Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162

An analysis of professional codes of ethics

in the hospitality industry
Richard Coughlan*
E. Claiborne Robins School of Business, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173, USA

Abstract

There is a growing interest in the effectiveness of codes of ethics in guiding individuals’

behavior in the workplace. Much of the recent attention has centered on improving the codes
of ethics of individual corporations, including hotel firms. Few analyses have been done
focusing on the codes put forth by professional associations, which are often responsible for
maintaining professionalism and integrity among their members. Given the decreasing loyalty
of employees toward individual firms and the increase in loyalty toward their professions, an
analysis of professional codes is warranted. An examination of four professional codes from
the hospitality industry raises important issues about the potential impact of including key
ethical values in order to guide members’ actions. # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: Ethical codes; Professional associations; Hotel sales; Meeting planning

1. Introduction

Hotel sales managers and their counterparts in the meeting planning industry
regularly face decisions that include some ethical dimension. Some of these situations
arise in almost any relationship involving salespeople and their clients, while others
are unique to the hospitality industry and occur because of particular contextual
factors (Stevens and Fleckenstein, 1999). In order to address some of the ethical
issues faced by individuals involved in the meeting planning industry, several
professional associations have drafted or modified their own codes of ethics in recent
years (see appendices for examples). These professional codes of ethics are meant to
guide the behavior of associations’ members and to provide them with a visible

*Tel.: +1-804-287-6589; fax: +1-804-289-8878.

E-mail address: rcoughla@richmond.edu (R. Coughlan).

0278-4319/01/$ - see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 2 7 8 - 4 3 1 9 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 4 8 - 7
148 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162

standard to use in making ethical judgments (Tucker et al., 1999). For professionals
in the meetings industry, standards are meant to shape behavior of those involved in
site visits, contract negotiations and other related tasks.
Often, associations’ codes have been designed to enhance the professionalism of
individual members by indicating those behaviors that are prohibited as well as those
that are expected of them. Some codes also include punitive measures, including loss
of membership, for professionals who violate written standards (Frankel, 1989).
Within the hospitality industry, great variation exists among the ethical codes
developed by professional associations whose members engage in meeting planning
activities. As a result, questions remain about the usefulness of certain codes in
promoting professionalism and guiding behavior. By examining the content of four
such codes, we hope to address specific shortcomings and offer suggestions for
improvement.

2. Research on ethical codes

Researchers in business ethics have shown increased interest in the effectiveness of

ethical codes recently, mirroring a shift among managers toward additional ethics
training for employees (Davis and Welton, 1991). One example of the increase in
academic interest is the changing content of the Journal of Business Ethics, where at
least a dozen articles on ethics codes have appeared in the last 12 months, twice the
amount of the previous year. Recent articles have addressed ethical codes for human
resource professionals (Wiley, 2000), bankers (Cowton and Thompson, 2000) and
software engineers (Gotterbarn, 1999), among others (see Schwartz, 2000; Sacconi,
1999). These articles explore standards in the United States, Spain, Ireland, Hong
Kong and elsewhere. Although a number of studies have been published focusing on
corporate codes of ethics (Stevens, 1994; McCabe et al., 1996), little research has
been done on professional codes (Wiley, 2000; Tucker et al., 1999).
A review of the business ethics literature shows that the hospitality industry has
rarely been mentioned explicitly in studies on ethical codes, though Payne and
Dimanche (1996) recently explored ethical codes in the related field of tourism. Their
article spans two broad academic fields, business ethics and tourism research, the
latter of which includes the more narrowly defined hospitality industry. Outside of
the business ethics literature, a great deal of academic inquiry has taken place
regarding ethical codes in tourism, though much of this work focuses specifically on
the issues of ecotourism and sustainable economic development (e.g., Malloy and
Fennell, 1998; Orams, 1995; D’Amore, 1993; Wight, 1993). While this work is both
interesting and enlightening, it has most often explored macro-level issues of strategy
and planning by corporations involved in various aspects of tourism. The focus of
the current analysis is on the individual employee within the hospitality industry who
is looking for guidance in ethical decision-making. Nonetheless, some of what has
been learned in tourism research can be useful.
Hultsman (1995) proposed an ethical framework around the concept of
just tourism, based on the experiential context of the tourist. His framework calls
 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162 149

