combination with the conclusion that the oxygen content
shows normal values (see figure 2.3), another conclusion regarding
these coals of the Rujigou area is that heir hydrogen content may be
too high. This seems to be in agreement with the previous observation
that their volatile matter content also deviates from expected values.
However, since the Rujigou coals are inertinite-rich coals, the
correlation of figure 2.4 may not be valid.
25
Chapter 2
2.1.2.1 Density
The density measurements were performed on a selection of the same
set of samples as in the proximate and ultimate analyses. In addition,
three samples collected by ITC were analysed. Their exact location is
unknown, except that these were taken near the Beisan coal fire. The
samples 960355 and 960356 are sandstone samples. The densities of
the coals range from 950 to 1490 kg/m3. It should be noted that sample
960307, with a density of 1950 kg/m3, is an impure coal with a mineral
matter content of 38 percent.
26
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
27
Chapter 2
2.1.2.3 Porosity
The porosity of four of the samples was determined by measurement of
the true density (density of the solid excluding all internal voids, DIN
51057-pyknometer method) and the apparent density (density of the
solid including the internal voids, but excluding all voids between
single particles-Hg method).
The total porosity of the samples was determined from the ratio of the
apparent density to the true density (porosity = 1- apparent/true
density). Table 2.4 shows that these porosities range from 7.1 % to
12.9 %.
The heat capacity was determined for six samples, including two
sandstone samples collected by ITC. The results are given in Table 2.6
The values range from 0.29 J/g ºC for sample 960354 to 1.09 J/g ºC for
sample 960328.
28
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
29
Chapter 2
maceral group has the greatest potential to produce oil and gas. In the
lower part of the rank scale, liptinite macerals are characterised by a
much lower reflectance than the corresponding vitrinite of the same
rank. With increasing rank, the reflectance increases slowly up to the
stage of medium-volatile bituminous coals. At this point (approx. 1.1
percent vitrinite reflectance), the reflectance of the liptinites increases
rapidly and reaches the reflectance of vitrinite when the rank of low-
volatile bituminous is reached (approx. 1.3 to 1.5 percent vitrinite
reflectance). Chemically, liptinite is similar to vitrinite but has the
highest amount of hydrogen of all the maceral groups.
30
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
31
Chapter 2
32
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Figure 2.6 shows the correlation between the Chinese and the US
(ASTM) coal classification systems. According to the volatile matter
values, as provided by Yang Qi et al. (1982), all coals of the Rujigou
coal field can be classified as anthracites. The range of the four
classification parameters as presented in this section indicate that the
Rujigou coals show a much wider variation in coal type. The measured
volatile matter and vitrinite reflectance values indicate also the
presence of coking coal or low volatile bituminous coal to semi-
anthracite in the area. The values for the calorific value and fixed
carbon content show an even wider variation, especially towards the
high volatile bituminous coal values.
33
Chapter 2
34
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
rocks and coal, and the particle size and composition of the coal. If the
coal is accessible to atmospheric oxygen, the degree of oxidation will
be greater. If the coal is below the groundwater table, oxidation will be
less, but, where the coal seam is an aquifer, oxidation may be
pronounced. Fracturing of the coal and adjacent rocks, and the particle
size of the coal have a notable effect on the degree of oxidation. If coal
is sheared or acts as an aquifer, oxidation will be more extensive.
Oxidised coal has been observed at depths of 100 metres (Bustin et al.,
1985). Two types of oxidation tests were performed on the Rujigou
coals:
determination of the activation energy
oxidation susceptibility test
Exhaust gas
Filter
Thermocouple 1
Computer
Thermocouple 2
Programmable oven
Crushed coal sample
Filter
Flow controller
35
Chapter 2
6
Tdiff
-2
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Oven temperature
36
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
400
380
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
0 1 2 3 4 5
%Rmax
37
Chapter 2
Section 2.2.1 discusses the oxidation rate of coal. In section 2.2.2 the
differential equations describing heat and oxygen transport are
presented. Section 2.2.3 shows how the diffusive properties of the coal
matrix may be derived as a function of its porosity. Section 2.2.4
presents the formulation of the boundary conditions. The numerical
solution is discussed in section 2.2.5. The input and output of the
model are presented in section 2.2.6. Sections 2.2.7 through 2.2.10
discuss the influences of coal susceptibility, air infiltration, radiation,
and porosity on the spontaneous heating of coal. Long term oxidation
studies are carried out in section 2.2.11. In section 2.2.12 conclusions
are drawn.
38
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
For the first part of the reaction, which consists of the chemical
absorption of oxygen at the coal surface, the following reaction is
presented:
The meaning of the symbols used is given in table 2.7. The frequency
factor F can be considered to be a measure of the 'activity' of the coal
matrix in the oxidation process. It represents such factors as the coal
specific surface area and the coal composition. F will normally
increase as the coal matrix becomes finer, but is expected to decrease
due to partial oxidation (weathering) of the matrix.
39
Chapter 2
40
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
17.5
17.0
16.5
16.0
15.5
y = 3816.8x + 6.0027
15.0
14.5
14.0
0.0024 0.0025 0.0026 0.0027 0.0028 0.0029 0.0030
1/Temperature (1/K)
Figure 2.10. Plot of the natural logarithm of the oxygen depletion rate
against the inverse temperature of the coal
and so
a = E/R (2.5a)
b = –ln (Z.F) (2.5b)
41
Chapter 2
This analysis may be carried out for different durations of the reaction.
The values found for E are fairly constant. F may change with the
duration of the reaction. The observed ranges of E and F are presented
in table 2.8.
Table 2.9. Range of values for activation energy and frequency factor
for Indian coals.
Banerjee (1985, p.17) at 70 oC beyond threshold
6
E (10 J/kmol) 25 – 33 47 – 54
F (1/s) 1 – 48 700 – 45000
In the previous section, the equation that describes the speed of the
oxidation of coal was presented. This reaction requires oxygen from
the air and generates heat. The heat that is generated will tend to
increase the temperature and, as one can see from equation (2.3), this
would again increase the reaction speed. In this way, the reaction may
be accelerated and the coal may finally ignite. However, there may be
other factors which prevent this scenario. The heat generated may flow
42
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
into the environment and the temperature not rise sufficiently. Another
reason could be that the oxygen required for the reaction is depleted
and not supplied with sufficient speed. Therefore, to study the
spontaneous combustion of coal, it is necessary to take such aspects
into account and to consider and describe the flow of heat and oxygen
through the coal matrix.
To this end, we will consider heat and oxygen flow through a coal
mass with an assumed depth of at least 2 meters. The coal matrix is
exposed to the atmosphere and the sun at its surface. Heat and oxygen
exchange with the atmosphere and heat and oxygen flow within the
coal mass are assumed to be uni-dimensional and to take place
perpendicular to the surface. The coal mass may be solid coal, fine
coal or coal dust and is characterised by a porosity .
For oxygen flow through the (pore space of the) coal matrix a similar
continuity equation is valid:
43
Chapter 2
T(z, 0) = Ta (2.9a)
Z(z, 0) = Za (2.9b)
This means that, at the beginning, the temperature and oxygen content
at every depth in the coal mass are assumed to be equal to the
corresponding values in the air above the coal mass. The boundary
conditions will be specified at two levels. One is at the lower boundary
at depth d in the coal mass, where the influence of the weather and coal
oxidation can be considered negligible. Here we assume that the
temperature and oxygen content are constant in time; for example they
may also be equal to the values in the atmosphere:
T(d, t) = Ta (2.10a)
Z(d, t) = Za (2.10b)
The upper boundary condition, at the surface of the coal mass (depth z
= 0), is a more complicated one. Here the conditions are not steady, but
may vary as a result of solar radiation and the exchange of heat
between the coal surface and the atmosphere. The boundary condition
at the surface can be expressed in terms of the requirement that no
energy is lost from the surface and thus the fluxes at both sides of the
surface balance. This energy balance at the surface may be expressed
as follows:
where
(a) = heat flux into the coal by conduction
(b) = heat flux into the coal mass flow (air infiltration)
(c) = net (solar and terrestrial) radiation absorbed at the surface
(d) = heat flux into the atmosphere by turbulent transport (H)
In the heat budget equation (2.11) we have assumed that the coal is dry
and that there is no latent heat flux due to evaporation of water. Under
most conditions, water will have a cooling influence on the coal mass.
44
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Since the conditions in our test area are semi-arid and since we are
interested in the worst-case conditions, water infiltration and
evaporation have been omitted in the system of equations.
The boundary condition for the oxygen flow is found from the
requirement that the fluxes at both side of the surface are the same:
where:
(a) = oxygen flux into the coal by diffusion
(b) = oxygen flux into the coal mass by air infiltration
(c) = oxygen supply to the coal surface by turbulent transport
where:
The values taken for the thermal conductivies of (solid) coal and air
are
The volumetric heat capacity of the coal mass can be found as the
weighted average of the volumetric heat capacity of the solid coal and
that of air.
CM = (1 – ) CC + C (2.15)
45
Chapter 2
CC = 1.5*106 (J/m3 K)
D = 2*10–5 (m2/s)
To find the effective diffusion coefficient through the coal matrix, the
above value is multiplied by the porosity.
The formulation of the radiation terms and of the sensible heat flux
into the atmosphere are disciplines on their own. We will only briefly
describe their calculation.
2.2.4.1 Radiation
The net radiation input at the coal surface consists of solar and
terrestrial radiation components, and can be formulated as follows:
RN = (1 – A) IG + LD – LU (2.16)
Solar radiation
46
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Here S is the solar constant, i.e. the solar radiation flux outside the
atmosphere (1400 W/m2), and is the transmissivity of the
atmosphere. The solar inclination is a function of the latitude (), the
solar declination relative to the equator () and the time of the day (t):
Terrestrial radiation
LU = 0 T04 (2.21)
LD = A TA4 (2.22)
47
Chapter 2
The atmospheric resistance rA, or its inverse, and the atmospheric heat
transfer coefficient depend on the windspeed (vA), the (aerodynamic)
roughness of the surface (z0) and on the stability of the atmosphere.
The latter in turn depends on the temperature difference between the
surface and the air. In the daytime, when T0 is larger than TA, the air at
the surface is less dense than the air at higher levels and this increases
the turbulent exchange. At night, the reverse is true and turbulent
exchange is suppressed.
2.2.5 Solving the differential equations for heat and oxygen flow
48
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
zA
TA
atmosphere
coal matrix
T j-1
zj
z
T j- Tj
z j+1
T j+1
t lower boundary
t-1 t
time
where
49
Chapter 2
The outputs of the model are the values of temperature and oxygen
content at the grid points as a function of time. The results of the
simulation with the above input values, covering a period of two days,
is shown in figure 2.12a (temperatures) and figure 2.12b (oxygen
contents).
