CLASS LECTURES

“Agricultural development”

TYPES OF AGRICULTURE IN PAKISTAN

SUBSISTENCE COMMERCIAL CASH CROP SUSTAINABLE
FARMING FARMING FARMING FARMING
Agriculture which is Agriculture which is Agriculture which is This type of farming
practiced to feed the practiced to earn practiced to produce is practiced in such a
family on a small profit or to be sold in those crops which way that the
scale is called a the market is called a has high demand is resources are not
subsistence farming. Commercial farming. called Cash Crop exhausted like land
This type of farming This type of farming farming. and environment so
may include family include machineries For e.g. Rice, Cotton, that it could be used
labour, bullocks and like tractors etc and Wheat, Sugarcane, by our future
carts and local / desi HYV Seeds for better Tobacco, Oil Seeds generations.
seeds varieties. production. etc.

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 How an agriculture system works

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

Natural Factors To remove

Soil Weeding unwanted Rice
Climate plants
To make
Type of Ploughing Cotton
the soil soft
land
To add
Rainfall
fertilizer to
Fertilizing Wheat
increase
human Factors the fertility
Factors Subsistence Commercial To insert
Capital Minimum Maximum Seeding seeds to the Sugarcane
Labour Family Skilled soil
Bullocks Tractors, To provide
Machinery Irrigation water to Oil seeds
and Carts Harvesters
Wells, Canals, the plants
Water
Resource Karez etc. Sprinklers To spray
insecticides
Seeds Local / Desi HYVs Nurturing Tobacco
and
Fertilizers Cow Dung Chemical
Pesticides
Insecticides The cut the
Local DDT
/ Pesticides Harvesting plant from Pulses
Large / the land
Market Local
International
To separate
the plant
Threshing Millets
from the
main crop
To sell as
Selling per the Maize etc.
demand.

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 Types of crops
There are two types of crops cultivated in Pakistan which are as follows:

RABI CROPS KHARIF CROPS

 These crops are also known
as Winter Crops
 Their sowing period starts
from October – November
 Their Harvesting period
starts from April – May
 Wheat, Oil Seeds, Barley,
Maize etc. are some of its
examples.
 These crops are also known
as Summer Crops
 Their sowing period starts
from April – June
 Their Harvesting period
starts from October –
November
 Rice, Cotton, Sugarcane etc.
are some of its examples.

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 Processes of Cultivation for Cash Crops in
Pakistan
Rice (Kharif Crop – carbohydrate rich crop)
Natural Input:
Sowing: April – June
Harvesting: October – November
Land: Indulated land so that the field could be flooded easily
Soil: loamy, clayey soil which should be water retentive to reduce infiltration
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 25°C – 30°C with ample amount of rainfall

Human Input (commercial):

Weeding: To remove the unwanted plants before sowing the rice seeds
Ploughing: Tractors are used to save time and labour while making the soil soft
Fertilizing: Nitrogenous Fertilizer (NPK) are used to fertile the land
Irrigation: The field is flooded with water completely.
Seeding: HYV Seeds like Irri Pak and Basmati are used for better quality and quantity. Seeds
are grown in nurseries (in small packets) till the plant is 9 inches tall. Once the
plant is ready it is then soaked in the flooded field. This process is known as Rice
Padding
Nurturing: DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane) insecticides / pesticides are sprayed to
protect the plant from pests and insects
Harvesting: Rice plants are harvested by using combine harvesters and threshers. It is then sent
to rice mill where rice is polished for the change in appearance, taste and texture,
transforming brown rice into white rice.
Threshing: Husks are obtained during the threshing process which are used as an animal
fodder, covering roofs of houses after mixing it with water and mud, and to make
cardboards etc.

RICE PLANT RICE FIELD RICE POLISHING

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RICE HUSK (BY PRODUCT) HARD BOARD

Wheat (rabi crop – staple food)

Natural Input:
Sowing: October - November
Harvesting: April – May
Land: Undulated land so that the excess water could be drained
Soil: Stiff loamy soil which should allow excess water to infiltrate since wheat doesn’t
require more water during its cultivation
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 20°C – 25°C with little amount of rainfall

Human Input (commercial):

Weeding: To remove the unwanted plants before sowing the wheat seeds
Ploughing: Tractors are used to save time and labour while making the soil soft
Fertilizing: Nitrogenous Fertilizer (NPK) are used to fertile the land,
Seeding: HYV Seeds like Mexi Pak and Shah Khan are used for better quality and quantity.
Irrigation: The field is irrigated twice. Once a month after sowing and second a month before
harvesting.
Nurturing: DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane) insecticides / pesticides are sprayed to
protect the plant from pests and insects
Harvesting: Wheat plants are harvested by using combine harvesters and threshers.
Threshing: Wheat are threshed usually by throwing it in the air. Chaff is obtained during the
threshing process which are used as an animal fodder and making chipboards etc.