on those involved in tourism to choose the action ‘‘that is the most virtuous
among a collection of potential choices (p. 561)’’. Though Hultsman does not make
explicit mention of the approach now known as ‘‘virtue ethics’’, the link
is unmistakable. This approach, based on Aristotle’s teachings (Mintz, 1996),
suggests that ethical actions are those which lead toward a more virtuous self.
Clearly, this standard provides one possibility for examining the content of
professional ethics codes.
More recently, Fennell and Malloy (1999) found that tourism operators use a
variety of ethical orientations including relativism, justice and deontology to resolve
dilemmas that arise in their work. If commonality exists between hospitality
professionals and tourism operators, we might expect codes of ethics in the
hospitality industry to include statements related to multiple ethical approaches.
The more specific research on codes of ethics in the hospitality industry provides
additional insight into the prevalence and usefulness of ethical codes by hotel firms.
One recent and relevant study from this field (Stevens, 1997) examined the ethical
codes of more than 40 firms, concluding that ‘‘the hotel industry does not appear to
have ethical codes to the extent found in corporate America (p. 267)’’. Stevens
(1997) conducted a content analysis of the codes of 26 hotel companies and 16
management firms, but her research omitted an important source of ethical codes in
the hospitality industry, professional associations. The inclusion of professional
codes in an analysis of the industry provides a more accurate view of the prevalence
of ethical codes.

3. Professional codes

Based on the evolving relationship between corporations and their employees,

many organizational researchers have described a new ‘‘social contract’’ in which
loyalty to one’s employer has been replaced by loyalty to oneself and to one’s
profession (Carroll and Buchholtz, 2000; Wyatt, 1994; Lancaster, 1994). This trend
seems especially evident in the hospitality industry, where employee turnover is
estimated to range from 51 to 300% annually (Hays, 1999).
One potential result of this changing loyalty is a stronger adherence to
professional codes over corporate codes, a finding that was supported in a recent
study of more than 200 professionals including lawyers and accountants (Higgs-
Kleyn and Kapelianis, 1999). In that study, 83% of respondents indicated that they
would adhere to a professional code over a corporate code when the two were in
conflict and a majority of respondents felt their primary allegiance was to their
profession, not their firm. Cook (1997) and Cava et al. (1995) echo the important
role of professional codes in guiding ethical decision-making. In a similar fashion,
Emanuel (1997) calls professional associations the ‘‘guardians of professional
values’’. In the light of this, it seems important to examine the professional codes of
ethics created by associations in the hospitality sector. The analysis raises several
important issues about the content of the codes and provides a new perspective on
the industry’s ethical standards, as shown below.
150 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162

4. Ethical approaches

Several possibilities exist for examining the content of professional codes. For
example, Kaptein and Wempe (1998) identified 12 dimensions on which to evaluate
an organizational code, including whether its tone is positive or negative, whether it
consists of explicit rules for behavior and whether it is non-binding or compulsory.
Unfortunately, their approach lacks a definitive argument about which of the two
alternatives is preferable for each of the 12 dimensions. The resulting framework
provides no meaningful way of evaluating or improving existing codes.
More recently, Wiley (2000) examined the content of five professional codes in
human resources, using an approach that involved members’ obligations to six
different stakeholder groups. Each code was evaluated according to a framework
suggested by Oz (1992), highlighting members’ commitments to society, employers,
clients, colleagues, the professional organization and the profession. The rationale
for such an approach can be found in stakeholder theory (Evan and Freeman, 1988)
which suggests that in order to fulfill their ethical obligations, managers must
integrate the interests of those individuals or groups who will be affected by their
actions.
Other approaches to analyzing the content of ethical codes are based either on
consequentialism or on deontology (Getz, 1990). The former category, often
described as teleological, centers on the consequences of an act as the basis for
determining its moral appropriateness. Perhaps the best known of these approaches
is utilitarianism, which directs us to seek the greatest good for the greatest number or
to maximize the overall good (DesJardins and McCall, 2000). The latter class of
approaches is not concerned with outcomes. Instead, its focus is on the duties and
obligations of individuals toward others. According to deontologists, an action is
right only if it is done out of duty, and not because of what might be gained from
engaging in that action. Much of the recent work involving deontology has been
influenced by Immanuel Kant, whose categorical imperative insists we act only in
ways that we can imagine everyone else acting (Bowie, 1999).
A third approach to analyzing ethical codes is the previously mentioned virtue
ethics. This character-based approach is based largely on the writings of Aristotle, to
whom moral virtue meant the habit of making right and wise choices. Virtue ethicists
claim that developing this habit involves reflection on whether a given action fits with
a mature and purposeful plan of life. Such a plan ought to involve the development
of virtues including temperance and courage, for example.

