BE8255- BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS AND MEASUREMENT

ENGINEERING
PART-A
UNIT-I

1. What is meant by charge?

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles which matter consists. The charge of
an electron is so small. Charge in motion represents current. The unit of charge is coulomb.
2. What is meant by Current?
The flow of free electrons in a conductor is called current. Unit is ampere (A). I = Q/t
3. What is meant by Voltage?
The potential difference between two points is called as voltage. Unit is Volts (V). V=W/Q,
W=work done in joules & Q = charge in coulombs
4. State Ohm’s Law.
The potential difference across any two ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the
current flowing between the two ends provided the temperature of the conductor remains
constant.
5. What are the limitations of ohm’s law?
Limitations of Ohm’s law:
 Ohm's law is valid for metal conductors, provided the temperature and other physical
conditions remain constant.
 Ohm's law is not applicable to gaseous conductors.
 Ohm's law is also not applicable to semi-conductors such as Germanium and Silicon.
6. State Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
KVL states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed path is zero.
7. State Kirchhoff’s current Law.
KCL states that the algebraic sum of currents in a node is zero.
8. Give short notes on resistor.
It is a property of a substance3 which opposes the flow of electrons. It is denoted by R and its
unit is Ohm
9. Define power
In electric circuits, power is a product of both voltage and current. P=VI. Its unit is Watts.
10. In a series circuit if the values of three resistors are give as 8Ω each. Find its equivalent
resistors. Also find the current through it if 10V source is connected.
Req= R1+R2+R3
Req =8+8+8=24Ω
I=V/ Req= 8/24=0.333A
11. A 2kΩ resistor has a current of 0.80A flowing through it. Calculate the power of the
resistor.
Power = I2R= 0.82 x 2000 = 1280 W
12. A 100Ω and 400Ω are connected in parallel with another resistor of 250Ω which is
connected in series. Calculate the total resistance.
When resistances are in parallel, Req=(R1R2)/( R1+R2)=(100*400)/(100+400)=80Ω
Total = 250 + 80 = 330 Ω
13. Three inductors of 10mH, 40mH and 50mH are connected together in a series
combination with no mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total inductance of
the series combination.
Leq=L1+L2+L3 = 10+40+50 =100mH
14. Three inductors of 60mH, 120mH and 75mH respectively, are connected together in a
parallel combination with no mutual inductance between them. Calculate the total
inductance of the parallel combination.
1/Leq= 1/L1+1/L2+1/L3
=1/60+1/120+1/75=38.33
Leq=26mH
15. Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their individual
capacitances are 1μF, 5μF and 8μF.
1/Ceq= 1/C1+1/C2+1/C3
=1/1+1/5+1/8=1.325
Ceq=0.755μF
16. Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in parallel, given their
individual capacitances are 1μF, 5μF and 8μF.
Ceq= C1+C2+C3
=1+5+8=14μF
17. Distinguish between a Branch and a node of a circuit.
A pair of network which connects the various points of the network is called branch A point
at which two or more elements are joined together is called node.
18. Distinguish between a mesh and a loop of a circuit.
A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops. All meshes are loop, but all loops are not
meshes. A loop is any closed path of branches.
19. State voltage division rule.
Voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the total voltage across the series
elements multiplies by the value of that resistor divided by the total resistance of the series
elements.
20. State current division rule.
The current in any branch is equal to the ratio of the opposite parallel branch resistance to the
total resistance value, multiplies by the total current in the circuit.
21. State superposition theorem.
It states that the response of a linear circuit with multiple sources is given by algebraic sum of
response due to individual sources acting alone.
22. State Thevenin’s theorem
It states that any linear bilateral network can be replaced by a single voltage source V TH, in
series with single impedance Zth.
23. State Norton’s theorem
It states that any linear bilateral network can be replaced by a single current source, IN in
parallel with single impedance Zth.
24. State maximum power transfer theorem.
Maximum power is transferred to load impedance if the load impedance is the complex
conjugate of the source impedance.
25. State the steps to solve the super position theorem.
 Take only one independent voltage or current source.
 Obtain the branch currents.
 Repeat the above for other sources.
 To determine the net branch current just add the current obtained above.
26. What is the limitation of superposition theorem?
 Superposition theorem is valid only for linear systems.
 This theorem can be applied for calculating the current through or voltage across in
particular element.
 But this superposition theorem is not applicable for calculation of the power.
27. State the steps to solve the Thevenin’s Theorem
 Remove the load resistance and find the open circuit voltage Voc
 Deactivate the constant sources (for voltage source remove it by internal resistance & for
current source delete the source by OC) and find the internal resistance (RTh) of the source
side looking through the open circuited load terminals
 Obtain the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting VOC in series with RTh Reconnect
the load resistance across the load terminals.
28. List the applications of Thevenin’s theorem.
 It is applied to all linear circuits including electronic circuits represented by the controlled
source.
 This theorem is useful when it is desired to know the effect of the response in network or
varying part of the network IL= VOC / (RTH+RL)
29. State the steps to solve the Norton’s theorem.
 Remove the load resistor and find the internal resistance of the source network by
deactivating the constant source.
 Short the load terminals and find the short circuit current
 Norton’s equivalent circuit is drawn by keeping RTH in parallel with ISC
 IL= (ISC.RTH) / (RTH+RL)
30. Write some applications of maximum power transfer theorem.
 Power amplifiers  Communication system  Microwave transmission
31. What are the limitations of maximum power transfer theorem?
 The maximum efficiency can be obtained by using this theorem is only 50%. It is because
of 50% of the power is unnecessarily wasted in RTH.
 Therefore this theorem only applicable for communication circuits and not for power
circuits where efficiency is greater importance rather than power delivered.
32. Define source transformation
The current and voltage sources may be interchanged without affecting the remainder of the
circuit, this technique is the source transformation. It is the tool for simplifying the circuit.
33. Define line currents and phase currents?
The currents flowing in the lines are called as line currents. The currents flowing through
phase are called phase currents
34. Define line voltage and phase voltage?
The voltage across one phase and neutral is called line voltage & the voltage between two
lines is called phase voltage
35. Give the phase value & Line value of a star connected system.
VL= 3Vph and IL= √3Iph
36. Give the phase value and line valued of a delta connected system
IL= 3Iph and VL= √3Vph
37. What is the power equation for a star/ Delta connected system?
P= √3 IL VL cosΦ (watts)
38. What is meant by Real power?
Real power means the useful power transfer from source to load. Unit is watts.
P= VI cosΦ
39. What is meant by apparent power?
Apparent power is the product of voltage and current and it is not true power. Unit is VA
P= VI
40. What is reactive power?
If we consider the circuit as purely inductive the output power is reactive power. Its unit is
VAR
P= VI sinΦ
41. Write down the formula for a star connected network is converted into a delta network?
RA = (R1 R2)/ (R1 +R2+ R3)
RB = (R1 R3)/ (R1 +R2+ R3)
RC = (R2 R3)/ (R1 +R2+ R3)
42. Write down the formula for a delta connected network is converted into a star network?
R1= (RARB+RBRC+RCRA)/RC
R2= (RARB+RBRC+RCRA)/RB
R3= (RARB+RBRC+RCRA)/RA

