CHAPTER 4: THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ETHICS

REPORTER 1: OBINGUAR, MA. ANGELICA U.

Ethics is a science that investigates the nature of human conduct. But in the process
of investigating the nature of human conduct, it is important for us to differentiate these
two terms: human act and act of man.

The Nature of the Human Act

Human acts are actions that proceed from the deliberate freewill of man. These
actions are therefore done with knowledge and consent and willfully carried out by the
person. Hunan acts are characterizing in to four:

1. The free and voluntary acts of man.

2. Acts which are done with knowledge and consent

3. Acts which are proper to man as a rational being

4. Acts which are conscious and under our control

Acts, therefore in order to be human, must be done deliberately, intentionally, and

willfully carried out by the agent. Without knowledge and consent and willful choice of
the doer of the act, there can be no human act.

REPORTER 2: SACRO, ROCEL G.

ACTS OF MAN refer to certain types of actions that are naturally exhibited by man and
as such they are morally indifferent (or neutral) because we cannot judge them to be
either ethical or unethical.
2 Categories of Acts of Man
1. Natural Involuntary Actions
 Actions of man that are performed intuitively or involuntarily.
Ex. blinking of the eyes, beating of the heart
2. Natural Voluntary Actions
 Actions that are within the control of man’s will but only for some period of time.
Ex. eating, walking, sleeping
 There are special circumstances where some acts of man, particularly the
natural voluntary actions, may become human acts and therefore may be judged to be
either MORAL or IMMORAL.
Example:
Sleeping is considered a neutral activity of man but when a SECURITY GUARD,
for instance, sleeps while ON DUTY, his actions becomes UNETHICAL.

Human Acts in Relation to Reason

 Good acts - those done by man in harmony with the dictates of the right
reason.
 Evil acts - those actions done by man in contradiction to the dictates of right
reason.
 Indifferent acts - those acts that are neither good nor evil.

REPORTER 3: GONZALES, STEFANIE T.

THE VOLUNTARINESS OF THE HUMAN ACTS

The concept of voluntariness is important in ethics because only voluntary acts

have moral bearing. However, the degree of culpability will, by and large, depend on the
degree of his responsibility.

CATEGORIES OF VOLUNTARY ACTIONS:

 PERFECT VOLUNTARINESS - actions performed with full knowledge and with

full consent
 IMPERFECT VOLUNTARINESS - actions that occur when there is no perfect
knowledge or consent, or when either or both of the knowledge or consent is
partial
 DIRECT VOLUNTARY - actions that are intended for own sake, either as a
means or as an end, (e.g. murder, stealing)
 INDIRECT VOLUNTARY - actions that are not intended for its own sake but
which merely follows as a regrettable consequence of an action (e.g. bombing an
enemy's hideout that leads to the killing of non-combatants within the area)
Why is an Indirect Voluntary Act still voluntary when it is not intended and
follows only a regrettable consequence?

Indirect voluntary actions are still considered voluntary for the simple reason that
when we act, we will the whole act including its consequences; and since we place the
cause, we also indirectly will the effect, although this is in itself regrettable.

REPORTER 4: TOMON, MERIAM P.

The Moral Principle Involved in Actions having Two Effects

(Indirect Voluntary Act)

In order to consider an Act as morally right even if it will result to good as well as
bad consequences, one must follow the following conditions provided by Panizo,1964.

1. The action must be morally good in itself, or at least morally indifferent.

2. The good effect of the act must precede the evil effect. The evil effect is morally
allowed to happen as a regrettable consequence.
3. There must be a grave or sufficient reason in doing the act.
4. The evil effect should not outweigh the good effect or, at least, the good effect should
be equivalent in importance to the evil effect.

REPORTER 5: SANTOYA, LYRA MAE M.

THE DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY

1. The End of the Action
It refers to the natural purpose of the act or that in which the act in its very
nature terminates or results. It is the primary determinant of morality.

2. The End of the Actor

It refers to the intention or the motive of the doer of the act. This is to be
distinguished from the end of the action.

Example: The end or natural purpose of going to school is to learn, yet some go
to school only to be with friends or got to school only to engage in athletics or
extracurricular activities.
 Therefore, the act is good in itself but spoiled by a bad intention.

3. Circumstances of the Act

It refers to the conditions that affect the human act by increasing or
decreasing the responsibility of the actor. Circumstances is not part of the action,
however, if the action is performed circumstances can affect the morality of the
action.

The following are considered the circumstances of the act because they can
either aggravate or mitigate the culpability of the actor:

 Who – refers to the person or the one to whom the act is ascribed.
 What- refers to the quality or the quantity of the object of the act
 Where- refers to the place where the act is performed
 How- refers to the manner or mode by which act is performed.
 When- refers to the circumstance of time
 Why – refers to the circumstances of end or intention of the act.

REPORTER 6: SALUDO, COKE AIDENRY E.

THE PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE ACTION

Paul Glenn (1968) writes five principles involving the implications of the circumstances
of the act.

1.) An indifferent act can become good or evil through circumstances.

Example: Eating meat is indifferent. However, eating meat on Good Friday

intentionally is evil.

2.) A good act can become evil through circumstances.

Example: Giving money to the poor people is a good action. However, giving
money to the same poor people to buy votes during election is evil.

3.) An intrinsically good act can become better or an intrinsically evil act can become
worse through circumstances.

Example: Visiting a sick person to comfort him is a good action. However, not
visiting a mother who is sick in the hospital out of hatred is worse.
4.) An evil act can never become good through circumstances.

Example: Stealing money to buy food cannot make the action of stealing good

5.) A good act done with evil means destroys the entire objective goodness of the act.

Example: Giving food to the hungry is a good action. However, giving money to
the hungry through robbery is evil.