5. A framework for analysis

In the analysis that follows, we have chosen to evaluate the degree to which each of
the four professional codes contains references to the four values used by Raiborn and
Payne (1990). The decision to use this framework was adopted after an exploration of
the approaches described above and an examination of previous work involving
content analysis of codes of ethics (Raiborn and Payne, 1990; Tucker et al., 1999;
 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162 151

Wiley, 2000). According to Raiborn and Payne (1990), a code of ethics is most useful
if it is clear, comprehensive and enforceable. It is viewed as thorough if it explicitly
addresses each of four values, which they describe as the basis of individuals’ ethical
behavior. Those values are justice, integrity, competence and utility.

6. Justice

According to Raiborn and Payne (1990), the basic elements of justice include
conscientiousness, impartiality and good faith in dealings with others. Their
definition refers to what Aristotle called universal justice, suggesting that a just
individual is one who always does what is morally right. In the present context, we
more narrowly focus on procedural justice, examining fairness in the means used to
achieve some end. Here, doing right means utilizing just procedures. The concept of
procedural justice has been applied extensively by organizational researchers
(Sheppard et al., 1992).
For hotel sales managers and their counterparts, the value of justice may be most
relevant in contract negotiations, where bargaining in good faith is required. More
broadly, this value insists that individuals refrain from engaging in discriminatory
practices when interacting with colleagues, clients and others.

7. Competence

According to Raiborn and Payne, competent individuals are capable, reliable and
duly qualified. The inclusion of this value in an evaluative framework reflects the
ideal standards of continuous self-improvement and habitual reliability. For
professionals involved with meeting planning, reliability is exemplified in following
through on contractual promises. Competence can be heightened through
participation in continuing education and professional development programs.

8. Utility

A third important value to be included in codes of ethics is utility, defined by

Raiborn and Payne as encompassing efficacy and providing the greatest good for the
greatest number. This call to pursue alternatives that improve the welfare of others
can be traced to utilitarianism. In 1863, John Stuart Mill followed Jeremy Bentham’s
lead in using the principle of utility in a call for social change. According to classical
utilitarianism, the appropriateness of an action is determined by the consequences of
carrying out that action. Unlike the deontological approaches discussed above,
utilitarianism suggests that actions are justified by the end they achieve. Useful and
productive individuals consider the needs of others when choosing between
alternatives and act accordingly. By contributing to societal improvement and using
resources responsibly, professionals illustrate the value of utility.
152 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162

9. Integrity

According to Raiborn and Payne, integrity is exemplified by action based on

moral principles, including but not limited to honesty, sincerity and candor. The
principle of integrity involves action that reflects consistency in values (Hartman and
Bucci, 1999). Covey (1995) suggests that integrity is the offspring of humility and
courage. Principle-based ethical approaches argue that proper actions are those that
lead us toward a more virtuous life. According to Aristotle, moral virtue is the habit
of making right choices.