UNIT-II

1. State the basic parts of a DC machine.

Stationary Parts: Frame, Main pole, field coils, interpoles, interpole winding
Rotating Parts: Armature core, Armature winding, Commutator, Shaft.
2. What is the basic principle of a dc generator?
Basic principle of a dc generator is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. i.e. whenever
a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, dynamically induced emf is produced in that
conductor.
3. Write down the emf equation for d.c generator.
E = (фNZ / 60)(P/A) Volts Where P= number of poles Z= Total number of conductors A=
number of parallel paths Ф= flux per pole N= speed in rpm
4. How is voltage generated in rotating machines?
In rotating machines voltage is generated in windings or group of coils by rotating them
through a magnetic field or by mechanically rotating a magnetic field past the winding or by
designing the magnetic circuit so that the reluctance varies with rotation of the rotor.
5. Why the armature core in DC machines is constructed with laminated steel sheets
instead of solid steel?
Solid Steel sheets offer low reluctance path for the magnetic field, laminated sheets reduce
eddy current loss.
6. Why is commutator employed in d.c machines?
• Conduct electricity between armature and fixed brushes
• Converts alternating emf into unidirectional emf and vice versa
7. Distinguish between shunt and series field coil constructions.
Shunt field coils are wound with wires of small cross section and have more number of turns.
Series field coils are wound with wires of larger cross section and have less number of turns
8. How can one differentiate between long shunt compound generator and short shunt
compound generator?
In a short shunt compound generator the shunt field circuit is shorter i.e. across the armature
terminals. In a long shunt compound generator the shunt field circuit is connected across the
load terminals.
9. Why is the emf not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in a dc generator?
Even after the field current/magnetizing force is reduced to zero the machine is left out with
some flux as residue. Emf due to this residual flux is available when field current is zero.
10. On what occasions dc generators may not have residual flux?
• The generator may be put for its first operation after its construction.
• In previous operation the generator would have been fully demagnetized.
11. Why are carbon brushes preferred for dc machines?
The high contact resistance carbon brushes help the current in the coil undergoing
commutation to attain its full value in the reverse direction at the end of commutation. The
carbon brushes also lubricate and give less wear and tear on commutator surface.
12. Name any two applications of DC series generator.
Booster, electric welding, Constant current source, Constant illumination
13. What is back emf in d.c motor?
As the motor armature rotates, the system of conductor come across alternate North and
South Pole magnetic fields causing an emf induced in the conductors. The direction of the
emf induced in the conductors. The direction of the emf induced is in the direction opposite
to the current .As this emf always opposes the flow of current in motor operation it is called
back emf
14. Name the different types of DC motors.
Shunt motor, Series motor, cumulative compound motor, differential compound Motor.
15. Name any four applications of DC series motors.
Electric traction, Food mixies, Hoist work, Drilling machine
16. Why a dc shunt motor is also called a constant flux motor or constant speed motor?
In shunt motor, flux produced by field winding is directly proportional to the field current i.e.
(Φ α Ish). Here, the input voltage is constant and so the flux is also constant. Therefore, DC
shunt motor is also called a constant flux motor or constant speed motor.
 17. Why series motor cannot be started without any load?
In dc series motor, flux is directly proportional to armature current. i.e. (Φ α Ia). Under no
load condition, the armature current is very low and flux also be less. By using the formula N
α (1/ Φ), here Φ is less; the motor speed will be very high. Due to this motor will be
damaged. Hence dc series motor should always be started with some load on the shaft.
18. Enumerate the factors on which the speed of a dc motor depends.
N = (V-IaRa)/ф The speed of dc motor depends on three factors. • Flux in the air gap •
Resistance of the armature circuit • Voltage applied to the armature
19. What are the two types of 3-phase induction motor?
a. Squirrel cage induction motor. b. Slip ring induction motor.
20. Write the two extra features of slip ring induction motors.
a. Rotor is having 3-phase winding.
b. Extra resistance can be added in the rotor circuit by connecting through the help of three
slip rings for improving the power factor, increasing Starting Torque, limiting the starting
current.
21. Can we add extra resistance in series with squirrel cage rotor? State the reason?
We cannot add extra resistance in series with the rotor because all the copper bars of the rotor
are short circuited in both the sides by copper end rings to have a closed circuit.
22. Why an induction motor is called rotating transformer?
The rotor receives electrical power in exactly the same way as the secondary of a two
winding transformer receiving its power from primary. That is why an induction motor can
be called as a rotating transformer i.e., in which primary winding is stationary but the
secondary is free to rotate.
23. Why an induction motor will never run at its synchronous speed?
If it runs at synchronous speed then there would be no related speed between the two, hence
no rotor emf, no rotor current so no rotor torques to maintain rotation. That is why the rotor
runs at its synchronous speed.
24. Why the rotor slots of a 3-phase induction motor are skewed?
The rotor slots of a three -phase induction motor are skewed
i. to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum
ii. to reduce the locking tendency of the rotor
25. State the difference between slip ring rotor and cage rotor of an induction motor?
Slip ring rotor has 3-phase windings. Three ends of which are stared and the other three ends
are brought up and connected to 3 slip rings mounted in the shaft. Extra resistance can be
added in the rotor circuit. Squirrel cage rotor has short-circuited copper bars. Extra resistance
can’t be added as slip ring rotor.
26. What is a stepper motor?
A stepper motor is a brushless Dc motor whose rotor rotates in discrete angular displacement
when its stator windings are energized in a program manner. Input is in the form of digital
signals and output is in the form of discrete angular rotation
27. Give the classification of stepper motor
 variable reluctance
 permanent magnet hybrid stepper motor
 28. What is hybrid stepper motor?
Hybrid stepper motor combines the features of both permanent magnets and variable
reluctance stepping motor in order to achieve a small step angle and a high torque from a
small size
29. What is meant by micro stepping in stepper motor?
The methods of modulating currents through stator windings so as to obtain rotation of stator
magnetic field through a small angle to obtain micro stepping action is known as micro
stepping.
30. What are the advantages of brushless dc motor drives?
• Regenerative braking is possible.
• Speed can be easily controllable.
• It is possible to have very high speeds.
• There is no field winding so that field copper loss is neglected.
31. What are the disadvantages of brushless dc motor drives?
• Motor field cannot be controlled.
• It requires a rotor position sensor.
• It requires a Power semiconductor switching circuit.
• Power rating is restricted because of the maximum available size of Permanent magnets.
32. Mention the some applications of BLDC motor
• Power alternators.
• Automotive applications.
• Computer and robotics applications.
• Textile and glass industries.
33. Definition of Transformer
Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one
circuit to another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual
induction between two windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without
changing its frequency but may be in different voltage level.
34. State working Principle of Transformer
The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding is
responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.
35. Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers.
In core type, the windings surround the core considerably and in shell type the core surround
the winding.
36. What is the purpose of laminating the core in a transformer?
The purpose of laminating the core in a transformer is to reduce the eddy current losses.
37. Give the emf equation of a transformer and define each term
Emf induced in primary coil E1 = 4.44 fΦmN1 volt
Emf induced in secondary coil E2 = 4.44fΦmN2 volt
Where f is the frequency of AC input Φm is the maximum value of flux in the core N1, N2
are the number of primary and secondary turns.
38. Define all day efficiency of a transformer.
It is the computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period, usually a day of
24 hrs. ηall day = output in kWh /input in kWh for 24 hrs.
39. Why transformers are rated in kVA ?
Copper loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on voltage. Hence total Losses
depend on Volt- Ampere and not on the power factor. That is why the rating of Transformers
are in kVA and not in kW.
40. How transformers are classified according to their construction?
Transformers are classified according to their construction as, (i) Core type (ii) Shell type