WHEAT PLANT WHEAT FIELD WHEAT THRESHING

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CHAFF (BY PRODUCT) CHIP BOARDS

Cotton (Kharif – king of fiber)

Natural Input:
Sowing: April – June
Harvesting: October - November
Land: Flat land which could be drained.
Soil: Medium loamy soil which should allow excess water to infiltrate
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 25°C – 30°C with ample amount of rainfall. Cotton are
sensitive to frost therefore the temperature of the area must be mild throughout the
cultivation (Leaf Curl Virus occurs as a disease if the temperature drops during
its cultivation)

Human Input (commercial):

Weeding: To remove the unwanted plants before sowing the cotton seeds
Ploughing: Tractors are used to save time and labour while making the soil soft
Fertilizing: Nitrogenous Fertilizer (NPK) are used to fertile the land,
Seeding: HYV Seeds like Nayab and Sarmast Qalandari are used for better quality and
quantity.
Irrigation: The field is irrigated thrice. Once a month after sowing, secondly after 2 months
and lastly a month before harvesting.
Nurturing: DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane) insecticides / pesticides are sprayed to
protect the plant from pests and insects. Cotton is a sensitive crop and an easy target
for locust attack. (Fruit Shedding occurs as a disease in cotton plant due to locust)
Harvesting: Cotton plants are harvested manually by women since they are available as a cheap
labour and have soft hands to pluck the cotton boll.
Threshing: Cotton are threshed by separating lint and seeds from the plant known as Ginning.
Lint is used to tie the cotton bales whereas seeds are used to make edible oil which
could also be used in manufacturing cosmetics etc. After Ginning the cotton is then
spin to make thread and later it is weave to manufacture a fabric.

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 COTTON PLANT COTTON FIELD COTTON HARVESTING

COTTON SEEDS COTTON LINT LEAF CURL VIRUS

FRUIT SHEDDING GINNING PROCESS SPINNING PROCESS

WEAVING PROCESS

Sugarcane (Kharif crop – thirsty crop)

Natural Input:
Sowing: April – June
Harvesting: October - November
Land: Flat land which could be drained.
Soil: Loamy soil which should be rich in Potash.
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 25°C – 30°C with high amount of rainfall. Sugarcane
are considered as thirsty crop since they need an ample amount of water and they
soak nutrients from the soil.

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Human Input (commercial):
Weeding: To remove the unwanted plants before sowing the sugarcane pallets.
Ploughing: Tractors are used to save time and labour while making the soil soft
Fertilizing: Nitrogenous Fertilizer (NPK) are used to fertile the land, Potash content in the soil
needs to be checked for better quality and quantity.
Seeding: HYV Seeds like JN-8 and Thatta-27 are used for better quality and quantity.
Irrigation: The field is irrigated usually on daily basis.
Nurturing: DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane) insecticides / pesticides are sprayed to
protect the plant from pests and insects.
Harvesting: Sugarcane plants are harvested manually by cutting it from the 2nd or 3rd node and
leaving the left over part in the ground known as Ratooning so that it could again
be harvested in the next seasons for 3 – 4 years. As soon, sugarcanes are harvested;
it has to be immediately transported to sugarcane industry which is constructed
near the cane farms as sugarcane started to lost its sugar content and are bulky to
be carried.
Threshing: Sugarcanes are first scribbled with chalk to remove the dirt and smell. They are
then crushed to extract cane juice which is heated so that Brown Sugar, Gur and
White Sugar could be collected as the products. The left over fiber is known as
Bagasse’s which is used as fuel in Sugar Industry or consumed as an animal fodder
as the 1st by - product. Whereas the left over cane juice is known as Molasses which
is used to make synthetic fiber, iron supplements, huqqa and sheesha flavours etc.
as the 2nd by – product.

SUGARCANE PLANT SUGARCANE FIELD SUGARCANE GRINDING

BAGASSES (BY PRODUCT) BROWN SUGAR GUR

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 WHITE SUGAR MOLASSES

Minor Crops in Pakistan

Minor Crops in Pakistan are not cared as per the commercial processing system since they do
not provide enough profit. Most of the minor crop’s seeds are scattered upon poor soil.