50
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
51
Chapter 2
0
375
0.006
355 0.017
335 0.036
315 0.067
0.122
295
0.215
275
0.376
0 20 40 60
0.652
time (hrs)
1.125
2 (a)
0
9.2
0.006
9 0.017
8.8 0.036
8.6 0.067
8.4 0.122
8.2 0.215
0.376
8
0.652
0 20 40 60
1.125
time (hr)
2
(b)
Figure 2.12 a, b. Temperature (a) and oxygen content (b) in the coal
matrix as a function of time at various depth levels (in m) as simulated
with the COALTEMP model using the input shown in table 2.10
52
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
(a)
0
1000
0.006
800 0.017
0.036
600
0.067
400 0.122
200 0.215
0 50 100 150 0.376
0.652
time (hr)
1.125
(b)
0
10
0.006
8 0.017
6 0.036
0.067
4
0.122
2
0.215
0 0.376
0 50 100 150 0.652
time (hr) 1.125
2
Figure 2.13 (a, b). Temperature simulation for Talcher coal dust
(Banerjee, 1982) with a porosity of 50 %, but without air infiltration,
showing spontaneous combustion after 75 hours
In this case, we have simulated a four-day period for the very reason
that with this sensitive coal spontaneous combustion appears to occur
at the beginning of the fourth day. Heating of the coal at shallow
depths, however, is already evident during the night after the first day,
when the temperature in the depth range 6 to 12 cm has reached almost
the boiling point of water: about 370 K. The night thereafter, the
temperature has already reached 440 K. In the early morning of the
fourth day, the temperature rises exponentially to levels far above 1000
K: after almost 80 hrs the coal is burning!
53
Chapter 2
In this section we repeat the previous simulations, but this time with a
small air infiltration speed of 0.001 m/s. The results are shown in
figure 2.14. This time spontaneous combustion occurs after only 20
hrs. Air infiltration apparently favours spontaneous combustion.
(a)
0
1000
0.006
900
0.017
800
0.036
700
0.067
600
0.122
500
400 0.215
300 0.376
200 0.652
0 50 100 150 1.125
time (hr) 2
(b)
0
10
0.006
9
8 0.017
7 0.036
6 0.067
5 0.122
4
0.215
3
2 0.376
1 0.652
0 1.125
0 50 100 150 2
time (hr)
54
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
700 0.067
0.122
600
0.215
500
0.376
400 0.652
300 1.125
200 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time (hr)
(b)
0
10
0.006
9
oxygen content (mol/m3)
0.017
8
0.036
7
0.067
6
0.122
5
4 0.215
3 0.376
2 0.652
1 1.125
0 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time (hrs)
Figure 2.15 (a, b). Temperature and oxygen content simulation for
Talcher coal dust (Banerjee, 1982) in an underground situation (no
irradiation) with a porosity of 50 %, and an air infiltration speed of
0.001 m/s. Spontaneous combustion occurs after 20 hours
55
Chapter 2
345
0.067
335
0.122
325
0.215
315
0.376
305
0.652
295
1.125
285
2
275
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time (hr)
(b)
0
10
0.006
oxygen content (mol/m3)
9
0.017
8
7 0.036
6 0.067
5 0.122
4 0.215
3
0.376
2
0.652
1
0 1.125
0 50 100 150 2
time (hr)
56
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
(a)
0
375
0.006
365
midnight temperature (K)
355 0.017
345 0.036
335
0.067
325
315 0.122
305 0.215
295
0.376
285
275 0.652
0 500 1000 1500 1.125
tim e (days) 2
(b)
0
9.1
0.006
midnight oxygen content
9.05
0.017
9
0.036
8.95
(mol/m3)
0.067
8.9
0.122
8.85
0.215
8.8
0.376
8.75
0.652
8.7
0 500 1000 1500 1.125
2
tim e (days )
57
Chapter 2
Only the temperature and oxygen content at midnight are shown. From
this simulation result it is clear that, during the 4 years, no spontaneous
combustion occurs. During the first year, the temperature increase
mainly occurs at depths of 12 to 21 cm. Thereafter, the zone of highest
temperature gradually shifts upwards and reaches the surface after
about 1000 days, i.e. after almost 3 years. During this time, the oxygen
content remains close to the maximum: almost 9 mol/m3. For this
reason, applying air infiltration will hardly increase the oxygen content
and a corresponding simulation gives almost the same temperature
patterns as in the previous figure 2.16 and there is no spontaneous
combustion.
(a)
600
0
550
0.006
midnight temperature (K)
500 0.017
0.036
450
0.067
400 0.122
0.215
350
0.376
300 0.652
1.125
250
2
200
0 500 1000 1500
tim e (hrs)
(b)
0
10
0.006
9
0.017
8
7 0.036
6 0.067
5 0.122
4 0.215
3
0.376
2
0.652
1
0 1.125
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2
time (hrs)
58
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
The results show that the temperatures below the surface layer rise
considerably and reach a value of almost 600 K after about half a year
and then remain almost constant. The temperature cannot rise further
because of the limited oxygen. One can expect, however, if for some
reason the top layer of the coal matrix is disturbed, that the sudden
contact with high oxygen levels will set the coal on fire. One can also
expect that some air infiltration will enhance the possibility of ignition.
We, therefore, repeated this simulation with an air infiltration rate of
0.001 m/s. The results are shown in the following figures 2.19 (a, b).
(a)
375
0
365
0.006
355
midnight temperature (K)
0.017
345 0.036
335 0.067
325 0.122
315 0.215
305 0.376
295 0.652
1.125
285
2
275
0 10 20 30 40 50
tim e (days)
(b)
10 0
midnight oxygen content (mol/m3)
9 0.006
8 0.017
7 0.036
6 0.067
5 0.122
4 0.215
3 0.376
2 0.652
1 1.125
0 2
0 10 20 30 40 50
time (days)
59
Chapter 2
Because of the air infiltration, the oxygen content remains close to the
maximum at all depths. As a consequence, the heat generation due to
oxidation is not limited and spontaneous combustion occurs after only
35 days!
1. Slack and coal dust are the most likely candidates for spontaneous
combustion, particularly when exposed to the sun and air
infiltration.
2. Solid coal is not likely to catch fire.
3. Cleaning up slack and coal dust in the environment of the coal
outcrop during and after open pit mining activities will reduce the
risk of new fires.
4. In the case of underground mining, the same applies but may be
less feasible. In this case, it is important to seal off the old galleries
and shafts in those parts where coal exploitation has finished.
60
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Fire area
Non fire area
Figure 2.20. Combustion triangle
The coal fire will thrive only when the values of the three controlling
factors are located in the red area. A situation with low oxygen, high
fuel content and high temperature is plotted in the lower right-hand
corner, outside the fire area, in which case no combustion is possible.
61
Chapter 2
boundary layer between the coal and the gas. This mass transfer is
controlled by convection and, to a much lesser degree, by diffusion.
Due to the high reaction heat of coal and its volatiles, the oxygen-coal
reaction is highly exothermic. The temperature difference with the
environment will increase the convective gas transport, thus increasing
the oxygen transport. Under these favourable conditions, the fire will
spread quickly. This spreading will in most cases decrease when a lack
of either oxygen or fuel occurs. If the combustion spreads into the
subsurface, lack of oxygen is usually the factor controlling the burning
rate.
The volume of coal combusted is related to the amount of gas and heat
produced. Below, an estimate relating the total weight of the exhaust
gas and the amount of air needed for the combustion, to the amount of
coal combusted is calculated. The amount of heat produced per unit
weight of coal can be found directly from the literature, or a value may
be available from laboratory results. It is more difficult to relate the
amount of coal combusted to the volume of exhaust gas produced.
62
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Open, or surface, fires denote any fire that is in direct contact with the
atmosphere. Open fires are unlikely to exist for a long period of time
and are likely to evolve quickly into subsurface fires. Due to the good
oxygen supply, open fires burn vividly as long as enough fuel is
available. However, due to the high fuel consumption at the surface,
this type of fire soon runs out of fuel. The subsurface coal, if not
already on fire, will then be the only direction in which the fire can
spread.
63
Chapter 2
the outcrop strike direction. It has been stated that the fire spreads
towards the point from which the oxygen is entering (S.C. Banerjee,
1985). Subsurface combustion is relatively slow compared to surface
combustion. For this reason, the subsurface type of fires will burn for
the longer time.
As stated before, this type of fire only occurs over a short period of
time and the area affected is relatively small. Therefore, these fires are
unlikely to be detected by remote sensing.
64
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
65
Chapter 2
From the preceding discussion, it is clear that the oxygen supply is the
most important parameter controlling the rate of combustion of
subsurface fires. The oxygen supply is controlled by:
the permeability of the inlet
the permeability of the outlet
the ‘hydrostatic’ pressure balance between the hot gases in the
outlet and the cool gases in the inlet and atmosphere.
the length of the inlet/outlet system
The most important roof failure mechanisms above a fire zone are:
large scale collapse
spalling
melting
The large-scale collapse takes place when the rock is not able to
support the open space of the burning chamber. The result is a
disrupted, permeable mass consisting of rock blocks.
As the coal is combusting, and thus creating a hot zone, the heat
degasses the ‘volatiles’ from the adjacent coal and tars previously
condensed in the rock. The higher the temperatures, the more of the
coal is gassified. The volatile fractions of lower molecular weight
change to the gas phase earlier then the heavier fractions. These
fractions are not necessarily combusted together with the solid coal;
the gases emitted by the heated coal can only catch fire when enough
66
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
The interface of the gases and the solid coal that is combusting can be
defined as the primary combustion zone. The gaseous zone adjacent to
the coal can be defined as the secondary combustion zone. The tar
zone, if on fire, is defined as the tertiary combustion zone.
67
Chapter 2
The cool gas which enters changes the density of the gas in the
chimney.
The cooling of the exhaust gas by the overburden rock changes its
density.
The amount of coal burning differs locally.
The thickness of overburden (length of the chimney) differs locally
etc.
p p o 0 1 g l (2.30)
where
p = Pressure difference between the in and the outside of the
chimney,
l = distance to the top of the chimney
po = atmospheric pressure
0 = density of air
1 = density of the exhaust gas
g = gravity constant (9.8 m/s2)
68
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
The exhaust gases will move quikly to the surface. Because of the high
surface area of the lumps of tailing, the heat exchange between gas and
rock is very good and the temperature of the lumps will be close to that
of the passing gases. As the oxygen supply is good, in general the coal
can be on fire over large areas. Consequently, the temperature of these
bodies is usually very high over a large surface area. These fires may,
therefore, continue to burn for a long time. These fires should not be
considered a present economic loss; they were already ‘lost’ when
dumped. The occurrence of these fires is problematic because of their
polluting effect, and because they may start subsurface fires in the
underlying coal-bearing strata.
69
Chapter 2
RN + G + H + LE = 0 (2.31)
LE = H + LEA (2.36)
70
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
G = M(T/z)z=0 (2.37)
The net radiation can be described as the sum of the solar and the
terrestrial radiation components
RN = (1 – A) IG + LN (2.38)
Here, LN is the net terrestrial radiation, i.e, the vector sum of the
downward and the upward thermal radiation (section 2.2, eqs 2.16,
2.21 and 2.22). The solar global radiation can be aproximated by a
cosinus function, which equals zero when the function values become
negative:
We may now split the energy budget into a constant, average part and
a periodic part. To do so, we assume the temperature to consist of an
average part (T@) and a periodic part (T'):
T = T@ + T'
Now the average part of the energy budget equation may be written as
follows:
with
71
Chapter 2
M = (1+ ) CA (2.42)
and
CM is the heat capacity of the rock or soil matrix (see section 2.4.3)
and
72
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
where
and
M = (1+ ) CA (2.52)
73
Chapter 2
From the table, it appears that sandstone and coal have a thermal
inertia of the same order of magnitude. Dry coal dust including a
considerable amount of air has much lower values of volumetric heat
capacity and of thermal conductivity. As a consequence, the thermal
inertia is 80 to 90% lower. The same applies to dry sediments such as
sand and clay; their thermal inertias will be of the order of 500. The
thermal inertia of moist sediments depends on their water content,
usually varying between 500 (dry) and 1500 (very wet).