UNIT-III

1. What is conventional energy source? Give some examples

The basic energy sources for generating electric power are fossil fuels, hydel source
and nuclear fuel. These sources are known as conventional sources of energy as these
sources are used over several decades for power generation.
2. What is non-conventional energy source? Give some examples
Non-conventional sources of Energy. Natural resources like wind, tides, solar,
biomass, etc generate energy which is known as “Non-conventional resources“. These
are pollution free and hence we can use these to produce a clean form of energy
without any wastage.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of non renewable energy?

a. Advantages of non-renewable energy
 It is easy to store
 It is easily accessible
 It is more compatible
 It is affordable
 It is present in fair quantity
 It can be efficiently converted to the type of energy required
 It is easy to transport
 A power plant which runs on non-renewable source of energy can be
located anywhere as long as fuel is available
 They are available throughout the year unlike solar energy or water
energy
 They have high energy density
b. Disadvantages of non-renewable energy
 It produces greenhouse gases
 Its by products cause damage to the environment
 Once exhausted they are not easily replenished
 Rising cost
 Its residual products are generally non-biodegradable
 Its products pose potential threat to human health
 Responsible for acid rain
4. What are the applications of solar energy?
 Solar water heating
 Solar heating of buildings
 Solar distillation
 Solar pumping
 Solar drying of agricultural and animal products
 Solar furnaces
 Solar cooking
 Solar electric power generation
 Solar thermal power production