Pulses (Rabi crop)

Natural Input:
Sowing: October - November
Harvesting: April – May
Land: Flat land which could be drained.
Soil: Poorly fertile or sandy soil
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 30°C – 35°C
with less rainfall.

Importance:
Pulses are rich in protein and important in diet. However, pulses are grown to fix the nitrogen
level in the soil which helps in the production of other crops. That is why they are used as crop
rotation method. Some important types of pulses are Mash, Maung, Masoor etc.

Maize (Kharif crop)

Natural Input:
Sowing: April – June
Harvesting: October - November
Land: Flat land which could be drained.
Soil: Poorly fertile or sandy soil
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 25°C – 30°C
with less rainfall.

Importance:
Maize are used to extract edible oil, custard powder, corn flour etc. and are also used as an
animal fodder.

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 Millets (Kharif crop)
Natural Input:
Sowing: April – June
Harvesting: October - November
Land: Flat land which could be drained.
Soil: Poorly fertile or sandy soil
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 25°C – 30°C with
less rainfall.

Importance:
Millets (Jowar & Bajra) are used as an animal fodder especially in poultry farming.

Oil seeds (rabi crop)

Natural Input:
Sowing: October - November
Harvesting: April – May
Land: Flat land which could be drained.
Soil: Poorly fertile or sandy soil
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 25°C –
30°C with less rainfall.

Importance:
Oil seeds are used to extract edible oil. Some of its types are mustard, rai, castor seeds and
sunflower etc.

Tobacco (Rabi crop)

Natural Input:
Sowing: October - November
Harvesting: April – May
Land: Flat land which could be drained.
Soil: Poorly fertile or sandy soil
Climate: Avg. Temperature between 25°C – 30°C with less rainfall.

Importance:
Tobacco is used to manufacture cigarettes and cigars etc.

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 Fruit farming in Pakistan
Fruit farming is an important source of earning in Pakistan. Fruit farming has been an important
source of earning foreign exchange and fortunately the fruits of Pakistan are famous throughout
the world. Fruits are valued as protective food and are very rich source of minerals and vitamins.
Demand for fruits in Pakistan has been increasing due to changes in consumption pattern and
population growth. A large variety of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate fruits are cultivated in
the country.

Following are the types of fruits present in Pakistan

TROPICAL FRUITS SUB – TROPICAL FRUITS TEMPERATE FRUITS

These fruits are usually
grown in summer. Sindh and
Punjab are the main areas
for growing Tropical Fruits.
Examples: Mangoes, Dates
and Watermelons etc.
These fruits are usually grown
throughout the year. Sindh
and Punjab are the main areas
for growing Sub – Tropical
Fruits.
Examples: Banana and Citrus
Fruits etc.
These fruits are usually
grown in winter. KPK and
Azad Kashmir are the main
areas for growing Temperate
Fruits.
Examples: Apples, Apricot
and Almonds etc.

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 PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURE
Agriculture department in Pakistan faces a lot of problems due to the commercial farming
practices. It was therefore, noted that almost all the processes involved in the farming are
instead harmful for the environment.

COMMERCIAL
PROBLEMS DUE TO THESE PROCESSES
PROCESSES
Weeds are small plants which are removed before farming any
WEEDING
crop. But these weeds also provides nutrients to the soil.
Tractors with heavy ploughs are used to soften the soil but these
PLOUGHING
ploughs mixes the soil layers and hence the fertility decreases.
HYV seeds are used to increase the quality and quantity but these
SEEDING seeds are hungry seeds and hence they soak all the minerals from
the soil which results in adding more fertilizers.
Water is needed by every crop but continuous irrigation on a land
IRRIGATION increases the underground water table which may lead to
Waterlogging and Salinity problem.
Nitrogenous Fertilizers were added to increase the fertility of the
soil but when the fields are drained these fertilizers mixes with
FERTILIZATION water bodies and produces algae over the surface of water which
blocks the sunlight and oxygen level. This process is known as
Eutrophication which results in decreased marine life.
Insecticides and pesticides were used to protect the plant against
pests and insects but once sprayed these chemical increases air
NURTURING
pollution and sometimes mixes with the crop. Upon eating these
chemicals reduces the immunity system in humans.
Harvesters and Threshers were used to fasten the process and
HARVESTING /
reduce the labour cost but since these machineries run on diesel
THRESHING
they emit soot which results in Air Pollution.