380
360 Ta (280 K)
temperature (K)
340 Tg (290 K)
Sandstone
320
Coal
300 Coaldust (60%)
280 Coaldust (40%)
260
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time hrs)
74
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
310
temperature (K)
300
290
280
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time (hrs)
horizontal 30 W 30 E
Simulations were carried out for a horizontal surface, and for a 30-
degree slope facing both westwards (30W) and eastwards (30E).
Figure 2.26 shows the daily course of the surface temperature for each
case. The input used was almost the same as was used in the previous
section for sandstone. The surface temperature around noon, however,
remains notably lower than that simulated with the analytical model
(figure 2.25). The reason is that the analytical model does not account
for atmospheric heat transport by free convection, whilst the numerical
model does. Figure 2.26 demonstrates that the eastward-orientated
slope heats up earlier than the westward-orientated slope. At night, the
westward slope remains warmer than the eastward slope up until
midnight.
75
Chapter 2
hrs. This figure shows that, during the morning acquisition, the
temperature contrast between the west and east slopes is 11 to12 K.
During the night-time acquisition, this contrast is not more than 1 K.
15
10
temp. difference (K)
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
-5
-10
-15
tim e (hrs)
76
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
between thermal anomaly and coal loss, a calculation method for the
thermal anomaly was developed.
Conduction
Conduction is the descriptive term for heat that is transported through
solid-to-solid contact. The actual transport of heat is by the vibration of
molecules against their neighbours. In general, this is a relatively slow
process. The conductive heat transport plays an important role in the
transport of heat within the intact rock of the fire area.
77
Chapter 2
by which the exhaust gases transport away the heat of the combustion
from the core of the fire. Due to the chimney effect, the hot gases move
upward through the cracks and voids of the overburden into the
atmosphere. During the upward migration, the hot gases will exchange
some of their heat with the surrounding rock, thus contributing to the
thermal anomaly of the overburden.
Radiation
78
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
79
Chapter 2
x
T ( x, t ) To erf ( ) (2.54)
4t
where
80
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
On the right-hand side is a coal seam; the seam is on fire. The exhaust
gas is indicated by the plume of smoke. On the right-hand side the coal
has not yet burnt; the overburden is still intact. To the left of the fire,
the coal seam is partly vanished due to the fire; the overburden has
collapsed and now forms a disrupted mass of rock.
81
Chapter 2
82
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
transport by the exhaust gases was introduced. The gases move upward
through a zone of collapsed overburden, also referred to as the
'chimney'.
The 'exhaust gas' model was set up under the following main
restrictions and assumptions:
Heat transport from surface to atmosphere is by convection and
radiation only.
Heat transport underground is by conduction and convective mass
transport only.
The rock is isotropic and homogeneous.
No physical difference exists between the ‘burnt rock’ and the
‘intact rock’.
The active coal fire is concentrated along a linear front.
The lateral extent of the fire can be considered very large in
relation to its depth.
For the transport of the exhaust gases, a ventilation shaft is present.
Using the above assumptions we can set the boundaries of the model:
The right boundary is far away from the fire and, therefore, has a
constant temperature.
A vertical axis of symmetry is assumed; this allows that
calculations to be made for one side only. The axis of symmetry is
the left boundary.
The bottom boundary is far away from the fire and, therefore, has a
constant temperature.
At the top boundary, there is convective heat exchange with the
atmosphere. Above the shaft, the heat transported by the exhaust
gases dissipates directly into the atmosphere.
83
Chapter 2
84
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
T
q d x
d
(2.56)
In which:
T = temperature (K)
x = distance in the x-direction (m)
= coefficient for thermal conduction
q = heat flux (J / m2)
2 2
T d T T
d q c p d
2
2
d x d z d t
(2.57)
In which:
85
Chapter 2
2 2
d T d T
q 0
2
2
d x d z (2.58)
Working out the first term of equation 2.59 for an element having sides
from x to x + dx, we get
d T
d T
x dx x
d x d x
d x (2.59)
This can be done likewise for the z-term. To apply this in a finite
difference model, discretisation is needed. The 'differential' d will in
that case, change into the discrete . The locations of the elements will
be described by co-ordinates (i, j), the distinct representatives for (x,
z):
With
x i i 1
2 (2.61)
86
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
d T 2Ti 1 Ti
xdx xi xi
d x 1
(2.62)
2
d 2 i i 1 T i 1 T i i i 1 T i T i 1
'
T
xi xi 1 xi xi xi 1 xi
c
d x
(2.64)
For the terms in z direction a similar elaboration is possible.
c T j 1 T j (2.66)
87
Chapter 2
Mass transport
2 2
dT d T d T q d T
2 2 c p vz cp
d x d z d z d t (2.69)
88
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
General set-up
This method uses several sets of elementary equations, each set valid
for a particular situation. Each situation can be seen as a construction
block or unit. Using different types of these blocks, complex situations
can be built (simulated) in a numerical calculation. The elementary
block of medium used is the same as that for the earlier conductivity
calculations.
The lines give the borders of the elements; the dots indicate the points
in the element are representative of the calculated temperature. The
middle square is the most common building block in the model: a piece
of rock surrounded by other rock. For the exchange of heat at the
surface, a different type of element had to be used. This is because the
temperature calculated is valid for the middle of an element, whereas
we must know the temperature at the border of an element. Therefore,
the following solution is applied.
The same approach is applied to the heat exchange in the shaft. Using
the elementary building blocks, we can now construct our model. The
abstract set-up of this coal fire model has already been pictured in
chapter 3. The elements are held together by their systems of
equations. The solution of these systems is described below.
89
Chapter 2
A T Bi , j T i , j C i , j T i 1, j Di , j 0
i, j i 1, j
(2.72)
The i stands for the column number and the j for the row number. The
horizontal heat transport is incorporated in the factors A, B and C. The
variable Di, j contains the secondary values: the vertical heat fluxes
and the production of heat within the block.
For each row of cells, a set of linear equations can be created. On the
basis of the assumption that the right border of the model is so far from
the fire that its temperature is constant, the last element has a known
temperature. Di, j can be estimated if the temperatures of the rows
above and below are more or less known. Taking Di, j constant, the
system becomes solvable. The total system of equations for each row
can be solved by Gaussian elimination, which results in a complete set
of temperatures for one row. The solution for one row is thus implicitly
determined.
The total system is solved row by row, after which the total system is
solved column by column. Considering the row-by-row calculations,
the previously calculated (lower) row of temperatures serves as the
input values for the calculation in the z-direction (the Di, j term), thus
resulting in an explicit solution for the complete matrix. Because the
temperatures in the row above are not known, no direct solution can be
calculated. A definite solution for the whole model can be reached by
running the model a few times in succession: the solution will be
reached by iteration. If the temperatures become constant, the model
has reached equilibrium and the equations may be assumed to have
been solved. In general a few thousand iteration cycles are needed to
obtain a solution.
Modelling parameters
90
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
Fire depth
This parameter represents the depth of the fire below the surface in
meters. It controls the total size, width and depth of the model because
the models's borders should be at sufficient distances from the fire to
meet the border criteria.
Overburden
The conductivity of the rock determines the heat flow in the intact rock
as a function of the temperature gradient. The density (kg/m3) and the
specific heat (kJ/kg) are needed to calculate the total amount of energy
contained in the rock. For these parameters typical values can be found
in the literature.
As indicated the values depend on the material. In the case of rock the
bulk properties of the overburden also have to be taken into account.
Important factors that influence these bulk properties are fracturing,
permeability and water content. It is difficult to obtain empirical values
for these.
Boundary temperatures
The temperatures at the border are set to a zero level (a default of 273
K). Because we are only interested in the anomalous temperatures, it
was decided to take the same border temperature throughout the
91
Chapter 2
Figure 2.36. Simulation result for a fire burning 5m3 coal/year at 12m
depth
The other output of the software includes a text file containing
temperatures for each element used in the finite difference method, and
a text file containing information about the heat flow through the shaft
and the boundaries of the model. These data were used in the following
evaluation of the results.
92
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
25
20 conductive convective
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
distance (m)
The area under the curves is equivalent to the heat exchange at the
surface above the fire. Most remarkable is the higher maximum of the
'exhaust' model. This is caused by the hot exhaust gases that heat the
wall of the chimney. The hot exhaust gases will transfer heat faster into
the atmosphere then the overburden can by conduction. The heat
escaping through the chimney will not result in a thermal anomaly of
the surface, and is therefor not easy to recognise by remote sensing.
The surface under the curve is representative for the heat exchange at
the surface above a fire. The total thermal anomaly of the surface for
the 'exhaust' model is smaller to that of the 'conductive' model. This is
because the 'conductive' model can only dissipate its heat into the
atmosphere by heat exchange through conduction to the surface,
whereas the 'convective' model also has heat loss via the exhaust gases.
93
Chapter 2
were made of the thermal surface anomaly against fire depth and
amount of coal burnt.
From figure 2.39, it can be seen that the difference in total heat flow
through the surface is not very dependent on the depth of the fire. The
relation between the total heat flux and the amount of coal is more
clear. This relationship can be applied to estimates of the burning rate
of coal made using remote sensing (airborne and satellite thermal)
imagery.
3000
2500
2000
24m series
1500 48m series
1000
500
0
0 5 10
Coal loss [m3/yr/m]
To find a relation between the thermal anomaly and the depth of the
fire, simulations were made of a fixed amount of coal burning at
different depths. The simulations shown here in figure 2.39 were made
for 5 cubic meters of coal at depths of 12, 24 and 48 meters. It is clear
that the shape of the curve is related to the depth.
94
Properties of coal and theory of coal fires
14
12 48m depth
24m depth
10
12m depth
Anomaly (K) 8
0
0 20 40 60 80
Distance [m]
Application of results
The relation between the coal losses and the total heat flux was applied
to estimate the coal losses made by means of satellite and airborne
thermal images. Another possible application of the numerical
simulation results is to estimate the depth of the fire. From figure 2.39
it is clear that a fire at a greater depth results in broader thermal
anomaly with a lower temperature maximum in the centre. The
estimation of depth might be done by curve matching, but this was not
considered feasible because the situation in the field is more complex
then assumed in the model. Therefor a less delicate approach was tried.
It is clear from figure 2.39 that the lateral differentiation in
temperatures for a shallow seated fire is stronger compared to that of a
deep fire. This effect can be described statistically with the standard
deviation of the temperature values in a frame around the pixel of
interest. This standard deviation showed a weak, but useful, relation to
the depth of the seat of a fire. This relation could be applied easily to
remote sensing data and is shown in figure 8.10, subsection 8.1.2.
95
Chapter 2
96
Four-level data collection
Chapter 3
In this study the four levels selected for data collection are:
1. satellite
2. aircraft
3. surface measurements
4. subsurface measurements
97
Chapter 3
Satellite data constitute the highest or top-level data collected for the
coalfire studies. Both optical and thermal data were collected from
various available satellites.
Table 3.1 gives details of the satellite-borne optical and thermal data
acquired for the study area.
