Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2018) 25:17100–17108

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1923-4

RESEARCH ARTICLE

X-ray fluorescence spectrometry characteristics of oily waste

water from steel processing and an evaluation of its impact
on the environment
Sefa Pekol 1

Received: 14 November 2016 / Accepted: 2 April 2018 / Published online: 11 April 2018
# Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract
Metal-cutting fluids, one of the most consumed materials in the metallurgy industry, turn into oily wastewater after being used in
the metalworking processes. The amount of cutting fluids used can reach up to millions of tons. And these invaluable fluids are
difficult to distil and expensive, and impossible to store. Even after it is disposed and recaptured, the end product has no
commercial value. In this study, the effect of this mixture was examined on the ecosystem using the Allium cepa test system
in which onion root tips were treated with three different concentrations of waste-cutting fluid, based on a 24- and 48-h cell cycle.
The oily wastewater exhibited a mechanism which triggered the chromosomal and nuclear abnormalities in the onion root-tip
meristem and reduced the mitotic index. Common abnormalities observed in the experimental groups based on the water
concentration were chromosome stickiness, c-mitosis, and micronuclei formation. In the experimental group with the lowest
water concentration, budding nuclei were observed at a different level than all of the other experimental groups. The x-ray
fluorescence analysis showed that the concentrations of elements, such as silicon, calcium, iron, and zinc, were higher in the oily
wastewater than those in the unused cutting oil.

Keywords Ecopollution . Mitotic index . Cyto-genotoxic . Metallurgy . Allium cepa

Introduction tools, extending their lives and increasing their efficiency

Industrial production and consumption involve a wide range
of activities that cannot afford to neglect human health and the
environment. Metalworking, the origins of which can be
traced back to early civilizations, is now performed with spe-
cial additives and advanced industrial machines due to the
technological developments. Therefore, the variety of metal-
working waste materials has increased and become a threat to
human life and the environment. The most consumed mate-
rials in metallurgy are metal-cutting fluids that include such
additives as lubricants, emulsifiers, detergents, corrosion in-
hibitors, and bio-protectors. In the metal industry, cutting
fluids are used for cutting, drilling, rolling, drawing, grinding,
and milling, as well as cooling and lubricating machinery and
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
* Sefa Pekol
spekol@kastamonu.edu.tr
1
Faculty of Education, Kastamonu University, Kastamonu, Turkey
(Muszynski et al. 2007). Also known as metalworking fluids,
these foam coolants reduce friction, while helping to remove
wastes such as fine metal particles and chips away from the
working area (D’Avino et al. 2015). The main challenges in
the conventional metalworking processes are consumption of
finite resources, low compatibility with human health and the
environment, and the laborious deoiling and disposal of chips
and other waste materials (Wichmann et al. 2013). After they
are used, these fluids take the form of oily water. Used metal-
cutting fluids pose some risks, such as high levels of contam-
ination and rancid odors due to the presence of complex
chemicals, biocides, etc. (Chenga et al. 2005).
In practice, 95 kg of water is required to make 5 kg of
metal-cutting oil ready for use. This means that wastes from
the metal industry and machinery sector constitute a huge
amount of waste that can pose a threat to living beings and
the environment, especially to those working in these indus-
tries (Clarens et al. 2006). The total amount of metalworking
fluids used annually around the world is more than
2,000,000 m3. However, the wastewater volume is expected
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:17100–17108 17101