5. What are the merits and demerits of solar energy?

a. Advantages:
 Solar power is pollution free and causes no greenhouse gases to be emitted
after installation
 Reduced dependence on foreign oil and fossil fuels
 Renewable clean power that is available every day of the year, even cloudy
days produce some power
 Return on investment unlike paying for utility bills
 Virtually no maintenance as solar panels last over 30 years
 Creates jobs by employing solar panel manufacturers, solar installers, etc. and
in turn helps the economy
 Excess power can be sold back to the power company if grid intertied
 Ability to live grid free if all power generated provides enough for the home /
building
 Can be installed virtually anywhere; in a field to on a building
 Use batteries to store extra power for use at night
 Solar can be used to heat water, power homes and building, even power cars
 Safer than traditional electric current
 Efficiency is always improving so the same size solar that is available today
will become more efficient tomorrow
 Aesthetics are improving making the solar more versatile compared to older
models; i.e. printing, flexible, solar shingles, etc.
 Federal grants, tax incentives, and rebate programs are available to help with
initial costs
b. Disadvantages
 High initial costs for material and installation and long ROI
 Needs lots of space as efficiency is not 100% yet
 No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank
 Some people think they are ugly (I am definitely not one of those!)
 Devices that run on DC power directly are more expensive
 Depending on geographical location the size of the solar panels vary for the
same power generation
 Cloudy days do not produce much energy
  Solar panels are not being massed produced due to lack of material and
technology to lower the cost enough to be more affordable
 Solar powered cars do not have the same speeds and power as typical gas
powered cars
 Lower production in the winter months
6. What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of wind energy
a. Advantages
• Wind is a reliable and infinite renewable energy resource
• Wind energy is cost effective, and prices are dropping still
• Wind energy reduces carbon emissions when used instead of fossil
fuels
• Few running costs when the turbines are up and running.
• Offshore wind farms can take advantage of offshore wind flow,
without affecting the landscape view.
b. Disadvantages of wind energy
• Wind energy can be unpredictable as the amount of electricity
generated is dependent on the speed and direction of the wind
• Wind farms can affect the visual appearance of the landscape
• Wind turbines can damage the habitats of birds and marine life.
• Wind farms can be expensive to construct
7. What is meant by refrigeration?
Refrigeration is a process of removing heat from a low-temperature reservoir and
transferring it to a high temperature reservoir. The work of heat transfer is
traditionally driven by mechanical means, but can also be driven by heat, magnetism,
electricity, laser, or other means
8. What are the applications of refrigeration?
a. Used to preserve food for a long period.
b. Used in water coolers.
c. Used to preserve medicines, blood etc in hospitals
d. Used for processing lubricants, chemicals, rubber etc
e. Used to produce ice in ice plants.
9. Commonly used refrigerants?
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), including R12. This is known to contribute to the
greenhouse gas effect. Production of new stocks ceased in 1994.
• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), including R22. Slightly less damaging to the
ozone than R12, but the EPA has still mandated a phase out as a result of the
Clean Air Act of 2010. R22 will phase out completely by 2020.
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), including R410A and R134. With no chlorine in the
mix, this is safer for the environment and is now being used in place of R22.
10. What is meant by air conditioning?
A system for controlling the humidity, ventilation, and temperature in a building or
vehicle, typically to maintain a cool atmosphere in warm conditions.
11. Difference between refrigeration and air conditioning

Air Conditioning Refrigeration

Thermal energy is taken away from the place to keep
the air cooler
It is a type of refrigeration used to cool large area
It deals with maintaining the temperature of a certain
volume of air and also maintaining the purity and
humidity
The compressor and condenser are a separate unit from
the evaporator
The mechanism is supplied with gas from the tubes
Cold air is pushed away from the unit
Thermal energy is transferred from one place
to a place of higher temperature
Helps to flow thermal energy against the
natural flow of heat
It deals only with regulating the temperature of
air such as cooling and freezing of products
The appliance has a condenser, compressor,
and evaporator in one set unit
Internal chemicals and even air is supplied
from the environment
Cold air is kept inside the unit

12. What are classification of air conditioning system?

a. Major Function:
(a) Comfort
(b) Industrial
b. Season
(a) Summer
(b) Winter
(c) Year around
c. Arrangement
(a) Unitary
(b) Central
13. What are the major units in refrigeration systems?
a. Evaporator
b. Compressor
c. Condensor
d. Expansion valve
14. What are the applications of airconditioner?
a. Residential buildings
b. Office rooms
c. Industrial buildings
d. Hotels
e. Hospitals
f. Theatres
g. Industries
15. Define lumen and luminous intensity?
a. Lumen is defined as the flux emitted per unit solid angle from a uniform source,
once candle power Cp.
b. Luminous intensity is a measure of the wavelength-weighted power emitted by a
light source in a particular direction per unit solid angle, based on the luminosity
function, a standardized model of the sensitivity of the human eye. The SI unit of
luminous intensity is the candela (cd), an SI base unit.
16. What are the laws of illumination?
a. The Inverse Square Law of Illuminance
This law states that the Illuminance (E) at any point on a plane perpendicular
to the line joining the point and source is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between the source and plane. E=1/r2 lumens/sq.m
b. Lumberts cosine law
The law states that Illuminance at a point on a plane is proportional to the
cosine of the angle of light incident (the angle between the direction of the
incident light and the normal to the plane).

17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sodium vapour lamp?
a. Advantages:
• Most energy efficient among all artificial light sources.
• Very long life span up to 50000 hours.
• Color temperature is always warm
• They are ideal for using at airports, seaports, streets, railway marshalling
yard and crossings etc.
b. Disadvantages:
• Only monochromatic color.
• Bad color rendering index
• Unusable for color recognition places.
• Sodium is hazardous and can catch fire in contact of air
18. What are the applications of sodium vapour lamp?
a. High way lighting
b. Outdoor lighting where color discrimination is not required like street light, parks,
rail yards, storage yards
19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of mercury vapour lamp?
a. Advantages:
• Efficiency is high
• Output is more
• Long life
b. Disadvantages:
• Initial time required for warming is about 5 minutes
• Cooling is required for restarting
• It has mercury which is harmful to humans and wild life
20. What are the applications of Mercury vapour lamp?
Street lighting, Cricket stadium lighting.
21. Define Primary and secondary cell.
a. A primary cell is a battery (a galvanic cell) that is designed to be used once and
discarded, and not recharged with electricity
b. A rechargeable electric cell that converts chemical energy into electrical energy
by a reversible chemical reaction.
22. What are the active material of a lead acid battery?
• The lead acid battery uses lead as the anode and lead dioxide as the cathode,
with an acid electrolyte.
• The following half-cell reactions take place inside the cell during discharge:
 • At the anode: Pb + HSO4– → PbSO4 + H+ + 2e–
• At the cathode: PbO2 + 3H+ + HSO4– + 2e– → PbSO4 + 2H2O

• Overall: Pb + PbO2 +2H2SO4 → 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

• During the charging process, the reactions at each electrode are reversed; the
anode becomes the cathode and the cathode becomes the anode.
23. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Lead acid battery?
a. Advantages
• Low cost.
• Reliable. Over 140 years of development.
• Robust. Tolerant to abuse.
• Tolerant to overcharging.
• Low internal impedance.
• Can deliver very high currents.
• Indefinite shelf life if stored without electrolyte.
• Can be left on trickle or float charge for prolonged periods.
• Wide range of sizes and capacities available.
• Many suppliers world wide.
• The world's most recycled product.
b. Shortcomings
• Very heavy and bulky.
• Typical coulombic charge efficiency only 70% but can be as high as 85%
to 90% for special designs.
• Danger of overheating during charging
• Not suitable for fast charging
• Typical cycle life 300 to 500 cycles .
• Must be stored in a charged state once the electrolyte has been introduced
to avoid deterioration of the active chemicals.
24. What are the active material of a lithium ion battery?
Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as the material at the positive
electrode and typically graphite at the negative electrode. The batteries have a high
energy density, no memory effect (other than LFP cells) and low self-discharge.