Table 3.1. Optical and thermal data acquired for the study area
Satellite Path/ Date Sensor Spatial Remarks
Row resolution
1 Landsat 130/33 Dec 2 1988 TM 30 m daytime
image
2 Landsat 226/211 Dec 18 1989 TM 120 m night-time
image
3 Landsat 226/211 May 28 1995 TM 120 m night-time
image
4 Landsat 130/33 May 28 1995 TM 30 m daytime
image
5 Landsat 130/33 Sep 06 1997 TM 30 m daytime
image
6 Landsat 130/33 Sep 22 1997 TM 30 m daytime
image
6 Landsat 130/33 Sep 22 1997 TM 120 m night-time
image
7 SPOT 260/271 Feb 02 1993 PAN 10 m
Figure 3.2 shows 300 * 400 pixel subsets of images acquired in the
near-infrared band from the three satellites, viz. (a) Landsat, (b) SPOT
and (c) IRS. The difference in spatial resolution, and therefore in the
level of perceptible detail, is apparent from this figure.
98
Four-level data collection
The satellite-borne thermal data used for this study were acquired only
at one spatial resolution (c.f. Table 3.1). Mansor et al. in 1995
suggested the use of coarse resolution NOAA-AVHRR data (spatial
resolution = 1.1 km) for mapping the regional stretches of coalfires.
a b c
Figure 3.2. Satellite images of part of the Rujigou coalfield in
northwest China. All images are subsets of 300 * 400 pixels and were
acquired in the near-infrared bands: (a) Landsat TM image of Sep 22
1997, (b) SPOT image of Feb 02 1993 and (c) IRS image of Dec 25
1996. Inset in figure (a) shows areal coverage of figure (b) and inset in
figure (b) shows areal coverage of figure (c). Note the differences in
spatial resolution.
99
Chapter 3
1000
100
Radiance (mW cm sr m )
1-4
-1
-1
10
-2
5
7
6
1.0
0.1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
VNIR
SWIR TIR
Wavelength (m)
100
°C
0°
C 500
C
0°C
0°
60
1500°C
400°C
80
100
2
3 4
Radiance (mW cm sr m )
- 1
1 °C
10 300
-1
-2
5
0°C
7 20
1.0 TM5 TM7
C
0°
15
0.1
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
VIS NIR SWIR
Wavelength (m)
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Four-level data collection
The method for analysis of the Landsat optical and thermal data is
discussed in detail in Chapter 6 and the interpretation results are
further presented in Chapter 7.
Airborne thermal data are gathered using a thermal scanner. The result
is a series of thermal images along the lines of flight. The use of
thermal airborne data is of great importance in the evaluation of coal
fires. This type of data is better in terms of precision, and spatial and
thermal resolution, compared to satellite data. To reach the same
thermal precision, only handheld thermal scanners provide an
alternative. These, however, do not provide the possibility of obtaining
an overview of the area. Thermal airborne data are useful for the
detection, intensity mapping of coal fires and for surveying the general
area; they can also be used for the georeferencing of thermal satellite
data. To optimise the usability of thermal airborne data, a thorough
consideration of the required flight parameters is necessary.
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Chapter 3
The influence of solar heating should be avoided. For this reason, data
should be gathered late during the night (see paragraph 2.4 - 'The daily
course of the surface temperature'). Data shortly after sunrise are
already influenced significantly by solar heating. The weather should
be dry, with low windspeed and no cloud cover.
Spatial effects
The area vertical under the plane is referred to as being situated at
'nadir', the flight line is the imaginary line connecting the 'nadir' points.
In general a scanner consists of a rotating sensor. As the aeroplane
moves forward the sensor rotates over the sections of interest within a
certain angle of view under the plane. The analogue data measured is
digitised and recorded. This results in a set of scanlines centred along
the flight line of the aeroplane.
Spatial resolution is the term used for the size of the area sampled
instantaneously by a single measurement. Spatial resolution should not
be confused with the sampling interval, which can be smaller
(oversampling). A lower spatial resolution results in thermal
measurements being taken over larger areas; this levels out the
temperature differences.
The spatial resolution for a subsurface coal fire survey should be small
enough to reveal the required details of the coal fires. Its value depends
on the height of the aeroplane (h), the instantaneous field of view
(FOV) of the scanner (), the swath angle () and the slope of the
surface.
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Four-level data collection
h h
s.r. 2 sin( ) rad2 (3.1)
cos ( ) cos ( )
2
2
Note that the aspect and slope of the surface are not included. The
areas sampled by the sensor change shape as changes. The area
sampled right under the plane (at nadir) is a square, at higher angles
the shape changes as depicted in figure 3.6.
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Chapter 3
For the flight 1997 flight data no corrections were done for the
structural distortions as illustrated in figures 3.6 and 3.7. It was
decided to correct for the distortions by georeferencing relatively small
areas of interest as near to nadir as possible. This method requires a lot
of sample co-ordinates so the distortion can be calculated over the
area.
Thermal settings
For any airborne flight, the required range and resolution should be
indicated. It is important that to set these parameters carefully, they
have a high influence on the usability of the data. A correct choice of
thermal settings will result in a thermal range covering the area of
interest without over- or under-saturation of the sensor and a sufficient
resolution within the image.
The thermal range is the difference between the lower (T1) and upper
limit (T2) of the thermal measurements of the airborne survey. The
thermal data are recorded in whole digital numbers that represent
temperatures. The amount of digital numbers depends on the number
104
Four-level data collection
105
Chapter 3
Spectral properties
Figure 3.10. Raw flight line in grey tones (1997, 3 – 5 and 8 – 12 nm)
From the airborne data in Figure 3.9, it can be seen that at the borders
of the image, the measured values are slightly higher compared to the
centre of the image, this is believed to be an atmospheric effect. The
data can be corrected for this effect relatively easy after calculating the
average lateral distortion of the scanlines over a whole flight line.
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Four-level data collection
The third level of the data collection is carried out on the ground. This
is the classical method used for the mapping and monitoring coal-fire
related features and phenomena occurring at the land surface. Using a
more general approach, it can be said that surface data collection aims
to obtain information about geographic features and processes through
in-situ measurements and observations.
107
Chapter 3
The attributes are the data that answer the question, ‘What is it?’. In
fact, the attributes describe the features or phenomena in either a
qualitative or quantitative way. It is always important to record the
measurement units! Estimate and record the inaccuracy involved if
appropriate. Depending on the type of the measured or observed
parameters, several geographic data types are important in coal fire
fighting. These data types are discussed in more detail in the following
subsection.
108
Four-level data collection
Table 3.4 gives a list of the topographic features stored in the CoalMan
database. Only the most important ones have been digitised, but
CoalMan provides tools for the user to add new features when needed.
Figure 3.11. shows part of the topographic map displayed in ILWIS.
Due to the intensive mining in the area, serious changes might occur in
the surface objects, especially in and around the open-cast mines.
When topographical features have to be mapped or corrected on the
base map, an accuracy of 0.1 mm on the map (in the case of the 1:5000
map this is 0.5 m) has to be achieved. Only geodetic methods
(including geodetic GPS, see next section) provide this accuracy.
109
Chapter 3
Figure 3.11. Part of the topographic map of the Rujigou coalfield (in
ILWIS format)
110
Four-level data collection
the U.S. military. The Russian Republic also has a similar system
(GLONASS), but the American system is more widely used.
111
Chapter 3
Besides bias two more sources of error occur: noise and blunder. Noise
is related to the different modules of the GPS. Blunders are computer
or human errors, mistakes, breakdowns etc. Figure 3.13 illustrates the
possible effects of noise, bias and blunder.
112
Four-level data collection
113
Chapter 3
114
Four-level data collection
During the fieldwork in September 1997, the location of more than 130
points were measured with a geodetic GPS. Unfortunately, the exact
projection parameters for the Rujigou co-ordinate system are not
known and a mathematical 7-parameter transformation was used
instead. These parameters were calculated for the transformation of the
locations from the WGS 84 datum to the Rujigou co-ordinate system.
The mean square horizontal error calculated from the available control
points was 6 cm. This accuracy allows the use of the measured
locations of all the measurements and observations, together with the
remote sensing data, including even the highest resolution airborne
scanner data.
Thermal field data may be used for coal fire survey. Field
measurements can provide thermal data at low cost, small scale and
with flexible planning. Besides the direct examination of coal fires,
surface data may also have to be gathered for georeferencing and the
calibration of airborne / satellite images (ground truth data gathering).
Very useful data can be provided by a thermal infrared frame scanner.
In this section one can find descriptions of the equipment, the
methodology for data gathering and a short evaluation.
1
In the future the United States will add another civil frequency to the global positioning system. The
addition of a second frequency will greatly enhance the accuracy, reliability and robustness of civilian GPS
receivers by enabling them to make more effective corrections for the distorting effects of the Earth’s
atmosphere on the signals from space. GPS has always provided signals on two frequencies for military
users for this purpose. By introducing the second frequency civilians will have access to the same type of
capability. (Gore, 1998).
115
Chapter 3
Contact thermometer
This is a small and simple device. A reading can be obtained by
pressing a probe upon the surface. The result is obtained after
equilibrium is reached: this takes a few seconds. The recommended
measurement range of this equipment is approximately 250 – 1200
Kelvin.
Pointing thermometer
This type of hand-held thermometer is operated by pointing the lens
towards the area of interest; with a push of a button, a reading of the
radiant temperature is obtained instantaneously. Measurements can be
116
Four-level data collection
70
60
50
40
30
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Measurement no.
117
Chapter 3
118
Four-level data collection
Whether data are gathered for monitoring or the detection of coal fires,
it is important that one should be able to develop time-series. The
advantage of time-series is that they make it easier to detect changes in
thermal behaviour. Data should be gathered on a regular basis, stored
and processed in such a way that successive data can be compared.
This method facilitates the use of data in the detection as well as in the
monitoring of coal fires. For detection and monitoring, a set of
standard scenes should be chosen that can be viewed from a fixed
location. These locations should be selected on the basis of the
overview of the area of interest provided and the duration of their
existence (which may be a problem in a mining area).
119
Chapter 3
The method and means of gathering data depend on the aim of the
measurement:
1. detecting new fires
2. monitoring coal fires and/or coal fire fighting results
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Four-level data collection
3.3.4.1 Equipment
A spectroradiometer measures the intensity of radiation at specific
wavelengths. In general the measurements cover the 300 – 2500 nm
range, which is similar to that covered by most satellites in the non-
thermal range. During the 1997 fieldwork, a GER 2600
spectroradiometer was used which covered the full visible (VIS) to
near infrared (NIR) spectrum from 300 to 2500 nm. For reference, a
calibrated 50% reflectance plate was used. A 50% reflectance plate
121
Chapter 3
was preferred above the o100% reflectance because 50% is more close
to the reflections of most naturally occurring rock strata. The
specifications of the field spectroradiometer used are:
Objects
Timing
If the data are used to evaluate the possibilities for remote sensing, the
reflectance spectra should be obtained under the same illumination
conditions (sun angle, weather, atmosphere) as during the remote
122
Four-level data collection
sensing data gathering. The best time for data gathering would,
therefore, be during the remote sensing data capture.