to be ten times higher due to the dilution of these fluids prior to 1985; Bakare et al. 2012; Rambo et al. 2017). The following
use (Chenga et al. 2005). factors played an important role in the recognition of the use
Today, it is estimated that millions of tons of oily wastewa- of A. cepa as a test organism: its chromosome structure,
ter are produced around the world. It seems that metal-cutting consisting of large chromatins concentrated on the root tip
liquid has bipolar properties, and thus it can bind both water cells, allows for examination by optical microscopy (Firbas
and metal ions. However, it drags the toxic metal ions along and Amon 2014); the test system gives results similar to those
with oil into the deepness of ecosystems. In this study, x-ray of the in vitro animal tests in cytotoxicity and environmental
fluorescence (XRF) was used to identify the elements pollution studies (Teixeira et al. 2003); it provides some prac-
contained in the oily wastewater supplied from a steel process- tical advantages as the test is rapid, sensitive, reproducible,
ing machine, and the changes when compared to concentrated and cost-effective (Fiskesjö 2006; Rajeshwari et al. 2015).
unused cutting oil are given in Table 1. Since metalworking involves the process of working with
Monitoring of living and nonliving environments, starting metals, metal is the first component expected to be found in
from the immediate environment, has become important for the metalworking wastes. Metals like copper represent an im-
the future of humanity and sustainability. In the field of envi- portant class of environmental pollutants that can accumulate
ronmental monitoring, many new approaches have been in- in the tissues of living organisms and produce toxic effect
troduced and the use of living organisms as bioindicators has (Geremias et al. 2010). The biocides used in technological
gained popularity (Zurita et al. 2007). The Allium cepa test cutting fluids to control microbial growth, the additives used
emerged as a model system that involves the measurement of to control foam and corrosion, and the metals and other or-
the root length and chromosomal aberration and provides an ganic constituents that become entrained in the fluids during
appropriate means to evaluate the cyto-genotoxic potential of use all cause the waste-cutting oil to be hazardous (Clarens
contaminants (Al-Sabti and Kurelec 1985; Liu et al. 1992; et al. 2006). The oily water structure of the waste makes the
Pasha et al. 2015). The A. cepa test is one of the major test disposal process costly, and as well, creates some environmen-
methods, in which A. cepa is used as a bioindicator (Fiskesjö tal and recycling problems (Greeley and Rajagopalan 2004).
Hence, the disposal of the waste becomes more costly than the
Table 1 The results of the x-ray fluorescence analysis (waste and production of the fluid. The cost of the preparation, handling,
unused cutting oil) processing, and disposal of the metalworking fluid is expected
to be 11 USD, while the total cost of purchasing is 1 USD
Symbol/element Concentration × 10−3
(McClure 2000).
Cutting oil Waste-cutting oil It is evident that cutting fluids affects humans and the en-
vironment differently at the different stages of metalworking.
Na/sodium 279.1% < 100% High concentrations of water in the waste-cutting fluids in-
Mg/magnesium 52.1% 45.8% crease the effect of the waste on the environment incremental-
Si/silicon 14.93% 81.45% ly. This is because the mixture in the form of oily water acts as
P/phosphorus 50.91% 24.24% an abiotic element in the ecosystem, and it can increase its
S/sulfur 446.2% 32.00% spread, effect, and durability. Given the daily use of millions
Cl/chlorine 15.71% < 0.20% of tons, it is possible that this waste, the disposal of which is
Ca/calcium 7.33% 161.4% hard and costly in many countries where environmental sen-
Cr/chromium 0.07% 0.25% sitivity has not yet been developed, can be broken down by
Mn/manganese 0.10% 7.01% natural processes. Evaluation of the effect of waste metal-
Fe/iron 3.79% 20.27% working fluids based on consistent tests will give us important
Ni/nickel 0.16% 0.36% information in this regard. A. cepa is appropriate for evaluat-
Cu/copper 0.19% 0.39% ing the potential toxicity of complex mixtures, such as waste
Zn/zinc 0.13% 0.64% water, industrial wastes, and coal-mining drainage, character-
As/arsenic < 0.05% 0.02% ized by the existence of trace metals and polycyclic aromatic
Sr/strontium 0.08% 0.15% hydrocarbons (Geremias et al. 2011), as well as the new re-
Y/yttrium 0.33% 0.14% sources planned to be used for energy generation (Pekol et al.
Mo/molybdenum 0.16% 0.10% 2012).
La/lanthanum < 0.20% < 0.20% There have been no studies in the literature on the use of
Hg/mercury 0.08% < 0.10% A. cepa in evaluating the effect of waste-cutting fluids, which
Pb/lead < 0.01% 0.03% are produced in such amounts so as to affect the aquatic and
Th/thorium < 0.01% < 0.10% terrestrial ecosystem. This study aims to evaluate the effect of
U/uranium 0.11% < 0.01% complex waste metalworking fluids that underwent multi-
directional changes using the A. cepa test method.
17102 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:17100–17108