25. What are the advantages and disadvantages of lithium ion battery?
a. Advantages
• High energy density - potential for yet higher capacities.
• Does not need prolonged priming when new. One regular charge is all
that's needed.
• Relatively low self-discharge - self-discharge is less than half that of
nickel-based batteries.
• Low Maintenance - no periodic discharge is needed; there is no memory.
• Specialty cells can provide very high current to applications such as power
tools.
b. Limitations
• Requires protection circuit to maintain voltage and current within safe
limits.
 • Subject to aging, even if not in use - storage in a cool place at 40% charge
reduces the aging effect.
• Transportation restrictions - shipment of larger quantities may be subject
to regulatory control. This restriction does not apply to personal carry-on
batteries.
• Expensive to manufacture - about 40 percent higher in cost than nickel-
cadmium.
• Not fully mature - metals and chemicals are changing on a continuing
basis.
26. What are the active materials in nickel cadmium battery?
Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) batteries in the charged state have positive plates with
nickel oxy-hydroxide (NiOOH) as active material, negative plates with finely divided
cadmium metal as active material, and an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide (KOH)
in water (20–35% by weight).

27. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Nickel cadmium batteries?
Advantages:
• Rugged, high cycle count with proper maintenance
• Only battery that can be ultra-fast charged with little stress
• Good load performance; forgiving if abused
• Long shelf life; can be stored in a discharged state
• Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory control
• Good low-temperature performance
• Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options
Disadvantages:
• Relatively low specific energy compared with newer systems
• Memory effect; needs periodic full discharges
• Cadmium is a toxic metal. Cannot be disposed of in landfills
• High self-discharge; needs recharging after storage
28. What is the use of separator in battery?
Insulation between anode and cathode is achieved by separator in battery.
29. What is meant by earthing?
Earthing is the method of transmitting the instant electricity discharge directly to the
ground through low resistance wires or electrical cables. This is one of the significant
features of electrical networks
30. What are the advantages of earthing?
It keeps people safe by preventing electric shocks. It prevents damage to electrical
appliances and devices by preventing excessive current from running through the
circuit. It prevents the risk of fire that could otherwise be caused by current leakage.
31. What are the methods of earthing in power systems?
a. Solid earthing
b. Resistance earthing
c. Earth fault neutralizer
d. Arc suppression coil
e. Voltage transformer
f. Earthed transformer
32. Define Fuse
The body of the fuse is made up of Porcelain or Ceramic and the fuse element
chamber is filled with Silica Sand.
33. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fuses
a. Advantages:
• Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit
• Fuse needs zero maintenance
• Operation of fuse is simple and no complexity is involved
• Fuse has the ability to interrupt enormous short circuit current without
producing noise, flame, gas or smoke
• The operation time of fuse can be made much smaller than operation of
circuit breaker. It is the primary protection device against short circuits
• It affords current limiting effect under short-circuit conditions
• Fuse inverse time current characteristic has the ability to use for over-load
protection
b. Disadvantage:
• During short circuit or overload once fuse blows off replacing of fuse takes
time. During this period the circuit lost power
• When fuses are connected in series it is difficult to discriminate the fuse
unless the fuse has significant size difference
34. Define fusing factor
Fusing Factor. This is the ratio of minimum fusing current and current rating of fuse.
Therefore, fusing factor = Minimum fusing current or current rating of the fuse.
35. What are the desirable characteristics of fuse element?
a. Low melting point
b. High conductivity
c. Free deterioration
d. Low cost
36. Mention some fuse materials
a. Lead
b. Tin
c. Copper
d. Zinc
e. Silver
37. What are the classification of fuses?
a. Low voltage
b. High Voltage
38. What are the advantages and disadvantages of semi-enclosed rewireable fuses?
a. Advantages of Semi enclosed Fuses
• They are very cheap compared with other protective devices both install
and to replace.
• They are no mechanical moving parts.
• It is easy to identify a blown fuse.
b. Disadvantages of Semi enclosed Fuses
• The fuse element may be replaced with wire of the wrong size either
deliberately or by accident.
 • The fuse element weakens with age due to oxidization, which may result
in a failure under normal operating conditions.
• The circuit cannot be restored quickly since the fuse element requires
screw fixing.
39. What are the advantages and disadvantages of HBC fuses.
a. Advantages of HBC Fuses
• They have no mechanical moving parts.
• The declared rating is accurate.
• Their operation is very rapid under fault conditions.
• They are capable of breaking very heavy fault currents safely.
• They are capable of discriminating between a persistent fault and transient
fault such as the large starting current taken by the motors.
• It is difficult to confuse cartridges since different ratings are made to
different physical sizes
b. Disadvantages of HBC Fuses
• They are very expensive compared to semi enclosed fuses
40. Define Circuit breaker.
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short
circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected.
41. List the types of circuit breaker
a. Low voltages
b. Medium Voltages
c. High Voltages
42. Compare fuse and Circuit breaker
BASIS FUSE CIRCUIT BREAKER
Working Fuse works on the electrical and Circuit breaker works on the
Principle thermal properties of the conducting Electromagnetism and switching
materials. principle.
Reusability Fuses can be used only once. Circuit breakers can be used a
number of times.
Status It does not give any indication. It gives an indication of the status
indication
Auxiliary No auxiliary contact is required. They are available with auxiliary
contact contact.
Switching Fuse cannot be used as as an The Circuit breaker is used as an
Action ON/OFF switch. ON/OFF switches.
Temperature They are independent of ambient Circuit breaker Depends on ambient
temperature temperature
Characteristic The Characteristic curve shifts The characteristic curve does not
Curve because of the ageing effect. shift.
Protection The Fuse provides protection against Circuit breaker provides protection
only power overloads against power overloads and short
circuits.
Function It provides both detection and Circuit breaker performs only
interruption process. interruption. Faults are detected by
relay system.
Breaking Breaking capacity of the fuse is low Breaking capacity is high.
capacity as compared to the circuit breaker.
Operating time Operating time of fuse is very less Operating time is comparatively
(0.002 seconds) more than that of the fuse. (0.02 –
0.05 seconds)
Version Only single pole version is available. Single and multiple version are
available.
Mode of Completely automatically. Manually as well as automatically
operation operated.
Cost Cost of fuse is low. Cost of circuit breaker is high.