Illumination
The spectra were grouped into lithologies as they occur in the Rujigou
area:
123
Chapter 3
1. coal
2. sandstone
3. banded sandstone/ shale
Data
In figure 3.22 the spectrum of the sunlight is given as measured at
ground level in the Rujigou area. Indicated are the wavelength bands
that are covered by the Landsat TM-5 satellite. The spectrum was
obtained by making a measurement of the reference plate.
300000
250000
radiance [10^-10 W/cm2/nm]
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
350 850 1350 1850 2350
wavelength [nm]
60
50
Reflectance [%]
sandstone
40
shale
30 ss/sh
20 coal
Landsat bands
10
0
350 850 1350 1850 2350
wavelength [nm]
124
Four-level data collection
60
50
Reflectance [%]
40
Landsat bands
30 sandstone
burnt sandstone
20
10
0
350 850 1350 1850 2350
wavelength [nm]
Both in the field and from the reflectance curves of the shale and the
sandstone it is clear that the relative reflectance level in the red (~700-
800 nm) is stronger for the burnt varieties.
125
Chapter 3
The burning effect in the far infrareds does show as an overall increase
in the level of the reflectance. A more dedicated investigation of the
spectral behaviour of burnt rock is discussed in more detail in
paragraph 6.3.
Drilling procedures
126
Four-level data collection
127
Chapter 3
More than 225 data points (outcrops and boreholes), representing all
seven coal seams, were made available by the mines in the Rujigou
area. These data points are, however, irregularly distributed over the
area and the individual coal seams. Consequently, the models, as
derived from these data, have a low accuracy in terms of (calculated)
thickness and depth. It was, therefore, decided to allow end-users to
modify and update the table in the monitoring system, as new
information becomes available.
128
Four-level data collection
Because of the large thickness of the coal seams in the Rujigou area a
so-called top slicing longwall method is used in the underground
mines. The mining of the coal seam starts at the top and proceeds in
slices downward while the overburden above the mining area is caved
after each slice is removed.
129
Chapter 3
130
GIS: The integrated working environment
Chapter 4
What is a GIS? The United States Geological Survey provides the most
adequate definition (USGS, 1997):
131
Chapter 4
132
GIS: The integrated working environment
Geographic
Information System
Other
geo-
Map and Attribute Data Management Image graphic
Processing infor-
mation
Collection input and systems
Image
Storage and enchancemen
Output
Users operate the programmes via the user interface. Usually it is not
important for them to know the details hidden by the user interface, but
in the case of a complex software like a GIS, it is good to know how
the main parts of the software work.
133
Chapter 4
Data entering
Map digitizing File conversion Scanning
via keyboard
Temporary storage
Digital tables
Verification,
restructuring
GIS database
Text files Meta-database
Raster
maps Digital tables
Vector Raster
maps images
Figure 4.2. Input data flow. In the first step, data are entered into a
temporary storage. After verification, the data are then entered into
the GIS database (and registered in the meta-database)
134
GIS: The integrated working environment
135
Chapter 4
17 inch monitor
minimum 1 GB hard disk space for the software
minimum 2 GB hard disk space for the data
CD-ROM reader and writer
digitising tablet (preferably greater than A3)
A4 black-and-white printer (for text and simple map-printing)
A4 colour printer for small-format map-printing
large format colour printer for map-printing
A3 scanner for map- and photo-scanning
digitising tablet
scanner
colour printer
Large format printer
B&W printer
Pentium PC with
Windows 95/98
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GIS: The integrated working environment
There are several ways of structuring spatial data and their attributes in
a computer environment. The logical framework of structuring is
called the data-model, which describes the logical organisation of the
data components and the manner in which relationships among
components are defined. Two major data-models can be defined in a 2-
D GIS: the vector model and the raster model. These are described in
the following subsections.
Where is it? What is it?
Code Landuse
B
A Agriculture
A
B Forest
C
C Grassland
N1 S N2 Segment
p1 p2 Node
Breakpoint
S1
P Polygon
S2
Figure 4.5. Vector data primitives
137
Chapter 4
Real world
X co-ordinate
Co-ordinate list
Generalised scheme of realisation in computer
Georeferencing
Polygons (areas)
Name Boundary S.No.
P1 House S1
P2 Lake S3
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GIS: The integrated working environment
The location of a pixel is identified in the raster by the row and column
numbers. In GIS applications, the raster has to be referenced to the
geographical or to a cartographical co-ordinate system. Transformation
equations (polynomials of various orders) are used for the
georeferencing. The most frequently used transformation parameter
determination method is based on tie points: the user identifies points
with known geographic or cartographic co-ordinates on the raster (e.g.,
139
Chapter 4
140
GIS: The integrated working environment
Resolution and pixel size – these are frequently used terms in GIS, but
they are not always used correctly. Resolution is frequently misused to
express the fullness of detail of a map. It is also related – incorrectly –
to the pixel size of a raster map. But what do these terms really mean?
141
Chapter 4
142
GIS: The integrated working environment
Quality assurance starts with the quality control of the input data. In
the following paragraphs, we describe the most important parameters
used in quality control.
The definition contains the ‘true value’, which is in most cases not
known for all the features in the database. Only a statistical approach
can help to overcome this difficulty. In this approach, accuracy is the
likelihood that a prediction will be correct. Based on a sample data set,
the histogram of the differences between the ‘true value’ and the
predicted value are calculated. If the errors do not have a systematic
component and are of the same continuous population, then their
distribution is assumed to be normal. Using this assumption two
important parameters can be determined: the root mean square (RMS)
error, which is the expected value (or mean) of the distribution; and
the accuracy, which is the maximum error at the selected level of
confidence (Figure 4.7). In the figure, the x-axis of the normal
distribution curves is divided into units of standard deviation - termed
z-values. The standard deviation is denoted by SD.
Direct calculation of the RMS error from the sample set:
1
RMS error
n n
( pn p' n ) 2
143
Chapter 4
where
n = number of sample points
pn = true value
p’n = predicted value
144
GIS: The integrated working environment
145
Chapter 4
A simple method for tracing the data quality is to record the method
used for the compilation of a new map from the data and the name of
146
GIS: The integrated working environment
the compiler. Personalising the data entry and analysis steps in this
way assigns clear responsibility to the operators of the system.
CoalMan contains a meta-database in which the book-keeping
concerning the creators and modifiers of the data objects is done. The
data-definition files of the geographical data in ILWIS (the GIS
running under CoalMan) record the expressions used for creating the
data objects. Using these tools, the history of the data is recorded and it
is possible to assess the quality of the results.
147
Chapter 4
148
GIS: The integrated working environment
149
Chapter 4
manuals; here we present only the most important aspects that are
relevant in understanding the concepts of CoalMan.
The data objects are the different maps, tables and remote sensing
materials which are worked with. Maps can be displayed and edited in
a map window; tables in a table window. The user performs
calculations and operations on data objects.
150
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151
Chapter 4
DATA SOURCE
Analysis Archiving
data in
MAPS, MS Access
GRAPHS & format
REPORTS
152
GIS: The integrated working environment
When new data are appended or new analysis results are created, the
meta-database has to be updated. This is done partly automatically.
Users with proper access rights (the Master Users) can check the data
to be entered into the CoalMan database and registered in the meta-
database. Tools for the maintenance of the meta-database are referred
to in the following as meta-database management functions.
Both the vector and the raster data-models are suitable for representing
the vertical dimension.
153
Chapter 4
154
GIS: The integrated working environment
a
surface
b
c
155
Chapter 4
Figure 4.16. A part of a point map of elevation data from the CoalMan
database (top of coal seam 7). The elevations are stored as an attribute
of the sample site map
156
GIS: The integrated working environment
It is beyond the scope of this manual to describe all the details of the
interpolation methods, but some major aspects are given below.
157
Chapter 4
Figure 4.18. A part of the DEM of the Rujigou area displayed with a
grey scale representation. Parts with lower elevation are darker, the
higher parts are lighter
158
GIS: The integrated working environment
Figure 4.19. A part of the shaded DEM of the Rujigou area. The same
part as displayed in Figure 4.18.
Figure 4.20. Bird view of the DEM of the Rujigou area. A shaded
DEM and the location of the coal fires are wrapped on the elevation
model for this display
159
Chapter 4
Date
For the fire fighters the distribution of the coal fires is one of the most
interesting piece of information. Basically it is assumed that satellite
160
GIS: The integrated working environment
images are used to generate one coal fire map per year2, but maps from
other origin might also be stored in the database of analysis results. In
the meta-database the reference date (acquisition date) is stored, so the
user can select maps for the analysis on this basis.
2
The exact time lag between the images depends on several
unpredictable factors, like weather, availability of the team for
reference field measurements, etc.
161
Chapter 4
162
Data pre-processing
Chapter 5
5 Data pre-processing
Before the actual processing of remote sensing data can be carried out
the image will have to be properly (geo)referenced, transformed to a
map, corrected for atmospheric influences and data errors and noise.
These procedures are referred to as data pre-processing and are
described in this chapter.
Small civil SPS receivers, which can be purchased for less than $200
are not suitable for high accuracy positioning, even if some can accept
differential corrections. Those receivers are suitable for high accuracy,
which can store files for post-processing, which can act in differential
mode as reference receivers (computing and providing correction data)
and as carrier phase tracking receivers. At least two pieces of such
equipment are required.
This section of the manual deals with how to use the data processing
component of GPS and how to analyse its results. It also includes
suggestions on how to proceed in case of difficulties with data
processing. It is assumed that the measurements were taken with at
least two high-accuracy receivers: one based on a fixed point and the
other used as the rover. Although in the GPS terminology the
discussed methods are often referred to as data processing or post-
processing, we discuss them here in this chapter, since from the GIS
point of view the GPS is an input device.
It is always the best to select one reference point as the starting point
and then compute the network out from this point in a logical manner
(Figure 5.1). The basic procedure is:
163
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1. GPS points. The ‘Reference’ point is the starting point for
the computation (Leica, 1996)
The steps are discussed on a general level. Every GPS equipment has
its own processing software, but all of them are able to provide tools to
follow the below-described methods.
164
Data pre-processing
If you have the possibility to process using two reference stations (i.e.
to measure with three receivers), you should first process the line from
the initial reference station (the one with good WGS 84 co-ordinates)
to the secondary reference station. Store the results to fix the secondary
reference station. Then select the rover stations and compute the
baselines using both the initial reference station and the secondary
reference station. Build up the network in this way.
165
Chapter 5
Figure 5.4. Point 4 is used as a reference point for Points 8–11. The
location of Point 8 has been already measured earlier using Point 2 as
a reference so this second measurement serves as a check (Leica,
1996)
166
Data pre-processing
In several cases the transformation formulae between the local grid and
the WGS 84 co-ordinates, or their parameters are not known, so a so-
called mathematical transformation has to be used. The mathematical
approach creates transformation parameters based on an affine
transformation model that uses a collocation approach to estimate the
systematic part of the noise. Basically this means that the WGS 84 co-
ordinates measured by the GPS are squeezed or stretched to fit the
local grid. The local grid is constructed using the local grid co-
ordinates of known tie points.
Position and height are treated separately and as such are independent
of each other. This means that the measured position points do not
necessarily have to be the same points for which height is known and
that errors in local height measurement will not be propagated into the
position transformation component.
The mathematical approach has certain advantages over a traditional
3D Helmert (classical) approach in that parameters can be calculated
without knowledge of the map projection or local ellipsoid.