Material and methods
The cutting fluid used on a lathe and milling machine in
manufacturing steels (AISI 316 Stainless steel) for an average
period of 10.000 h (1 year) was collected in special air-tight
containers. The waste liquid was stored in a refrigerator to
prevent microbial growth and used in A. cepa test system for
further analysis. The chemical content and some physical
properties of this waste liquid and the content of various stain-
less steels were given according to catalog values in a range
(Table 2). XRF spectrometry measurements were taken for
both virgin and waste cutting oil in order to determine and
compare the changes and results.
Germination conditions, test concentrations,
and treatment
Healthy and uniform-sized bulbs of A. cepa (2n = 16) were
selected to be used in this study. Excessive leaves were re-
moved, and the roots were washed free of soil with distilled
water without causing any damage to them.
Here, EC50 is the effective concentration value that indi-
cates the concentration where root growth is reduced by 50%
when compared to the control group. The experimental groups
for treatment were determined based on the EC50 values.
Based on the EC50 values, the concentrations of waste-
cutting fluid were designed to be 1/1000, 1/500, and 1/250
(v/v).
A. cepa bulbs were placed in test tubes filled with distilled
water in such a way that the roots had contact with water and
were left for germination at room temperature for 24 h (23 ±
2 °C). After 24 h, healthy bulbs, the roots of which grew to a
length of 0.5–1 cm, were subject to cytogenetic analysis in
oily wastewater at three concentrations. Therefore, the A. cepa
test was performed with three experimental groups and a con-
trol group.
Cytogenetic preparation
The A. cepa test for the oily wastewater was performed
with the control group for 24 and 48 h. The roots were
cut between 0900 and 1000 h, when the cell division
was at the highest level. The root tips collected at the
end of each period were fixed in Carnoy’s fixative (3/1:
ethanol/acetic acid) and kept overnight at 4 °C. After a
day, they were stored in 70% ethanol/water and made
ready for examination.
The root tips were taken for microscopic examination,
rinsed with distilled water, and hydrolyzed in 1.0 M HCl for
9–10 min. After which, they were stained in a solution of 2%
acetocarmine (25–30 min). The stained root tips were placed
on slides and squashed in 45% (v/v) glacial acetic acid, and
then the coverslip was closed.
Evaluation of cytotoxic effects
Five slides were prepared and analyzed for each experimental
and control group (1000 cells per slide). Approximately 5000
cells from random fields in each experimental and control
group were screened to calculate the mitotic index and find
abnormalities in the root tip meristem.
Statistical analysis
Since the mitotic index is a ratio value, differences between
the mitotic index values were tested using the Z-test for ratio