Solutions to agricultural problems

The agriculture sector throughout the world has found the
solution to all the above mentioned problems. According to
which they have introduced Genetically Modified Seeds (GM
Seeds) which are also known as drought and pest resistant seeds.
GM Seeds not only produces high quantity of yield but are
also immune to pest attacks which means farmers will be free
from the additional cost of Insecticides and Pesticides. These
seeds doesn’t require much water and can also grow in poor
soil. Therefore, the cost of adding fertilizer will be reduced
too. The scientist have also stressed upon using catalytic
convertors in machineries to reduce the soot problem. Moreover, in Pakistan the govt. must

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reinstate that the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan (ADBP) and Zarai Taraqiati Bank
Ltd. (ZTBL) must ensure to grant loans to the poor farmers in Pakistan so that they could increase
the crop production in the country. Following steps must also be taken to reduce the problems of
agriculture department in Pakistan:
 Supply of Agricultural Credit
 Water logging and Salinity Control (SCARP)
 Construction of Dams
 Provision of HYV Seeds (Though GM – Seeds are very costly)
 Mechanization
 Agricultural Research
 Agro – based Industries
 Tax and Interest Concession
 Training of Farmers
 Prices of Agricultural Products

Organic farming (sustainable farming)

Since using GM Seeds is very expensive therefore, Organic farming is an alternative method to
boost the agricultural yield in a sustainable way so that environmental damage could be
minimized. These methods involves the following processes:

Crop Rotation:
This method is carried out by using pulses as an ingredient which provides nitrogen to the soil.
Since pulses are nitrogen fixing crop. Moreover, a farmer must grow different types of crops on
the same land to reduce soil erosion and increase the fertility of the soil.

Fallow Land:
This method could be used in small farms. A farmer must not grow any crop on the land for every
alternate year so that the land could re-gain its fertility back.

Shifting Cultivation:
This method could be used on large farms. A farmer must divide its land into two and grow his
crops on one part of it and leave the other part of the land as fallow. After 2 – 3 years he must
use the fallow land to grow crops and abandoned the used part of the land so that the land could
regain its fertility.

Use of Urea:
The use of processed fertilizer or urea will boost the
agricultural yield in the same way as it is done by using
nitrogenous fertilizers. However, using processed fertilizers
or urea doesn’t create the problem of Eutrophication.

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 How a livestock farming works

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT

To obtain
Natural Factors good
Land Breeding quality and Milk
Climate quantity of
products
To make
Feeding the cattle Meat
healthy
human Factors To
Factors Subsistence Commercial vaccinate
Capital Minimum Maximum Caring the cattle Eggs
Breed Primitive Cross Breed from
diseases
Shades Open area Husbandries
To meet
Suction
Machineries Hand tools Milking / the demand
pumps etc. Leather
Taking Eggs of the
Grazing
Processed country
Food area
food To meet
(Shamilat)
Slaughtering the demand Wool
River, Tube wells,
Water of meat
streams, water motor,
availability To provide
wells etc. tap water etc Shearing
wool to Hides
Labour Family Skilled Wool
industries
Fertilizers,
leather and
Processing
hides are
By -
sent to
Products
different
industries.
To sell as
Selling per the
demand

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 Types of livestock farming
NOMADIC LIVESTOCK
FARMING
This type of livestock
farming usually takes place
in deserts where live stockers
wandered the areas
throughout the year in search
of water and pasture for their
cattle.
Their cattle may include
cows, goats, camels and
poultry etc.
SEMI NOMADIC OR
TRANSHUMANCE
LIVESTOCK FARMING
This type of livestock
farming usually takes place
in mountainous regions
where live stockers migrate
twice a year. Once in winter
when they move to lowlands
to be protected from cold and
the second in summer when
they move back to highlands
in search of water and
pasture for their cattle.
Their cattle may include yak,
dzu and sheep etc.
SETTELED LIVESTOCK
FARMING
This type of livestock
farming usually takes place
in plain areas (lowlands)
where there is an ample
amount of water in the form
of river and large grazing
lands. These live stockers
doesn’t migrate at any cost.
Their cattle may include cow,
buffaloes, goats, poultry etc.

Importance of Buffalo Farming:

Buffalo farming is usually practiced in settled lifestyle

to meet the milk demand of the area (city). Buffaloes
like to spend most of their time in water so as to lower
down their body temperature, as these animals are
good for producing many types of milk, meat and skin
products.

Moreover, the buffaloes are also used for producing

dairy products like butter and ghee etc. Buffalo milk
is of very good quality containing high amount of fat
and protein. That is why buffalo farming is practiced throughout Pakistan (Indus Plains). Some
of the famous breeds are Nili, Kundi and Ravi etc.