10. Similarity of alternative approaches

A more recent, alternative approach to assessing ethical codes of professional

business associations (Tucker et al., 1999) identifies seven specific ethical constructs:
integrity, equality, economic efficiency, equivalence, distributive, contributive and
environmental. The authors suggest that their list of ethical constructs is based on a
review of the literature involving codes of ethics. Not surprisingly, the resulting set of
values closely resembles Raiborn and Payne (1990). The primary difference between
the two lists can be found in Tucker et al.’s (1999) inclusion of two constructs called
‘‘economic efficiency’’ and ‘‘environmental’’.
Economic efficiency is described as ‘‘producing the right kind and right amount of
goods and services the consumer wants at the lowest possible costs and within the
legal mores of the community’’. Unfortunately, Tucker et al. (1999) offer no specific
rationale for the inclusion of this value, leaving one to speculate about its underlying
source. The ambiguity of ‘‘lowest possible costs’’ makes such speculation difficult. If
the phrase refers to production costs, Friedman (1970) might be cited. If cost to the
consumer is the focus, a utilitarian argument might support its inclusion. Rather
than settle this argument explicitly, we have opted to use Raiborn and Payne’s (1990)
concept of utility, which suggests that one strive to achieve the greatest good for the
greatest number.
Tucker et al.’s inclusion of a construct related to environmental protection is
understandable in the light of the increasing attention being paid to ecotourism and
sustainable development. We have chosen not to include this value in our list as we
argue that it was already captured by Raiborn and Payne’s (1990) standard of utility.
This standard requires one to ‘‘seek information about the impact of a decision on all
parties’’ and ‘‘to minimize harm’’. A more specific standard should only be necessary
if meeting planners and hotel sales managers regularly made decisions in the
environmental realm. As it currently stands, this is not the case. It therefore seems
inappropriate to judge existing codes with this standard in mind.
Another potential set of values for use in evaluation is offered by Wiley (2000),
who suggests that five general principles define appropriate professional conduct:
integrity, proficiency, legality, loyalty and confidentiality. Again, one finds many
similarities between this list and that of Raiborn and Payne (1990). First, the value of
integrity is included in both lists. Next, Wiley’s dimension of proficiency mirrors
 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162 153

Raiborn and Payne’s value of competence. Also, Wiley talks of legality as Raiborn
and Payne discuss justice. Finally, Wiley’s loyalty component involves ‘‘supporting
the profession and not misusing professional affiliations’’. This definition and her
inclusion of confidentiality as a separate value can be related to Raiborn and Payne’s
call for professionals to act conscientiously and in good faith, under their label of
justice.

11. Professional codes in the hospitality industry

In this section, we examine the presence or absence of each of four values in the
codes of ethics endorsed by four separate associations involved in meeting planning
activities. These codes have been chosen based on two criteria. First, the code must
be relevant to those who are involved in the buying and selling of hotel space for
meetings, conventions and other similar events. Second, these are professional codes
adopted by professional associations rather than corporate or civic codes particular
to a company or country.
To begin, a brief summary of each association’s history and mission is included
and the main aspects of its code are described. A more detailed analysis of each
code’s success in capturing the values of justice, integrity, competence and utility
follows.

11.1. The MPI Principles of Professionalism

Meeting Professionals International (MPI) is the world’s largest association of

meeting planners with more than 17,000 members in 64 countries. The organization’s
membership is made up of corporate meeting planners and suppliers involved in
planning, managing and providing services to the meeting industry. These meeting
planners typically represent individual firms that are searching for a hotel to host
some event. In this role, meeting planners face a number of ethical dilemmas, many
of which can be addressed in a code of ethics.
MPI members are expected to follow the guidelines set forth in the Principles of
Professionalism (see Appendix A). According to the organization’s bylaws, failure to
adhere to these principles may subject a member to disciplinary action by the
organization’s board of directors. MPI has created a concise code that is both easy
to follow and filled with language that emphasizes positive action. The guidelines
are divided into three major categories: maintaining professional integrity, utilizing
professional business practices and respecting diversity. The principles address issues
as varied as confidentiality, conflict of interest and protection of the environment.