Additionally, heights and position are transformed independently of
each other. Thus the following advantages occur:
Inaccurate local heights will not degrade the position
transformation.
The local co-ordinates do not have to contain the height
information. The height information may be obtained from
different points.
The mathematical approach will tend to distort the results of the GPS
measurements to fit the existing local grid measurements. This may be
an advantage or disadvantage as the GPS co-ordinates are generally
found to be of higher accuracy than the existing grid co-ordinates. This
means that the accuracy of the GPS co-ordinates may be slightly
compromised when using this method.
Since the transformation parameters between the local grid of the
Rujigou Coalfied and the WGS 84 co-ordinate system were not known,
the seven-parameter mathematical transformation was used for fitting
the GPS measurements into the local grid:
167
Chapter 5
X x ' x0
Y R
, ,
y ' y
0
(5.1)
Z z ' z 0
where
Five tie points were measured during the fieldwork in 1997 in the
Rujigou coalfield. The parameters of the transformation were
calculated from them using the least squares method. The results of the
calculation for the Rujigou area are shown in Table 5.1. The achieved
accuracy is about 7 centimetres. Note that the parameters calculated
from Table 5.1 can be used only locally, within a neighbourhood of
maximum-10–15km.
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Data pre-processing
Figure 5.5. Concept of image registration. The image data at each unit
cell are in superposition and geometric congruence
Multispectral images taken from the same sensor and platform can be
registered to each other comparatively easily. The problem arises when
the images to be registered are from different sensors, platforms,
altitudes or look directions. In such cases, distortions, variations in
scale, and the effects of geometry, parallax, shadow, platform
instability etc. lead to mismatch.
169
Chapter 5
where X’ and Y’ are the co-ordinates in the new system, and x, y those
in the old system. There are eight unknown constants (a0, a1, a2, a3, b0,
b1, b2, b3). These can be computed by using four control points.
Four control points, however, may not be sufficient for a large image.
In such a case a net of quadrilaterals is drawn using several control
points over the entire scene, and a transformation equation for each
quadrilateral is computed.
170
Data pre-processing
In our study, both absolute and relative registration was performed. For
the absolute registration, the 1:5000 topographic maps of the area
served as the base map. The topographic maps with a contour interval
of two meters were manually digitised (Figure 5.9). The important
roads, railway lines and streams were also digitised to facilitate the
selection of ground control points (GCPs).
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172
Data pre-processing
a) b)
Figure 5.10. (a) Landsat TM false colour composite image of 28th May
1995 for the Ningxia area; (b) the same image after registration to the
base map (absolute registration)
For the study of the coalfires, we also used the night-time thermal
images from Landsat TM band 6 (c.f. Chapter 3 – Table 3.1). These
images are acquired during the ascending pass of the Landsat satellite,
which is around 10.00 p.m. for the Ningxia area. At this hour, only the
TM band 6 operating in the thermal infrared wavelengths acquires
data. These contain mostly the emitted radiation from the surface and
have a negligible reflection component. Therefore, these data give a
very different visual impression compared to data acquired in the
daytime in the visible and short wavelength ranges.
The thermal data have a coarse spatial resolution of 120 meters as well
as a different geometry, which makes it difficult to register them
directly to the base map (5-meter spatial resolution in the digital form).
To handle these images, a two-step registration, or a double
transformation method, is adopted.
In the two-step method, first a relative registration was performed
where the night-time Landsat TM band 6 image was registered to the
daytime Landsat TM image of 28th May 1995, which serves as the
master image, again taking care to reach subpixel accuracy. The
registered night-time image, which now has the geometry of the 1995
daytime TM image, serves as an intermediate product, which is again
subjected to an absolute registration to the base map, using the
parameters of transformation that have already been established. The
disadvantage of this double transformation is that the errors from the
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Chapter 5
first step are propagated to the next step and the overall accuracy of the
transformation is decreased. However, as it is practically impossible to
directly select comparable control points on the night-time image and
the digitised base map with sufficient confidence, this two-step
approach is the best operational alternative.
174
Data pre-processing
175
Chapter 5
176
Data pre-processing
For these three surface types the following input data were determined
by careful estimation on the basis of earlier experience and literature.
Table 5.2. Input data for three surface types east of the Helan
dry sand dry irrigated wet irrigated
dunes
Aerodynamic roughness 0.001 0.001 0.001
Emissivity 0.85 0.95 0.95
Albedo 0.4 0.1 0.1
Thermal inertia 500 1500 25000
Evaporation resistance 12800 0 0
The following additional input data were used, which more or less
approximate the conditions prevailing during the LANDSAT data
capture on ?? September 1997. It is noted here, that the precise choice
of the air and ground temperature has very little influence on the
surface temperature contrasts
177
Chapter 5
40
30
20 sand dunes
dry irrigated
10 wet irrigated
-10
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time (hrs)
178
Data pre-processing
30
20
10
sand-dry irr.
0 sand-wet irr.
-10
-20
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
time (hrs)
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Chapter 5
Fortunately, we did not face the problem of line dropouts with any of
our data sets acquired so far for the Ningxia area.
Line striping is far more common than line dropouts are. Line striping
often occurs due to non-identical detector response. Although the
detectors for all satellite sensors are carefully calibrated and matched
before the launch of the satellite, with time the response of some
detectors may drift to higher or lower levels. As a result, every scan
line recorded by that detector is brighter or darker than the other lines.
It is important to realise that valid data are present in the defective
lines, but these must be corrected to match the overall scene.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.15 (a). Raw night-time TM band 6 image of 18th December
1989 showing pronounced striping. (b) The same image after running
a destriping program. The improvement in the appearance of the
images is clearly visible
180
Data pre-processing
This defect can be corrected for by several procedures, such as the use
of the method of look-up tables, on-board calibration methods or by
statistical histogram matching. However, only statistical histogram
matching is discussed here, as this was the technique adopted to
correct the data of the study area. Separate histograms corresponding
to each detector unit are constructed and matched. Taking one response
as standard, the gain (rate of increase of DN) and offset (relative shift
of mean) for all other detector units are suitably adjusted and new DN
values computed and assigned. This yields a destriped image where all
DN values conform to the reference level and scale.
Figure 5.15 (a) shows a striped image of the study area and 5.15 (b)
shows the same after running a destriping operation.
The periodic line dropouts and striping are forms of non-random noise
that may be recognised and restored by simple means. Random noise,
on the other hand, requires a more sophisticated restoration method
such as digital filtering.
181
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182
Processing of data
Chapter 6
6 Processing of data
Processing of data includes application of various Digital Image
Processing (DIP) functions and geographic information system (GIS)
functions to the extraction of features of interest from digital data.
Most image data require dedicated image processing strategies to
enhance features of interest (for details on DIP and DIP for geologic
applications, see Hord, 1980; Moik, 1980; Siegel and Gillespie, 1980;
Richards et al., 1982; Jensen 1986; Drury, 1987; Mather, 1987; Gupta,
1991; Sabins, 1996). Processing alters the appearance of an image in
such a way that information content in the image is more readily
interpreted in terms of the particular need. Some image processing
tools and techniques that have been used at various stages are briefly
discussed.
The statistical study of remote sensing data is the primary step after
data extraction and pre-processing. The first visual inspection of the
image and a study of the image statistics give a fair idea of what
further image processing techniques should be applied to obtain
maximum information from the image. Nearly all image processing
software packages have programs/tools for calculating standard
statistical parameters for an image, such as the minimum and
maximum DN values, the mean and standard deviation of the DNs, and
also for plotting histograms of the digital values against their
frequency of occurrence. These parameters may be computed for the
entire image or any selected subset of it.
In this study, the statistical parameters were used for the following
purposes:
to serve as a guide for atmospheric corrections
to serve as a guide for setting threshold boundaries
to serve as a guide for data enhancement
to identify subsurface fire areas from thermal images
to identify surface fires from short wave infrared images
to serve as a guide for data normalisation for the comparison of
images from different dates and sensors
Figure 6.1 shows an image of the Ningxia area and the statistical
parameters as calculated using ILWIS.
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Chapter 6
No of rows: 476
No of columns: 300
Minimum: 23
Maximum: 115
Mean: 71.53
Median: 72
Predominant: 73 (4470 pixels)
4000
Number of pixels
3000
2000
1000
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Image value (DN value)
Figure 6.1. Landsat TM band 4 image of the Ningxia area for 28th
May 1995 with the relevant statistical parameters and histogram of the
same image
184
Processing of data
(a)
4000 4000
Number of pixels
Number of pixels
3000 3000
2000 2000
1000 1000
0 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Image value (DN value) Image value (DN value)
(c) (d)
Figure 6.2. Effect of linear contrast stretching (a) Unstretched TM
band 4 image of 28 May 1995; (b) Image (a) linearly stretched to
occupy the full dynamic range of 256 grey values; (c) histogram of
unstretched image (a); (d) histogram of stretched image (b).
The linear contrast stretch greatly improves the contrast of most of the
original brightness values, but there is a loss of contrast at the extreme
high and low ends of the DN values. If the features of interest lie
within these extreme digital values, they can be selectively stretched at
the expense of the remaining DN values. Different limits may be
optimum and can be determined by inspection of the original
histograms.
185
Chapter 6
4000
Number of pixels
3000
2000
1000
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Image value (DN value)
186
Processing of data
187
Chapter 6
then the overall pattern becomes more clearly apparent and the general
trends in the data can be easily studied.
188
Processing of data
Black Red R
(0,0,0) (1,0,0)
For the transformation from RGB to IHS and conversely from IHS to
RGB, several algorithms are available (http://www.mhri.edu.au/~pdb/
colour/ conversion.html). The reference manuals of image processing
software packages also describe the conversion algorithms used in
their particular cases. The algorithm given by Edwards and Davis
(1994) is discussed here. Blue has been chosen as the reference point
for the IHS coordinate system. The following equations relate a pixel’s
RGB DNs to IHS values in cylindrical coordinates along the
achromatic axis:
I = (DNR + DNG + DNB )
189
Chapter 6
(DN G - DN R ) 3
H = tan-1
(2 DN B - DN G - DN R )
1
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
S = DN B DN G DN R
3 3 3
I S 6 cos (H )
B = +
3 3
Hue changes
Intensity (I)
Image III
G Saturation changes
)
(H C
ue
I
H
e
ag
Im
I TE
WH Intensity changes
(S)
on I
B
rati I
Satu age
Im
R
M
(a) (b)
Figure 6.5. (a) The HIS-colour model. The colour space is conceived
as a cylinder where hue (H) is represented by the polar angle,
saturation (S) by the radius and intensity (I) by the vertical distance on
the cylinder axis. (b) Bars representing the visual effect of independent
changes in hue, saturation and intensity. Hue is represented for full
saturation and intensity; saturation is shown for the pure blue colour,
and intensity for the vertical cylinder axis (grey scale)
190
Processing of data
a) b)
Figure 6.6 (a) A false colour composite of the Ningxia area with TM
band 7, TM band 5 and TM band 3 coded in red, green and blue,
respectively; (b) the same FCC’s after an IHS transformation
Figure 6.6 (a) shows an RGB composite of the Ningxia area. Figure
6.6 (b) shows the same image after an IHS transformation. As is clear
from this figure, the HIS-transformed images contain more colour
information as compared to the normal false colour composites. The
colours that result after an IHS transformation has been performed may
not always be very meaningful for a particular application and may not
always be simple to interpret. The chief advantage of the IHS
transformation is in data fusion, where images of different spatial and
spectral resolution are combined. In such cases, the hue and saturation
are taken from the multispectral images of lower spatial resolution, and
a higher-resolution panchromatic image is taken from an intensity
image. The HIS-fused product then has the spatial resolution of the
higher-resolution image, while still preserving the spectral
characteristics of the multispectral images.