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Importance of GOAT Farming:

Goats and Sheeps are referred as Sure – Footed

animals since they can survive in almost all the climatic
conditions even towards mountains. Their hoofs are
designed in such a way that they can climb steep
mountains easily. However, goats are also termed as
Nibblers as they continuously graze the fields which
may cause soil erosion. That is why goat farming is not
appreciated by the govt. of Pakistan. However, raising
stall – fed goats are not condemned by the govt. since
these goats are reared on processed fodder and they
don’t graze in the open lands called Shamilat (a land
with pasture – naturally grown grass).
Goats are raised for many different products such as
milk, meat skin, fiber etc. Both meat and milk of goat are very tasty, nutritious and considered
good for human health.

Importance of Poultry Farming:

With increase population, eggs and chicken have been instrumental in
off-loading demand pressure on our meager resources of supplies of
animal protein foods. Poultry farming is within the reach of small
entrepreneurs and is, therefore, offering them opportunities for
investment. It is also providing means to the rural and sub – urban
population for augmenting their income.

This type of farming is practiced to make up for acute deficiency in

animal protein foods. The government also gave priority to the
development of poultry which is an effective and economical source
to reduce the protein supply gap in the shortest possible time. The two
types of poultry available in Pakistan are Desi and Broiler Hens

Importance of livestock farming

Livestock farming contributes to 9% of the GDP and 37% to the agricultural sector. Following
are some importance of livestock farming:

 Important source of food for people. Provide meat, milk, butter, ghee and other dairy
products.
 Animals are used as draft power on the farms.
 Earn foreign exchange which formed 5.3% of the overall export of Pakistan
 Responsible for supplying 15% of total household energy in the form of dun

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  Contributes in the production of organic fertilizer and fuel in the use of marginal
nutritional resources which are not directly accessible to mankind
 Provide raw material for the industrial output.

Problems of livestock farming

Following are some of the problems associated with the livestock farming in Pakistan:

 Adequate nutrition is a major problem in livestock

production, the availability of green fodder is not
sufficient.
 Lack of knowledge and awareness about the
productive benefits of disease control. Vaccination
and treatment for the animals was generally ignored
by the livestock farmers.
 Pakistan has primitive breeds with low genetic
potential. The breeds with best potential such as
Sahiwal cow and Nili Buffaloes are rarely found. Pure
breeds are in fact in danger. There is need to save and
exploit the genetic potential of the high yielding
breeds.
 To establish the modern livestock farms, it needs huge
investment. Unlike crop sector, livestock sector
required more capital. The absence of credit
disbursement to small and medium scale farmers the
involvement of poor in the commercialization of
livestock production is restricted.
 Livestock extension wing in the country is poorly
performing and biased toward large farmers tending to
neglect poor rural live-stockers.
 Poor marketing system is also a significant constraint
in the animal productivity.

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 Solutions to the problems of livestock
farming
Following are some of the solutions to the problems of
livestock farming in Pakistan:

 Selective breeding and cross breeding programs

for better quality animals.
 Programmes to fatten cows for milk and meat
 Control of diseases and better animal husbandry
(a walled area where cows are kept to be safe
from climatic changes) must be practiced.
 Improvement in vaccination facilities.
 Improvement in Livestock Research Farms.

Land Reforms
Land reforms have been undertaken thrice in the history of Pakistan in 1959, 1972 and in 1977.
The objective of land reform was to eliminate the feudal system that existed in rural areas, by
imposing ceiling on the amount of land an individual can hold, government wanted to reduce
the power of landlords and distribute the excess land to the landless peasants which would lead
to the reduction in economical as well as political inequalities.

KEY FEATURES FOR 1959 LAND REFORMS:

 Ceiling on holdings: 500 acres
 Abolition of feudal lands
 Occupying tenants were made the owners
 Legal protection to farmers
 Rents to be paid in kind

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KEY FEATURES FOR 1972 LAND REFORMS:
 Ceiling on holdings: 150 acres
 No compensation to land owners
 Free distribution of lands to tenants
 Land revenue, water rates, seed cost to be borne by land lord
 Cost of fertilizers and pesticides to be shared equally
 Evacuation of tenants to be decided by revenue courts

KEY FEATURES FOR 1977 LAND REFORMS:

 Ceiling on holdings: 100 acres of irrigated or 200 acres un – irrigated
 Compensation at a fix value of Rs. 30
 Tenant was given first right of pre – emption if the land lord decided to sold his land.
 Consolidation of holdings above economic and subsistence level continued.

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