11.2. The PCMA Principles of Professional and Ethical Conduct

The Professional Convention Management Association (PCMA) is an interna-

tional association of professionals in the meetings industry, with more than 5000
members worldwide. Its membership consists primarily of association executives and
154 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162

meeting planners from non-profit organizations. Affiliate members of PCMA include

hoteliers, industry suppliers and personnel from convention and visitors bureaus.
PCMA’s Principles of Professional and Ethical Conduct contains six specific
pledges by which members might evaluate their behavior. These pledges include a
reference to continuing education, a major part of PCMA’s mission to ‘‘enhance the
effectiveness of meetings through industry education’’. Other pledges surround good
faith negotiations and the avoidance of conflicts of interest by members.

11.3. ASAE’s Standards of Conduct

The American Society of Association Executives was founded in 1920 and

currently has more than 25,000 members who manage professional, trade and
philanthropic associations (ASAE Annual Report, 1999). One aspect of association
executives’ work involves the planning and carrying out of meetings and
conventions. Often, association executives and their subordinates interact with hotel
sales managers while planning such events, making the association a key player in
the meetings industry.
Part of ASAE’s mission is to enhance the professionalism and competency of
association executives, as noted in the organization’s Standards of Conduct. These
standards, updated in 1999, consist of 13 pledges designed to promote and maintain
the highest standards of personal behavior among members. The pledges identify
both expected and prohibited behavior and address various stakeholders including
colleagues, employers and society. The Standards include very broad guidelines }
‘‘Strive for excellence in all aspects of management’’ } and more specific directives
such as ‘‘Maintain the confidentiality of privileged information.’’

11.4. The HSMAI Code of Ethics

The Hospitality Sales and Marketing Association International (HSMAI) is an

association of sales and marketing professionals in the travel industry, with more
than 5000 members worldwide. Its membership is primarily made up of managers
employed by hotels in sales and marketing roles. These individuals represent hotels
in negotiations with meeting planners, association executives and others looking to
reserve space for meetings and conferences. Throughout these interactions, hotel
sales managers face choices that include some ethical dimension. An understandable
and useful code of ethics can play an important role in shaping appropriate and
acceptable behavior in such instances.
HSMAI provides hospitality executives with professional development opportu-
nities leading to the Certified Hospitality Marketing Executive (CHME) certifica-
tion. HSMAI’s code of ethics consists of five specific pledges (see Appendix C)
designed to ‘‘assure public confidence in the integrity and professional commitment
of those engaged in hotel sales management’’. These promises include references to
truth in advertising and to cooperation with others in the profession.
The combined membership of the four organizations chosen for this analysis
exceeds 50,000. Their codes show many similarities and several significant
 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162 155

Table 1
The presence of four values in associations’ professional codesa

Value PCMA MPI ASAE HSMAI

a
Integrity I, VI 1, 2, 4–6 1, 6, 8, 9, 11 1–3, 5
Justice II, III 9 4, 7, 10, 12 4
Competence IV, V 3, 4, 8 2–5 None
Utility None 7 12, 13 None
a
Numbers in cells refer to statements within a code that pertain to a specific value.

differences. Our primary aim in this section is to examine how the codes of these
organizations deal with the values of justice, integrity, competence and utility. Table 1
provides a summary of the mixed success of the codes in addressing the core values.
A more thorough explanation is provided below.