Principal Component (PC) Transform or Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) is a very powerful technique for the analysis of
correlated multidimensional data (Davis, 1986; Chavez and Kwarteng,
1989). In most cases, a high reflectance in one waveband is matched
by similarly high reflectance in the others. In such cases, there is a
high degree of redundancy among the data. The transformation of the
raw remote sensing data using PCA can result in new principal
component images that are often more interpretable than the original
191
Chapter 6
data (Jensen, 1986). The PCA builds up a new set of axes which are
orthogonal to each other, i.e. non-correlated (Figure 6.7). The entire
data set can be represented in terms of these new axes.
t
rs
Fi
Principal Component Axes
Se
co
nd
DNb
DNa
192
Processing of data
Figure 6.8. A false colour composite of the image of the Ningxia area
generated using the three principal components PC1, PC2 and PC3 in
red, green and blue, respectively
193
Chapter 6
The spectral properties of the rocks in the Rujigou may change due to
baking by the coal fires. The influence of burning in the visual
spectrum is clear: the rock turns red to yellowish. This change can also
be detected by spectroradiometer. Metamorphic rock of that has
changed due to heating by coal fires is sometimes referred to as
micrite. Micrite can have different degrees of metamorphism
depending on the duration and degree of heating of the rock.
The primary goal of the spectral investigation was to find the most
suitable spectral satellite bands for classification of rock into burnt and
not burnt. In addition, it was investigated whether classification into
different lithologies and/or degrees of thermal metamorphism might be
feasible.
The spectral data were derived from the Landsat satellite and made by
spectroradiometer. The spectral information was combined with the
ground truth from geological maps and field surveys. The investigation
of possible methods for an ‘object classification of rock’ was done by
band ratioing (sub-section 6.3.2 'Description and analyses of typical
spectra measured') and by supervised and un-supervised classification
(sub-sections 6.3.3 'Analysis of Landsat data' and 7.1.2 'Classification
using Landsat data').
Areas where coal fires may be apparent can be linked to some features
that can be detected by spectral examination:
the occurrence of coal
the occurrence of rock associated with coal
the occurrence of micrite (baked rock)
194
Processing of data
195
Chapter 6
Sandstone sequences
Sandstone reflectances
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00 (5)not burnt sandstone
(4)
50.00
(3)
40.00
(2)
30.00
(1) burnt sandstone
20.00
10.00
0.00
350 1350 2350
wavelength [nm]
196
Processing of data
Shale samples
The spectra measured on shale showed a more clear relation with the
degree of burning.
shale reflectances
40.00
35.00
30.00
reflectance [%]
15.00 (7)
5.00
0.00
350 850 1350 1850 2350
w avelength [nm ]
197
Chapter 6
Hot sandstone
50.00
40.00
reflectance (%)
30.00
Hot sandstone
20.00
10.00
0.00
350.0 850.0 1350.0 1850.0 2350.0
w avelength [nm ]
This was already proven for the Xi'an coal fires (van Genderen Haiyan,
1997). In the Rujigou area the fires are less prominent, this
characteristic was not found. In the future high resolution satellites
may provide more useful data.
From the spectral data gathered with the GER spectroradiometer, it can
be concluded that the following classes can probably be recognised on
basis of Landsat spectral data:
1. The main lithologies, sandstone, banded sandstone/shale and
coal.
2. The degree of burning of the sandstone.
198
Processing of data
The shale in the Rujigou area occurs only in relatively thin layers that
alternate with the sandstone beds. The spectral properties of shale
cannot directly be examined using Landsat data because the thickness
of the individual shale layers is far less than the resolution of the
Landsat data. The degree of weathering could not be incorporated,
either for reasons of scale or because of the absence of ground truth.
The Landsat data cover six bands within the 400 – 2500 nm range.
Within the GIS, areas of interest were indicated. The spectral
information was taken from the corresponding parts of the Landsat
images. The values of the images were then imported to a spreadsheet
(MSExcel) for examination. All possible combinations of two spectral
bands were then plotted against each other: i.e., band 1 versus band 2,
1 versus 3, 1 versus 4, 1 versus 5, 1 versus 7, 2 versus 3, 2 versus 4
etc., amounting to 15 plots also referred to as feature spaces.
The best separation of 'burnt' and 'not burnt' point clouds was found in
the feature space of Landsat band 4 versus band 1. This is shown in
Figure 6.12. The graphs for burnt and not burnt of the same lithology
were combined in different colours to evaluate whether any
characteristic spectral behaviour is suitable for classification. No such
features could be detected for most combinations. In Figure 6.12 the
blue dots represent the normally occurring sandstone; red is the micrite
variety. The fact that sandstone gives the best result, complies with the
spectral research in the previous section. Already here we can see the
large overlap between the two classes.
199
Chapter 6
Plotting the root mean square lines for the two areas, we get the graph
of Figure 6.15.
200
Processing of data
The above was the best example of all 'two-band' combinations of the
lithological classes examined. Testing the algorithms was done using
ILWIS (see section 6.3).
Band 4 = a * Band1+ b
This means the 'response in band 4' equals 'a' times the 'response in
band 1' plus a certain constant 'b'. The number r2 indicates the quality
of the linearisation, the linearisation is better if r2 becomes more close
to 1.
Tables 6.1 and 6.2 present the first order linearisations for fresh and
burnt rock for sandstone respectively banded sandstone/shale.
201
Chapter 6
From the tables above it was concluded that the sandstone would give
the best result for a classification by band ratioing.
The best separation of burnt and not burnt rock classes, using Landsat
5 data, is possible in the case of sandstone. It will be more difficult for
the other types of rock to be classified according to their degree of
burning. The classification can best be based on band 1 versus band 4.
This is supported by the measured field spectra, as well as by the
analysis of the Landsat data described in subsection 7.1.2.
Image and data fusion, here referred to in a general way as data fusion,
is an established technique for the combination of data sets from
different sources. The fusion of two images, for example, can provide
information which cannot be obtained when the images are processed
individually.
202
Processing of data
The techniques used for image and data fusion can be categorised into
three different levels depending on the stage at which the data sets are
fused:
1. pixel-based fusion
2. feature-based fusion
3. decision-based fusion
The first step in all the fusion methods is the pre-processing of the data
to ensure that no radiometric errors occur on the images, that they are
co-registered and also properly enhanced. The subsequent steps differ
according to the level of fusion. Figures 6.16, 6.17 and 6.18 show the
sequence of processing and the stage at which the actual fusion is
performed for pixel- feature- and decision-based fusion, respectively.
After fusion, the result may be further enhanced using, in part, the
same techniques as in the pre-processing.
203
Chapter 6
Final map
Figure 6.16. The sequence of processing and the stage at which the
actual fusion is performed in pixel-based fusion
204
Processing of data
Final map
Figure 6.18. The sequence of processing and the stage at which the
actual fusion is performed in feature-based fusion
205
Chapter 6
Final map
Figure 6.19. The sequence of processing and the stage at which the
actual fusion is performed in decision-based fusion
In this study, image fusion was used at several stages for different
purposes. For example, optical images were combined with thermal
images to produce maps of fire location (discussion and results
presented in Section 7.1). In another classical example, images from
optical, thermal and microwave regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum were combined so that an integrated study of the subsidence
and its relation to the coalfire areas in the Rujigou coalfield could be
carried out. This is discussed in detail in section 7.8.
206
Inventory techniques
Chapter 7
7 Inventory techniques
In this chapter, various inventory techniques are discussed. The
inventories are all dedicated to the evaluation of coal fires and are
grouped on basis of their four data-gathering levels.
207
Chapter 7
After this pre-processing, the data can be evaluated with respect to the
presence of coal fires.
The threshold clearly shows the 'hot areas'. Many of these 'hot areas'
exist due to normal heating by the sun. Consequently, many of the
areas indicated are false alarms (i.e. all those outlined in the lower
right-hand corner). The result is unacceptable for fire indication; this
method either introduces an overload of false alarms or misses the
majority of fires.
Figure 7.1. The results of using two different thresholds. Left: satellite
image (1995); centre: hot areas detected by a threshold of 74; right:
those detected using a threshold of 75
The example in figure 7.3 has shown that coal fires cannot be
classified as such using a over all threshold, to try and produce a better
result, a further refinement to the above method was applied.
208
Inventory techniques
1 Gradient evaluation
The thermal gradient should be high. The thermal gradient can be
determined by calculating the first derivative of a number of
adjacent pixel values in the image. It can be considered relatively
high if it greater than a certain value. This value has to be
determined by trial-and-error in combination with ground truth.
2 Thresholding
The thermal values should be relatively high. The temperatures
should be above a certain threshold. The threshold should be
determined by evaluation of the histogram of the temperatures in a
small environment around the areas with a high lateral thermal
gradient.
209
Chapter 7
Figure 7.2. Landsat band 6, 1995 (left) and its first derivative in the x-
direction (right)
7.1.1.2 Thresholding
The second step is to check whether or not the areas with a high lateral
temperature gradient indeed contain a fire, and to outline these fires.
The fires can be isolated from the non-fire areas by thresholding. The
threshold can be determined by examination of the histogram of small
areas where high thermal gradients occur. If we were consider such an
area around we would get a histogram similar to that of Figure 7.3.
210
Inventory techniques
level discriminating between 'fire' and 'not fire' is located between the
first and second maximum.
It is assumed that the areas indicated by the high lateral temperature
gradient do indeed contain a fire if the area contains pixels with a high
lateral temperature gradient have a temperature beyond the threshold
temperature. The fire pixels can then be isolated from the non-fire
pixels by application of the threshold. The results are presented in
Figure 7.4. The procedure followed to achieve the fire outlines in this
way is referred to as gradient thresholding.
Figure 7.4. Results of the two different methods of fire detection. Left:
1989 Landsat thermal image; centre: fires detected by an 'over all
threshold'; right: those detected by the 'gradient threshold' method
On the left, we see the original satellite data used as the input. In the
middle image, the fires indicated were detected by thresholding over
the whole image with one threshold level. The image on the right
displays fires as outlined by thresholds that were based on small
windows around the areas with high lateral temperature gradients. The
colours in the image denote the magnitude of the anomaly for the
specific pixels. The magnitude is obtained by subtracting the local
background value from the thermal value of the pixels. Again, note the
overestimation of the number and size of the fire areas in the centre
image compared to the image on the right.
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Chapter 7
The change in the colour of the rock is clear from field examination.
Due to the rise in temperature, the rock changes appearance and
acquires its typical yellowish-to-reddish colour. This change is
maintained after the rock has cooled, see Figure 6.10.
212
Inventory techniques
213
Chapter 7
214
Inventory techniques
215
Chapter 7
216
Inventory techniques
applicable using data with the spectral and spatial resolution currently
available. In the near future, Landsat 7 will start to operate. Due to the
higher resolution of this system, it is expected that the classification
results can be improved.