43. Define tariff

The rate at which energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff. Energy rates the
different methods of charging the consumers for the consumption of electricity.
44. What are the objectives of tariff?
(i) Recovery of cost of capital investment in generat-ing, transmitting and distributing
equipment.
(ii) Recovery of cost of operation, supplies and mainte-nance of equipment.
(iii) Recovery of cost of metering equipment, billing, col-lection costs and
miscellaneous services, and
(iv) A satisfactory return on the total capital investment.

UNIT-IV

1.What is depletion region in PN junction?

The region around the junction from which the mobile charge carriers (electrons and holes)
are depleted is called as depletion region. Since this region has immobile ions, which are
electrically charged, the depletion region is also known as space charge region.
2. Give the other names of depletion region?
i. Space charge region
ii. Transition region
3. What is barrier potential?
The oppositely charged ions present on both sides of PN junction an electric potential is
established across the junction even without any external voltage source which is termed as
barrier potential.
4. What is meant by biasing a PN junction?
Connecting a PN junction to an external voltage source is biasing a PN junction.
5. What are the types of biasing a PN junction?
i. Forward bias
ii. Reverse bias.
6. What is forward bias and reverse bias in a PN junction?
When positive terminal of the external supply is connected to P region and negative terminal
to N region, the PN junction is said to be forward biased. Under forward biased condition the
PN region offers a very low resistance and a large amount of current flows through it.
7. What is reverse bias in a PN junction?
When positive terminal of the external supply is connected to N type and negative terminal to
P type then the PN junction is said to be in reverse bias. Under reverse biased condition the
PN region offers a very high resistance and a small amount of current flows through it.
8. What is Reverse saturation current?
The current due to the minority carriers in reverse bias is said to be reverse saturation current.
This current is independent of the value of the reverse bias voltage.
9. Why contact differences of potential exist in PN junction?
When a PN junction is formed by placing a p-type and n-type material in intimate contact, the
Fermi level throughout the newly formed specimen is not constant at equilibrium. There will
be transfer of electron and energy until Fermi levels in the two sides did line up. But the
valence and conduction band in p-side cannot be at the same level as in n-side, this shift in
energy level results in contact difference of potential.
10. What is the static resistance of a diode?
Static resistance R of a diode can be defined as the ratio of voltage V across the diode to the
current flowing through the diode. R = V/ I
Where R - Static resistance of a diode
V - Voltage across the diode
I - current across the diode
11. Define dynamic resistance.
Dynamic resistance of a diode can be defined as the ratio of change in voltage across the
diode to the change in current through the diode.
r=V/I
Where r - Dynamic resistance of a diode
V - change in voltage across the diode
I - change in current through the diode
12. What is meant by zener break down?
When a PN junction is heavily doped, the depletion region is very narrow. So under reverse
bias condition, the electric field across the depletion region is intense. Such an intense field is
enough to pull the electrons out of the valence band of the stable atoms. Such a creation of
free electrons is called zener effect. These minority carriers constitute very large current and
the mechanism is called zener break down.
13. Differentiate between drift and diffusion currents.
Drift current Diffusion current

It is developed due to potential gradient It is developed due to charge concentration