12. An evaluation of professional codes

The Standards of Conduct of ASAE is the only professional code to include

multiple references to each of the four values. The value of justice is addressed
specifically in Statement 4 (‘‘uphold all laws and regulations’’) and statement 7
(‘‘serve all members impartially’’). Additional references to justice can be found in
item 10, on the topic of non-discrimination and item 12, involving cooperation with
other executives. Integrity is addressed in five separate statements, including those
dealing with confidentiality (#8) and conflicts of interest (#9). Three statements are
relevant to the value of competence, including #5, a general call for excellence in all
aspects of management. Finally, the last statement (#13) addresses utility, focusing
on a member’s duty to enhance the public’s understanding of the role of associations.
Like the ASAE Standards, the Principles of Professionalism of MPI touch on all
four values suggested by Raiborn and Payne. Much of the focus in the MPI code
concerns two values, integrity and competence. For example, five of the nine
principles can be tied to integrity, with specific references to confidentiality (#5),
honesty (#1) and conflicts of interest (#6). Three principles relate to competence: the
third, concerning appropriate behavior in transactions; the fourth, on the topic of
honoring contractual obligations; and the eighth, involving the pursuit of
educational growth. Of the two remaining principles, #7 involves utility through
its call for environmental protection and #9 involves justice in its reference to non-
discriminatory practices.
The third professional code for meeting planners is the PCMA Principles. Though
it lacks any specific reference to the value of utility, it addresses each of the other
values cited by Raiborn and Payne. Its first and last pledges surround integrity, with
specific references in the first item to acting in accordance with the highest ethical
standards and, in the last item, to conflicts of interest. The value of justice is present
in items II and III, which require members to negotiate in good faith and to respect
the policies of organizations with whom they interact. Finally, statements four and
156 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162

five can be tied to the value of competence, with references to continued education
and appropriate behavior.
The three codes reviewed already have been adopted by associations that are made
up of meeting planners. These individuals interact on a regular basis with
representatives from the sales departments of various hotels. The final code to be
reviewed, that of HSMAI, governs the behavior of these hotel representatives. In
examining the relationship between sales manager and meeting planner, it is
important to review the guidelines shaping the behavior of both parties.
The HSMAI Code of Ethics borrows heavily from the ASAE Standards of
Conduct, especially in regard to integrity. For example, HSMAI’s fifth pledge
matches the first pledge in the ASAE code, each requiring high standards of personal
conduct. Similarly, the third pledge in HSMAI’s code is based on the 12th pledge in
the ASAE document, each referring to cooperation with others. A final reference to
integrity can be found in HSMAI’s second pledge, on truth in advertising and in
public statements. Only one reference to justice exists in the HSMAI code. It can be
found in the fourth pledge, which involves activities for social improvement. This
statement reflects a standard of conscientiousness among hotel sales managers.
Finally, it is difficult to classify the first pledge because of ambiguity in the phrase
‘‘sound business practice’’. If this passage is interpreted to mean ethically sound, the
appropriate classification would be integrity. If members strive to be financially
sound, competence would be the correct classification. Because of the ambiguity, the
first pledge has not been classified in Table 1.
Regardless of the classification of the first pledge, the HSMAI code fails to address
the four values to the degree that the other codes do. Its lack of specificity and
thoroughness contrasts dramatically with the codes pertaining to meeting planners.
Though it borrows heavily from the ASAE standards, the HSMAI code does not go
far enough in addressing particular behaviors. The resulting code is neither clear nor
comprehensive.
The weaknesses of the HSMAI code are relevant both to the behavior of the
salesperson and to the way in which he is perceived by others, including meeting
planners. The lack of a strong code of ethics for sales managers might contribute to the
prevailing view about low professionalism among salespeople in general (Butler, 1996).
Pilling and Eroglu (1994) suggest that perceptions of professionalism involve ‘‘the
appropriateness of one’s overall mode of conduct’’. If codes of ethics are designed to
regulate such conduct, they have a direct tie to customers’ perceptions about the
salesperson’s professionalism. In the case of hospitality professionals, great variation
exists between the codes guiding meeting planners and codes guiding salespeople.

13. Conclusion

The MPI Principles of Professionalism and the ASAE Standards of Conduct

provide thorough and useful examples of existing codes of ethics in the hospitality
industry. For MPI, the current code grew out of a recognition that a significant
problem with unethical behavior existed among meeting planners (Donoho, 1997).
 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162 157