In a similar way to the use of thermal satellite data, one can use
airborne thermal scanning data for the examination of coal fires.
Airborne measurements in the thermal infrared can be converted to
temperatures if the settings of the blackbodies are known. Because of
the influence of the atmosphere, an ‘atmospheric correction’ might be
needed (see section 5.3, 'Atmospheric correction'); however, due to the
relatively small distance between the sensor and the ground surface,
this may be neglected. The methods and procedures for the
examination of thermal airborne and thermal satellite data are very
similar; therefore, reference is made to subsection 7.1.1. The advantage
of airborne over satellite data are the higher resolution and the
possibility of choosing the blackbody settings. Disadvantages can
include the time needed for surveying a coal fire area, the large amount
of data, and the amount of pre-processing that has to be done. Due to
changes in weather, the thermal images from different times may not
be directly comparable.
The software that was developed for the evaluation of satellite data can
also be used for the airborne data – see sections 7.1.1, 'Inventory of
thermal anomalies of Landsat data' and 8.1 'Determination of coal fire
extension'. In the latter section, some results of the airborne data
inventory are included.
217
Chapter 7
Fires may be detected, and their size may be estimated, on the basis of
the thermal anomaly that occurs due to the heating by the coal fire. The
following data sources are discussed here: a portable thermal scanner
(inframetrics), a pointing thermometer and a contact thermometer.
218
Inventory techniques
In the image, the rough outlines of hot areas can be detected. The
image was made a few hours after sunrise. Using the standard
software, thermal profiles were made along the indicated line (see
Figure 7.11).
45
40
35
30
15.ooh
25
18.00h
20 7.10h
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance (pixels)
219
Chapter 7
220
Inventory techniques
Borehole date can directly show the state of combustion of the coal
seam in which the hole was drilled. By combining all the available
borehole data with other detection methods, fire-fighting workers can
recognise the state of the whole fire area and guide the fire-fighting
work.
To study the spatial distribution of the temperature in the coal fire area,
the local fire-fighting workers attempted to set up a mathematical
model; they were not successful. In this project, we will use four-level
data to solve this technical problem and others. The analysis and use of
borehole data is basic work.
The area where the reference value is larger than the value
corresponding to T > To + 10 C may be considered a fire area. The
standard values may be changed as these are chosen subjectively.
221
Chapter 7
222
Inventory techniques
images too, only stereo investigation can help to identify their relation
to the topography.
Naner
Hongliang
Nansi
0 2500 m
Dafeng
Scale
LEGEND
Shangsan Shangyi
Xinsheng
Subsidence, clear main cracks/
displacement and subsidence block
Subsidence, clear cracks, clear
Xigou displacement locally
Shuixiang
Crack affected area
Gulaben Ruqigou
Extinct coal fires
Figure 7.12. Overlay map of the main areas of subsidence and coal
fires in the study area
Figure 7.13. Stereopair of the Yinpo coal fire area. Areas of slight
subsidence can be recognised by stereo viewing along the burnt rocks
indicating the coal fire
223
Chapter 7
224
Integrated analysis
Chapter 8
8 Integrated analysis
The fires can be located on the night time imagery basis of their
specific thermal anomalous expression in contrast to their
surroundings. The anomalous temperatures are typically only a few
degrees Kelvin above normal. Even in the night time data temperature
differences of this magnitude may also occur frequently due to solar
heating. An over-all threshold and background temperature for the
Rujigou area can therefor not be applied for a qualitative and
quantitative evaluation. The problem is solved by:
225
Chapter 8
equalisation: the standard deviation and the modal image value were
made equal to those of a chosen standard image.
Figure 8.1 shows the original image. From this thermal image, a first
derivative was calculated as shown in Figure 8.2.
Note that the fire areas show up clearly show as areas of relatively
high gradient. Where the values of the first derivative were above a
certain threshold, these were assumed to exist due to the presence of
coal fires. These areas are coloured red in the thermal image.
226
Integrated analysis
The pixels red in both Figure 8.3 and 8.4 have been classified as
'likely' coal fire areas. Around these local area windows were defined
as shown in figure 8.5.
The next step is to determine the threshold and background for each
local area window. This is done by examining the histogram of the
area outlined in purple. The histogram of this area is shown in Figure
8.6 below.
Figure 8.6. Histogram of the possible fire area outlined in Figure 8.4.
227
Chapter 8
228
Integrated analysis
A direct indication for the magnitude of the fire is the estimated coal
loss. The relation between the coal loss and the total heat exchange at
the surface above a subsurface fire was discussed in subsection 2.5.2.6.
To be able to calculate the total heat exchange of a fire from a thermal
image, we need to know the anomaly for all pixels within a fire area.
This can be done by subtracting the local background temperature
from the temperature of each coal fire pixel. The sum of all the
individual anomalies classified as being part of one fire is a measure of
the total heat exchanged. The total heat exchange is then related to the
coal loss.
The following two-step procedure is carried out:
1. all anomalies for the cluster in the local area are summarised
2. the total anomaly is converted to coal loss
Figures 8.9. 1997 Airborne thermal night data of 1997, Beishan area.
Outline and coal loss estimate right, depth estimate left.
229
Chapter 8
The results comply with that what qualitatively was known from the
coal fires. Therefore, the results could only be expressed in relative
terms as 'deep' or 'shallow', indicated respectively by yellow and red.
Note the bright yellow area at the upper left indicating a shallow fire;
this is the thermal anomaly caused by the burning tailings loaded out
of the subsurface fires at Beisan.
Figure 8.10. Time series of Landsat TM band 6 data for 1989, 1995
and 1997 (left to right)
From the coal loss estimates made using the images, it can be
concluded that after a decrease in 1989, the fires have increased
seriously in the period 1995 – 1997. In the 1997 image, however, it is
estimated that at least 40 percent of the estimated coal loss is related to
the tailing fire anomalies. This still implies an estimated coal loss for
the in situ fires of about 150 x 103 m3/yr.
230
Integrated analysis
SURFACE [km2]
400000
1.5
300000
1
200000
Burning rate
0.5 [m3coal/yr]
100000
Fire intensity
[(m3/yr)/km2]
Surface [km2]
0 0
1989 1995 1997
YEAR
Figure 8.11 Time series of Landsat TM band 6 data for 1989, 1995
and 1997
The time series relate to the history of coal fire-fighting in the Rujigou
area. Fire-fighting started in 1989; in 1994 the fire-fighting was
reduced to a minimum until, in 1997, the fighting work restarted. The
consequences for the coal losses can be recognised easily in the image.
The estimate of coal loss as caused by the tailing fires in the 1997
image was determined using the interactive software, as this allows
examination of local thermal phenomena.
Summarising the integrated coal fire analysis, the following Coal Fire
evaluation procedure was developed for the remote sensed thermal
imagery obtained by Landsat or airborne survey:
1) The thermal values of the image are normalised to a certain
standard image by means of histogram equalisation.
2) Pixels that show a lateral thermal gradient above a certain level are
marked as possible fires.
3) The pixels that are above a certain temperature are marked as
possible fires.
4) The 'possible' fire areas classified as such using conditions 1) and
2) are classified as 'likely' fire areas.
5) A frame is drawn around the 'likely' fire area and the local
threshold and background level are determined.
6) The cluster of adjacent pixels with digital numbers above the local
threshold is classified as the fire area.
7) The thermal anomaly for each pixel is calculated and summarised
for the whole fire area.
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Other methods for the estimation of coal loss may become available;
however, research still has to be done on this. It may, for example, be
possible to relate the amount of subsidence to the volume of coal burnt
etc. So far, however, these methods have not proven to give a reliable
or even useful result.
Since the coal fire hazard analysis and subsequent risk evaluation
should be implemented as a tool in the coal fire monitoring system, the
applied GIS methodology is similar to the one described in the ILWIS
manual. In this methodology, the procedure is subdivided into three
basic steps:
1. Identification and analysis of the hazard(s) resulting in a qualitative
hazard map of the area. The hazard is defined as the probability of
occurrence of a potentially damaging phenomenon. For the
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Integrated analysis
The coal fire hazard analysis of the Rujigou area has a two-fold
purpose:
1. Classification of the existing coal fires in terms of risk. The
outcome of the risk analysis can be a useful tool in the fire-fighting
decision making (which coal fire should be extinguished first)
2. Identification of areas with the highest risk of new coal fires
starting. Basically, this implies the incorporation of one additional
step in the GIS methodology. The outcome of this procedure will
be a ‘susceptibility map’. This map combines factors promoting the
initiation of new coal fires, such as mining activity, the exposure of
(fresh) coal at outcrops, and the susceptibility of the coal to
spontaneous combustion as measured in the laboratory by means of
an oxidation test or by means of the determination of the activation
energy. The results of this procedure will be a component in the
set-up of a prevention plan.
Vulnerability
Risk
The quality and quantity of the input data determine the reliability of
the risk analysis that will be implemented in the monitoring system.
Since for some of the elements (e.g., coal seam depths, exhaust gases),
the database is in a very early stage of development, conclusions
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and/or decisions on made the basis of the risk analysis should be made
with caution. However, the monitoring system is designed in such a
way that new data or interpretations allow end-users to carry out a new
risk assessment, communicating through a user-friendly interface.
Knowledge of (coal fire) hazards and vulnerable areas of the Rujigou
area is an important requirement for effective fire fighting and
prevention.
The coal fires in the Rujigou coalfield induce several side effects, that
have a negative impact on the population, economy and infrastructure
of the area. It is, therefore, important to estimate the magnitude of
these effects. A coal fire can be considered to be a multiple hazard,
causing land subsidence, economic loss, water pollution and the
emission of noxious fumes and particulates. Due to the lack of
sufficiently detailed data or actual measurements of these different
hazards, the description of the factors will be more theoretical or will
consider worst-case scenarios.
By combining the various hazard areas into one general Rujigou coal
fire hazard map and applying information such as the road
infrastructure, housing density and the location of critical facilities, the
specific vulnerabilities to these hazards can be assessed.
Since the hazard and risk analysis will be an integral part of the
prevention plan no detailed discussion on the procedure and the results
will be given here.
8.2.2 Vulnerability
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8.2.3 Susceptibility
The keys for coal fire fighting will form the basis for the improvements
of coal fire-fighting. These are derived from the research done in the
first phase of the Ningxia coal fire project, from the existing coal fire-
fighting plan made by the Ningxia Fire-Fighting Department and from
the communications with the coal-fire department and the project
partners.
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Once the required input data has become available, the factors
mentioned earlier can be determined relatively fast by using CoalMan.
Changes of these factors, indicated by the system, may therefor have a
direct impact on the fire-fighting planning.
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Integrated analysis
The tools developed in the first phase of the project for detection,
outlining and evaluation of coal fires using airborne and satellite
thermal imagery, can be of use for coal fire fighting. The following
issues can be of interest:
early detection of new fires
monitoring of coal fire fighting results
reduction of bore holes made for the evaluation of coal fire results
development of applications for handheld thermography
The air flow rate is a complex factor because air both provides oxygen
for oxidation of the coal and dissipates the heat generated by the
oxidation. A very high flow rate provides almost unlimited oxygen, but
dissipates heat efficiently. A low flow rate restricts the amount of
oxygen available, but allows heat generated to remain in the coal. In
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8.4.4 Temperature
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Integrated analysis
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