Table 2 Chemical components of

cutting fluid and material Ingredient cutting fluid %

Alcohols, C9-C11, etoxylated propoxylated 0–2.5

Fatty acid ester 0–2.5
2-Aminoethanol in compound with contained acids 2.5–10
N-Methyldiethanolamine 2.5–10
2-(Hydroxymethylamino) ethanol 2.5–10
Water quality indicators of waste
Chemical oxygen demand 17,950–26,300 (mg/L)
Electrical conductivity 7.10–8.30 (ms/cm)
pH 7.2–7.5
Oil content 4400–5000 (mg/L)
Chemical composition of AISI 316 stainless steel (%)
C Cr Ni Mo Mn P Si N S
0.8 16.00–18.00 10.00–14.00 2.00–3.00 2.00 0.045 0.75 0.10 0.03
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:17100–17108
differences. At this stage, the z values were computed using
the following formula:
p1 −p2
z ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
  1 1
pp 1−pp þ ;
n1 n 2
where pp is the overall mitotic index. Mitotic index values
compared for (a) all doses for 24-h of treatment, (b) all doses
for 48 h of treatment, and (c) the same doses for different time
periods. Since there are two different time periods and four
different doses (including the control), a total of 16 tests were
conducted. Bonferroni correction was also applied for control-
ling the family-wise error rate of α = 0.05. Thus, the error rate
was accepted as α = 0.05/16 = 0.003125.
Results
In the root tip cells treated with waste metal-cutting fluid, the
lowest mitotic index was observed in the sample with the
highest concentration of metal-cutting fluid (1:250 dilution).
It was observed that the negative effect of the waste-cutting
fluid on the mitosis division was higher during the first 24 h
(Fig. 1).
Comparison with the control group shows that there was a
statistically significant difference between the mitotic index
values of the concentrations during this period (Table 2).
During the second 24-h period, the mitotic index increased
in all of the groups, which indicated increased cell division
in the root tips. The increase was statistically significant when
compared with the values observed in the first 24-h period. On
the other hand, an inter- and intra-group comparison of the
Fig. 1 Mitotic index values and 14
abnormalities observed after 24
and 48 h
12
10
8 Mitotic index 24 hrs
6 Abnormality index 24 hrs
4
0
1/250 1/500
17103
experimental groups within 48 h showed significant differ-
ences among the groups (Table 2).
Common abnormalities observed in the root tips treated
with the waste metal-cutting fluid were budding nuclei,
micronuclei formation, c-mitosis, chromosome stickiness,
fragments, bridge formation, etc. (Fig. 2).
The waste-cutting fluid affected the experimental groups
differently in terms of the types and distribution of the abnor-
malities. In the first 24 h, the most common abnormality was
stickiness, observed in the 1:500 dilution group, while bud-
ding nuclei was observed only in the 1:250 dilution group. At
the end of 48 h, the most common abnormality in the 1:1000
dilution group was c-mitosis, and it was observed at a rate
similar to that observed in the first 24 h. The degree of stick-
iness observed in the 1:500 dilution group decreased over
time. It was also observed that among all of the other chromo-
some abnormalities, micronuclei formation was at the highest
in the 1:250 dilution group (Table 3).
The abnormality index measured by comparing the fre-
quency of abnormal cells to the frequency of normal cells
showed that high frequencies of abnormal cells were observed
in the 1:250 dilution group in the first 24 h when compared to
the other groups. The difference between the control group
and experimental groups was found to be statistically signifi-
cant (Table 4). During the second 24-h period, the abnormality
index decreased in all of the groups; however, the abnormal-
ities were found to be statistically significant when compared
to the control group (Table 5).
The abnormal division conditions affected the mitotic in-
dex, thus leading to the inhibition of the division or growth
when compared to the control group. In contrast to the mitotic
index, the inhibition observed in the 1:250 dilution group
reached almost 100% during the first 24 h. The division inhi-
bition decreased in all of the groups at the end of 48 h (Fig. 3).
Mitotic index 48 hrs
Abnormality index 48 hrs
1/1000 Control
17104 Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:17100–17108

a b c

d e f
Fig. 2 Meristematic cells of A. cepa a Anaphase, b break, c stickness, d budding nuclei, e budding nuclei and micronuclei, and f c-mitosis

Discussion amounts of other elements indicate that the material processed

This study aimed to examine the effect of the changes in the
metal-cutting fluids on living beings and the environment.
Within the scope of the study, we compared the compositions
of unused cutting fluid and oily wastewater using XRF and
found an increase in the amounts of such elements as silicon,
manganese, calcium, iron, and zinc in the waste water. An
increased iron level is an expected result, since the wastewater
was obtained from a steel-milling machine. Increases in the
on the machine contained diverse elements or it was not pure.
On the other hand, the amounts of some elements like chlorine
and mercury decreased after the cutting fluid was used. Such a
decrease might be the result of losses during the metalworking
process, newly formed compounds, heating, or contamination
by the machine and other factors. The presence of metals is the
key factor that creates genotoxic and cytotoxic effects, which
have been discussed in many studies in the literature (Leme
and Marin-Morales 2009; Yıldız et al. 2009; Geremias et al.