gradient
This phenomenon is found both in This is found only in semiconductors
metals and semiconductors
14. Differentiate between avalanche and zener break down.
Zener break down Avalanche breakdown
Breakdown occurs due to heavily doped Breakdown occurs due to avalanche
junction and applied strong electric field multiplication between thermally generated
ions
Doping level is high Doping level is low
Breakdown occurs at lower voltage Break down occurs at higher voltage
compared to avalanche breakdown
The temperature coefficient is negative The temperature coefficient is Positive
This occurs for zener diodes with Vz This occurs for zener diodes with Vz
less than 6V greater than 6V
15. List the diode parameters
i. Bulk resistance
ii. Static resistance
iii. Dynamic resistance
iv. Reverse resistance
v. Knee voltage
vi. Break down voltage
vii. Reverse current or leakage current
16. What is an amplifier?
An amplifier is a device which produces a large electrical output of similar characteristics to
that of the input parameters.
17. Define Knee Voltage of a diode
The minimum voltage at which the diode starts conducting and current starts increasing
Exponentially is called knee voltage of a diode.
18. What is peak inverse voltage?
In reverse biased, opposite polarity voltage appears across diode. The maximum voltage
which diode can withstand without breakdown is called peak inverse voltage.
19. Differentiate drift and diffusion current
When a voltage is applied to a material, the free electrons move towards the positive of the
battery. While moving them collide with the adjacent atoms and keep changing their
directions randomly. In case of diffusion current, the external voltage is not required.
20. What is a PN Junction diode?
There are two electrodes each from p-type and n-type materials and due to these two
electrodes; the device is called a diode. It conducts only in one direction.
21. Define a Transistor.
Transistor consists of two junctions formed by sandwiching either P-type or N-type
semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.
22. Write the current amplification factor for a CB transistor.
a = Change in Collector Current at constant VCB / Change in emitter current.
23. Write the formula for input resistance in a CB transistor
Input resistance = Change in base - emitter voltage / Change in emitter current at constant
VCB
24. Write the current amplification factor for a CE transistor.
b = Change in Collector Current / Change in base current at constant VCE
25. Define transistor action.
A transistor consists of 2 coupled PN junctions. The base is a common region to both
junctions and makes a coupling between them. Since the base regions are smaller, a
significant interaction between junctions will be available. This is called transistor actions.
26. Which is the most commonly used transistor configuration?Why?
The CE Configuration is most commonly used. The reasons are,
i. High Current gain
ii. High voltage gain
iii. High power
iv. Moderate input to output ratio.
27. Define an operational amplifier.
An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled, high gain amplifier consisting of one or more
differential amplifier. By properly selecting the external components, it can be used to
perform a variety of mathematical operations.
28. Mention the characteristics of an ideal op-amp.
 Open loop voltage gain is infinity.
 Input impedance is infinity.
 Output impedance is zero.
 Bandwidth is infinity.
 Zero offset.
29. Define input offset voltage.
A small voltage applied to the input terminals to make the output voltage as zero when the
two input terminals are grounded is called input offset voltage.
30. Define CMRR of an op-amp.
The relative sensitivity of an op-amp to a difference signal as compared to a common –mode
signal is called the common –mode rejection ratio. It is expressed in decibels. CMRR=
Ad/Ac
31. What is frequency response of Op-amp?
The plot showing the variations in magnitude and phase angle of the gain due to change in
frequency is called frequency response of Op-amp. The plot is used to find the bandwidth and
cut-off frequencies of Op-amp.
32. Define slew rate.
The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a step
input voltage. An ideal slew rate is infinite which means that opamp’s output voltage should
change instantaneously in response to input step voltage.
33. Mention some of the linear applications of op – amps.
Adder, subtractor, voltage –to- current converter, current –to- voltage converters,
instrumentation amplifier, analog computation ,power amplifier, etc are some of the linear
op-amp circuits.
34. Mention some of the non – linear applications of op-amps.
Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit, log amplifier, anti –log
amplifier, multiplier are some of the non – linear op-amp circuits.
35. What do you mean by a precision diode?
The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages below the cut – in
voltage of the diode. A circuit designed by placing a diode in the feedback loop of an op –
amp is called the precision diode and it is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of
milli volt.
36.What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit?
At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break into oscillations. The
input impedance decreases with increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive to
high frequency noise.
37.Write down the condition for good differentiation.
For good differentiation, the time period of the input signal must be greater than or equal to
Rf C1 T > R f C1 Where, Rf is the feedback resistance Cf is the input capacitance
38.What are the requirements for producing sustained oscillations in feedback circuits?
For sustained oscillations,
The total phase shift around the loop must be zero at the desired frequency of oscillation, fo.
ie, AB =0 (or) 360° At fo, the magnitude of the loop gain | A β | should be equal to unity
39. Explain in brief the principle of operation of successive Approximation ADC.
The circuit of successive approximation ADC consists of a successive approximation register
(SAR), to find the required value of each bit by trial & error. With the arrival of START
command, SAR sets the MSB bit to 1. The O/P is converted into an analog signal & it is
compared with I/P signal. This O/P is low or High. This process continues until all bits are
checked.
40. Where are the successive approximation type ADC’s used?
The Successive approximation ADCs are used in applications such as data loggers &
instrumentation where conversion speed is important.
41. What is the main drawback of a dual-slop ADC?
The dual slope ADC has long conversion time. This is the main drawback of dual slope ADC.
42. State the advantages of dual slope ADC:
It provides excellent noise rejection of ac signals whose periods are integral multiples of the
integration time T.
43. Define conversion time.
It is defined as the total time required to convert an analog signal into its digital output. It
depends on the conversion technique used & the propagation delay of circuit components.
The conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is given by
T(n+1) where T---clock period
Tc---conversion time n----no. of bits
44. Define resolution of a data converter.
The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produced at the
output or input of the converter.
Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment.
The resolution of an ADC is defined as the smallest change in analog input for a one bit
change at the output.
45. Define accuracy of converter.
Absolute accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation between the actual converter output & the ideal converter output.
Relative accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation after gain & offset errors have been removed. The accuracy of a
converter is also specified in form of LSB increments or % of full scale voltage.
46. Find the resolution of an 8-bit DAC.
Resolution =1/( 28 -1) =1/ 255
47. Which is the fastest A/D converter and why?
`Flash type A/D converter is the fastest ADC, because the fast conversion speed is
accomplished by providing 2n-1 comparators and simultaneously comparing the input signal
with unique reference levels spaced 1 LSB apart.
48. What are limitations of Flash type ADC?
Flash type ADC employs 2n-1 comparators for conversion which makes it costlier which
tradeoffs in the speed of conversion.
49. Name the essentials parts of a DAC.
Analog input signal, D/A converter circuit, Switches for DAC.
50.What is a sample and hold circuit? Where it is used?
A sample and hold circuit is one which samples an input signal and holds on to its last
sampled value until the input is sampled again. This circuit is mainly used in digital
interfacing, analog to digital systems, and pulse code modulation systems.
51.Define sample period and hold period.
The time during which the voltage across the capacitor in sample and hold circuit is equal to
the input voltage is called sample period. The time period during which the voltage across the
capacitor is held constant is called hold period.
52. Define 555 IC?
The 555 timer is an integrated circuit specifically designed to perform signal generation and
timing functions.
53. Draw the Pin diagram of IC 555.

54. Mention some applications of 555 timer:

 Oscillator
 pulse generator
 ramp and square wave generator
 mono-shot multivibrator
  burglar alarm
 Traffic light control.