The new set of principles addresses each of the four necessary characteristics outlined
earlier: justice, integrity, competence and utility, and is enforced by the organization’s
board of directors (Donoho, 1997). ASAE’s Standards are similarly comprehensive.
Each of the other codes of conduct discussed above lacks at least one of the
necessary values, raising questions about the effectiveness of these codes in guiding
the behavior of members. If one believes that competence and utility are important
factors in a code of ethics, significant revisions must be made to the HSMAI code.
Given the commitment of the organization toward continuing education, evident in
its professional certification program, an entirely new code is probably not needed.
Instead, HSMAI should be urged to incorporate the values of competence and utility
into its existing code and to provide ethical training to members in order to reinforce
these values.
The issue of competence seems especially important as salespeople in the
hospitality industry strive to enhance their credibility and professionalism. While
meaningful certification programs exist for those who sit across the table from hotel
salespeople } association executives and professional meeting planners } such
programs have not been well received by hoteliers. In many other industries,
certification programs have helped to raise standards and to improve the image of
salespeople (Cohen, 1995). Incorporating a certification program into the code of
ethics of the hospitality industry’s professional associations would be a proper step
toward improving existing codes. Further revisions should follow the guidelines
outlined above and must include specific procedures for enforcement.

14. Future research

A number of possibilities exist for improving the ethical behavior of employees in

the hospitality industry. Carroll and Buchholz (2000) list several alternatives that
might be used including ethics training, ethics audits, ethics hotlines and ombuds-
men. While recognizing the value in each of these approaches, the focus of the
present analysis stems from previous findings about the likelihood of associations’
members to adhere to ethical codes (Tucker et al., 1999; Higgs-Kleyn and
Kapelianis, 1999). A recent survey administered to 32 professional associations
across several industries found that 88% of respondents agreed that ‘‘most
association members adhere to the association’s ethical code’’ (Tucker et al.,
1999). In the same survey, 54% of respondents felt that their association’s ethical
code ‘‘needed a major overhaul’’.
In the light of the importance of associations’ ethical codes in governing the
behavior of professionals across business sectors, additional research must be
conducted within the hospitality industry. In order to better understand the specific
ethical issues facing individuals who represent and interact with hotels, additional
studies are needed that explore the relevance and effectiveness of existing
professional codes. In cases where guidelines are vague or enforcement is lacking,
significant changes may be necessary. Hoteliers and meeting planners who long for
158 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162

acceptance as professionals must closely examine the guidelines they have created
and strive to incorporate important ethical values into revised codes.

Appendix A. Meeting Professionals International Principles of Professionalism1

Meeting Professionals International’s (MPI) Principles of Professionalism

provides guidelines recommended for the business behavior of its members that
impacts their perceived character and thus the overall image of MPI. Commitment
to these principles is implicit to membership and is essential to instilling public
confidence, engaging in fair and equitable practices and building professional
relationships with meeting industry colleagues. As members of Meeting Profes-
sionals International, we are responsible for ensuring that the meeting industry is
held in the highest public2 regard throughout the world. Our conduct directly
impacts this result.

Maintaining professional integrity:

(1) Honestly REPRESENT AND ACT within one’s areas of professional
competency and authority without exaggeration, misrepresentation or conceal-
ment.
(2) AVOID actions which are or could be perceived as a conflict of interest or for
individual gain.
(3) OFFER OR ACCEPT only appropriate incentives, goods and services in
business transactions.
Utilizing professional business practices:
(4) HONOR written and oral contracts, striving for clarity and mutual under-
standing through complete, accurate and timely communications, while
respecting legal and contractual rights of others.
(5) ENSURE rights to privacy and protect confidentiality of privileged information
received verbally, in writing or electronically.
(6) REFRAIN from misusing solicited information, proposals or concepts.
(7) COMMIT to the protection of the environment by responsible use of resources
in the production of meetings.
(8) ACTIVELY PURSUE educational growth through training, sharing of
knowledge, expertise and skills, to advance the meeting industry.
Respecting diversity:
(9) EMBRACE AND FOSTER an inclusive business climate of respect for all
peoples regardless of national origin, race, religion, sex, marital status, age,
sexual orientation, physical or mental impairment.

1
Reproduced with permission. Numbers have been added to facilitate analysis.
2
Encompasses oneself, the association, fellow members, meeting attendees, clients and customers,
suppliers and planners, employers and the general public.
 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162 159

Adherence to these Principles of Professionalism signifies professionalism,

competence, fair dealing and high integrity. Failure to abide by these principles
may subject a member to disciplinary action, as set forth in the Bylaws of Meeting
Professionals International.