Table 3 Results of the Z-test used

for inter and intra-group Time 24 h 48 h
comparisons of mitotic indices
within a time frame of 24–48 h Dose 1000 500 250 Control 1000 500 250
(statistical significance values are
given in parentheses) 24 h Control 14.365 20.768 22.523 0.855 – – –
(< 0.001) (< 0.001) (< 0.001) (0.392)
1/1000 – 5107 10.410 – − 6276 – –
(< 0.001) (< 0.001) (< 0.001)
1/500 – – 6595 – – − 2332 –
(< 0.001) (0.019)
1/250 – – – – – – − 8874
(< 0.001)
48 h Control – – – – 8069 16.554 14.039
(< 0.001) (< 0.001) (< 0.001)
1/1000 – – – – – 9561 7719
(< 0.001) (< 0.001)
1/500 – – – – – − 0.879
(0.379)
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:17100–17108 17105

Table 4 Distribution of chromosome abnormalities (%) by groups irreversible cell destruction. This was also reinforced by
(time frame: 24 and 48 h)
strong mitotic inhibition (Fig. 3). Various studies found a sig-
Abnormality Control 1/1000 1/500 1/250 nificantly reduced mitotic index in onions treated with various
metals, such as Al, Cu, Fe, and Mn (Leme and Marin-Morales
24 h C-mitosis 1 49.1 31.9 16.9 2009; Bortolotto et al. 2009). The findings of this study are in
Stickness – 41.2 62.3 23.6 conformity with those of other studies. The cytotoxicity level
Micronuclei – 1 1 22.5 of a substance can be determined by the increase or decrease
Budding nuclei – 1 1 34 in the mitotic index (Fernandes et al. 2007). The adverse effect
Other abnormalities 2 7.7 3 3 of the waste-cutting fluid on the mitotic index is the indicator
48 h C-mitosis – 50.1 34.2 8.7 of its toxic nature. The mitotic index was also estimated to be
Stickness – 34.5 46.2 10.8 related to the root growth rate (Pasha et al. 2015). The waste-
Micronuclei – 2 71.4 water had a negative effect on the root growth in terms of the
Budding nuclei – 1 – 8.1 mitotic index values.
Other abnormalities 2 12.4 19.6 1 The effect of wastewater manifested itself as c-mitosis in
the 1:1000 dilution group, and this chromosomal abnormality
was sustained both during the first and second 24-h periods
2010). Waste-cutting fluids have a complex structure that (Table 3). This indicates that the effect on the spindle fibers is
poses a threat to the environment and occupational health long-lasting. Many organic chemicals such as methyl mercury
(Clarens et al. 2006). According to the findings obtained from and nickel salts cause c-mitosis (Fiskesjö and Levan 1993).
the XRF screening, decreased levels of some elements like Waste-cutting fluid might have affected the formation of the
uranium and yttrium, which previously existed in the unused spindle fibers or might have shown a mechanism that could
cutting fluid, together with the existence of arsenic in the cut the existing spindle fibers or impede their movement. C-
waste fluid can be considered as small but important details mitosis was suggested to be a problem caused by possible
of this study. microtubule depolymerization rather than microtubule poly-
In terms of the mitotic index, A. cepa was remarkably af- merization (Fernandes et al. 2009). It is also possible for the
fected. The 1:1000 dilution group with the lowest concentra- waste-cutting fluids to exhibit a depolymerization effect.
tion of metal-cutting fluid showed a division rate of only half Stickiness was the second major abnormity in the same
of that observed in the control group after 48 h. Specifically, in concentration group and the degree of stickiness decreased
the 1:250 dilution group, the cutting oil showed a lethal effect in the second 24-h period (Table 3). This abnormality arises
(Fig. 1). The ratio of abnormally dividing cells to the dividing from the sticky surfaces of chromosomes affected the chro-
cells decreased in all of the groups in the second 24-h period; mosome appearance during the mitotic phases and prevented
however, this did not reflect positively on the mitotic index. the progression of mitosis, leading to a chain of abnormalities.
The huge decrease in the number of living cells led to In their studies, Yıldız et al. (2009) and Geremias et al. (2010)

Table 5 Results of the paired Z-

test used to compare the Time 24 h 48 h
abnormalities (statistical
significance values are given in Dose 1/1000 1/500 1/250 Control 1/1000 1/500 1/250
parentheses)
24 h Control − 13.347 − 12.514 − 10.461 − 0.185 – – –
(< 0.001) (< 0.001) (< 0.001) (0.853)
1/1000 – 1397 4426 – 11.776 – –
(0.162) (< 0.001) (< 0.001)
1/500 – – 3343 – – 6754 –
(< 0.001) (< 0.001)
1/250 – – – – – − 50.377
(< 0.001)
48 h Control – – – – − 5046 − 7418 − 43.655
(< 0.001) (< 0.001) (< 0.001)
1/1000 – – – – – − 4458 − 57.610
(< 0.001) (< 0.001)
1/500 – – – – – – − 54.814
(< 0.001)
17106
Fig. 3 Mitotic inhibition rates in
120
the experimental groups within a
time frame of 24 and 48 h (%)
100
80
60
40
20
0
1/250
examined the chromosome abnormalities, such as stickiness,
in the root tip cells treated with cobalt and copper. It can be
understood that metals generally cause stickiness on the chro-
mosome surfaces. Chromosome stickiness induced by a toxic
effect was reported to be an effective and irreversible abnor-
mality that arises from the disruption of chromatin protein
organization and may cause cell death (Fiskesjö and Levan
1993; Fiskesjö 1995; Fernandes et al. 2009).
In the 1:500 dilution group, the degree of stickiness was
high, but decreased at the 48th hour. The degree of c-mitosis
observed was lower. The degrees of c-mitosis observed in the
1:1000 and 1:500 dilution groups remained almost the same
both during the first and second 24-h periods. It can be seen
that c-mitosis in A. cepa caused by the cutting fluid was
sustained. However, the degree of c-mitosis decreased with
the increasing amount of metal cutting fluid (Table 3). In other
words, the increased amount of cutting fluid caused more
damage than c-mitosis. The lasting effect of c-mitosis was
not valid for the other abnormalities. The most common
metal-induced abnormalities in A. cepa were reported to be
those leading to aneuploidy related to c-mitosis and chromo-
some stickiness (Leme et al. 2009). The findings of this study
are in conformity with this study.
Different from other groups, a great degree of budding was
observed in the 1:250 dilution group in the first 24-h period
(Table 4). The micronuclei formation was 71.4% at the end of
the 48 h period, which was the abnormality with the highest
rate (Table 4). The budding nuclei formation observed in this
group can be attributed to the increased metal concentration in
the cutting fluid. Similarly, Glińska et al. (2007) observed
budding nuclei formation in root tips treated with heavy
metals. It was revealed that the metals caused budding forma-
tion in the nucleus membrane containing phosphoric groups
(Corradi et al. 1991; Doncheva et al. 1996). The affinity of
metals to these phosphoric groups is the major concern of this
formation. The very high degree of micronuclei formation
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:17100–17108
24 h
48 h
1/500 1/1000
observed at the end of 48 h was the result of budding that
occurred in the first 24 h. The buds were separated from the
nucleus, leading to the formation of small independent nuclei
(Fig. 2). Srivastava et al. (2005) observed micronuclei forma-
tion and bi-nuclei cells, as well as an inhibition of the mitotic
index and other chromosome abnormalities in A. cepa treated
with sludge that contained trace metals such as chrome, cop-
per, nickel, and lead. The abnormalities and micronuclei for-
mation they observed are consistent with our findings.
According to Leme et al. (2008), the existence of nuclei and
lobular nuclear cells may indicate that cells are about to die. In
this study, budding nuclei formation and the inhibition of mi-
tosis division observed in the root tip cells are indicators of
such a cell death.
The metal-working fluids in pure state that have already
found to have certain eco-toxicological properties such as c-
metaphase and stickness are the most observed ones. And the