Appendix B. Professional Convention Management Association Principles

of Professional and Ethical Conduct3

The Professional Convention Management Association represents the highest

levels of professional and ethical behavior in the convention and meetings industry.
The association has adopted these Principles of Professional and Ethical Conduct
and its members use them as standards of honorable behavior by which they may
evaluate their relationships with their organizations, suppliers and colleagues.
As a member of the Professional Convention Management Association, I will:

I. approach all meetings in accordance with the highest ethical standards of

professionalism and personal conduct;
II. negotiate all agreements in good faith, respecting the rights of all parties
involved;
III. respect the policies and regulations of those organizations with whom I deal;
IV. participate and encourage others to participate in continuing education related
to the convention and meetings industry;
V. refrain from activities that will cause damage to or discredit to myself, my
organization, or the convention and meetings industry;
VI. not use my position for personal gain or benefit to the detriment or disadvantage
of my organization, and I will advise all parties, including my organization, of
any circumstances that may have the appearance of a conflict of interest.

Appendix C. American Society of Association Executives Standards of Conduct4

As a member of the American Society of Association Executives, I pledge myself to:

1. maintain the highest standards of personal conduct;

2. actively promote and encourage the highest level of ethics within the industry or
profession my association represents;
3. maintain loyalty to the association that employs me, and pursue its objectives in
ways that are consistent with the public interest;
4. recognize and discharge my responsibility and that of my association to uphold
all laws and regulations relating to my association’s policies and activities;
3
Reproduced with permission.
4
Reproduced with permission.
160 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162

5. strive for excellence in all aspects of management of my association;

6. use only legal and ethical means in all association activities;
7. serve all members of my association impartially, provide no special privilege to
any individual member, and accept no personal compensation from a member,
except with full disclosure and with the knowledge and consent of my
association’s governing board;
8. maintain the confidentiality of privileged information entrusted or known to me
by virtue of my office;
9. refuse to engage in or countenance activities for personal gain at the expense of
my association or its industry or profession;
10. refuse to engage in or countenance discrimination on the basis of race, sex, age,
religion, national origin, sexual orientation or disability;
11. always communicate association internal and external statements in a truthful
and accurate manner by assuring that there is integrity in the data and
information used by my association;
12. cooperate in every reasonable and proper way with other association executives,
and work for the advancement of the profession of association management;
13. use every opportunity to improve public understanding of the role of
associations.

Appendix D. Hospitality Sales and Marketing Association International Code of

Ethics5

As a member of the Hospitality Sales and Marketing Association International,

I pledge myself to:
1. strive to maintain and improve sound business practice;
2. adhere strictly to a policy of truth in advertising and public expression, and issue
no false or misleading statements to clients or to the public;
3. accept my responsibility for cooperating in every reasonable and proper way with
others in my profession and conduct my business in a manner that will bring
credit to the practice of hotel sales management;
4. engage fully in activities for social and civic betterment and accept every
opportunity to use my professional skills to improve my community;
5. maintain high standards of personal conduct.

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5
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 R. Coughlan / Hospitality Management 20 (2001) 147–162 161

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Further reading

Damitio, J.W., Schmidgall, R.S., 1993. Hospitality professionals’ responses to ethical situations. Cornell
Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 34 (4), 40–43.
Fleckenstein, M.P., Huebsch, P., 1999. Ethics in tourism } reality or hallucination. Journal of Business
Ethics 19, 137–142.
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492–503.
Stohs, J.H., Brannick, T., 1999. Codes and conduct: predictors of Irish managers’ ethical reasoning.
Journal of Business Ethics 22, 311–326.

Richard Coughlan is Assistant Professor of Management at the University of

Richmond, where he teaches business ethics and organizational behavior. He holds a
Ph.D. in Management from the University of Arizona and has recently published
research on decision-making and ethics in Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, and Business and Society
Review. Prior to graduate school, he spent more than four years as a sales manager in
the hotel industry in Monterey, California.