abnormalities tend to reduce in subsequent 24 h (Pekol 2014).
However, in this study, again, c-metaphase and stickness are
two of the most frequent ones along with new chromosomal
aberrations budding and micro nuclei formations. There are
some features between two studies for the second 24 h: The
stickiness similarly is reduced, c-mitosis is stable, and
micronuclei formation contrarily is increased in this study.
The presence of metals in the wastewater is the main reason
for these findings. Although the effect mechanism has not
been clarified exactly, some hypotheses suggest that metals
can inhibit the normal development of roots by changing the
composition, hardness, and fluidity of cell membranes, as well
as affecting water and nutrient flow and division (Boojar and
Goodarzi 2007).
In 2010, about 5.3% of the worldwide lubricant consump-
tion was metalworking fluids, corresponding about 197 mil-
lion tons, and most were produced from non-renewable min-
eral oils (Gosalia 2010). Properties related to the environment,
such as toxicity, p otential for bi oaccum u l a t i o n ,
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2018) 25:17100–17108
biodegradability, and relative content of renewable raw
material, will seal the fate of the metalworking fluids
(Bartz 1998). The lubricants of the future have to be
more environmentally adapted, have a higher level of
performance, and have a lower total life cycle cost
(Pettersson 2007). Common and high tonnage use of
metalworking fluids is an important reason to address
the metal-cutting fluids in a multidirectional way. It is
only natural that such properties would affect the fate of
humanity and the environment.
Oily wastewater used in a steel-milling machine is the
product of an interaction of many factors, such as the proc-
essed metal, processing time, heating or cooling, contact with
air, and the cycle in the machine. All of these factors must be
taken into consideration when making these fluids harmless to
humans and nature.
It is known that the cell metabolism has considerably
affected by metal ion ligands, which can result in DNA
damage and protein and mitochondrial destruction
(Mazzeo and Marin-Morales 2015). At the same time,
the waste metal-working liquids bear considerable
amount of polyvalent metal ions. Therefore, it is not
surprising to observe eco-toxicological effects of these
hazardous liquids. In addition, the accumulation of these
metal ions in plants and aquatic environment can reach
such dangerous doses that lead catastrophic toxic and
lethal cases in ecosystems.
Conclusion
In the A. cepa test system, the waste-cutting fluid ex-
hibited both a cytotoxic and genotoxic mechanism and
affected the mitotic index, chromosomes, and the nucle-
ar membrane. In light of this biological assay, it is un-
derstood that cutting fluids can effect on not only hu-
man health but also the environment. The well-known
adverse effects of waste metal-cutting fluids in the form
of oily water can be considered hazardous to living
beings and the ecosystem. In order to obtain more en-
vironmentally friendly metal-cutting fluids, it can be
recommended that the water and oil should be separat-
ed, contrary to the opinions and advice of many re-
searchers using oils and additives of different natures
for the future of metal-cutting oils. In brief, completely
waterless m etal-cutting fluids should be used.
Meanwhile, the dissemination of hazardous metal-
cutting fluids would have been inhibited. As a result,
the effectiveness of A. cepa tests in contemporary world
have been confirmed in monitoring, handling, and dis-
posing of all kinds of contaminants for future sustain-
able ecosystem.
17107
Funding information We would like to extend our thanks to the
Kastamonu University Rectorate, the Scientific Research Projects
(BAP) Unit, and the Kastamonu University Central Laboratory for their
support of this study (KÜBAP-01-2013/24).
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