55. List the applications of 555 timer in monostable mode of operation:

 Missing pulse detector
 Linear ramp generator
 Frequency divider
 Pulse width modulation.
56.List the applications of 555 timer in Astable mode of operation:
 FSK generator
 Pulse-position modulator
57. What is a multivibrator?
Multivibrators are a group of regenerative circuits that are used extensively in timing
applications. It is a wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or asymmetric square output.
It has two states either stable or quasi- stable depending on the type of multivibrator.
58 .What do you mean by monostable multivibrator?
Monostable multivibrator is one which generates a single pulse of specified duration in
response to each external trigger signal. It has only one stable state. Application of a trigger
causes a change to the quasi-stable state. An external trigger signal generated due to charging
and discharging of the capacitor produces the transition to the original stable state.
59.What is an astable multivibrator?
Astable multivibrator is a free running oscillator having two quasi-stable states. Thus, there is
oscillations between these two states and no external signal are required to produce the
change in state.
60. Give the classification of voltage regulators: What is a voltage regulator?
A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage independent of
the load current, temperature, and ac line voltage variations.
61. What is a linear voltage regulator?
Series or linear regulator uses a power transistor connected in series between the unregulated
dc input and the load and it conducts in the linear region .The output voltage is controlled by
the continuous voltage drop taking place across the series pass transistor.
62. what is the use of Error Amplifier:
Error amplifier is a high gain differential amplifier with 2 input (inverting & Noninverting).
The Non-inverting terminal is connected to the internally generated reference voltage. The
Inverting terminal is connected to the full regulated output voltage.
63. What is a switching regulator?
Switching regulators are those which operate the power transistor as a high frequency on/off
switch, so that the power transistor does not conduct current continuously. This gives
improved efficiency over series regulators.
64. Give some examples of monolithic IC voltage regulators:
 78XX series fixed output, positive voltage regulators
 79XX series fixed output, negative voltage regulators
 723 general purpose regulators.
65. Give the drawbacks of linear regulators:
The input step down transformer is bulky and expensive because of low line frequency.
Because of low line frequency, large values of filter capacitors are required to decrease the
ripple. Efficiency is reduced due to the continuous power dissipation by the transistor as it
operates in the linear region.
66. What is the advantage of switching regulators?
Greater efficiency is achieved as the power transistor is made to operate as low impedance
switch. Power transmitted across the transistor is in discrete pulses rather than as a steady
current flow. By using suitable switching loss reduction technique, the switching frequency
can be increased so as to reduce the size and weight of the inductors and capacitors.
67. List the features of LM 317
 LM317 series adjustable 3 terminal positive voltage regulator, the three terminals are
Vin, Vout & adjustment (ADJ).
 LM317 requires only 2 external resistors to set the output voltage.

voltage is called as Vref.

Voltage) is a constant, hence current I1 flows through R1 will also be
constant. Because resistor R1 sets current I1. It is called “current set” or “program resistor”.
68. List the features of LM723
 Unregulated dc supply voltage at the input between 9.5V & 40V
 Adjustable regulated output voltage between 2 to 3V.
 Maximum load current of 150 mA (ILmax = 150mA).
 With the additional transistor used, ILmax upto 10A is obtainable.
 Positive or Negative supply operation
 Internal Power dissipation of 800mW.
 Built in short circuit protection.
 Very low temperature drift.
 High ripple rejection.
UNIT-V
1. Mention the functions performed by the measurement system.
The functions performed by the measurement system are
i. Indicating function
ii. Recording function
iii. Controlling function
2. List the functional elements of the measurement systems.
The three main functional elements of the measurement systems are:
i. Primary sensing element
ii. Variable conversion element
iii. Data presentation element
3. Write the characteristics of the measurement system.
A characteristic of measurement system is divided into two categories:
i. Static characteristics
ii. Dynamic characteristics
4. Write the main static characteristics?
The main static characteristics are:
 i. Accuracy
ii. Sensitivity
iii. Reproducibility
iv. Drift
v. Static error
vi. Dead zone
vii. Resolution
viii. Precision
ix. Repeatability
5. Define static error
Static error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured value
of the quantity. Static error = At – Am where Am =measured value of quantity At =true
value of quantity.
6. Define resolution
Resolution is defined as the smallest increment of quantity being measured which can
be detected with certainty being measured which can be detected with certainty by an
instrument.
7. Define threshold
Threshold is defined as the minimum value of the input at which the output starts
changing / increasing from zero.
8. Define linearity
The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics
symmetrically and linearly.
9. Define reproducibility
Reproducibility is defined as the degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of
time.
10. Define drift
Drift is defined as slow variation of reading from a fixed value.
11. Define speed response
Speed response is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds
to changes in measured quantity. It is one of the dynamic characteristics of a
measurement system.
12. Define fidelity
Fidelity is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in
the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
13. Define dynamic error
Dynamic error is defined as the difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system if no static
error is assumed. It is also called measurement error. It is one the dynamic
characteristics.
14. Differentiate PMMC and MI Instrument

S.No. PMMC Moving Iron

1 Measures only DC Measures both AC and DC
2 Cost is high Cost is low
3 Deflection is directly proportional Deflection is directly proportional to the
to the current square of the current
4 The scale is uniform The scale is non uniform
5 Permanent magnets are used for Current carrying coils are used for producing
producing flux flux
6 Moving coil is used Moving Iron is used

15. Why the scale is uniform in PMMC Instrument?

The scale is uniform in PMMC because the deflection produced by the torque is
directly proportional to the current.
16. Why the scale is non uniform in Moving Iron Instrument?
The scale is non-uniform in Moving Iron instrument because the deflection produced
by the torque is directly proportional to the square of the current.
17. Name the instrument that measures only ac and only dc
The instrument that measures only DC is PMMC and the instrument that measures
only AC is Induction type meters.
18. A PMMC instrument has a 0.12T magnetic flux density in its air gaps. The coil
dimensions are D = 1.5 cm and l =2.25 cm. Determine the number of coil turns
required to give a torque of 4.5 µN-m when the coil current is 100µA.
Td = NBldI, therefore N = Td / BldI
N = 4.5 x 10-6 / (0.12 x 2.25 x 10-2 x 1.5 x 10-2 x 100 x 10-6)
N = 1111 turns
19. What is the electrical current effect used to produce deflecting torque in a PMMC
instrument?
When a current (I) carrying conductor of size l and d and N turns, cuts a magnetic
field of flux density B and if the field is radial then the deflecting torque is
Td = NBldI = GI
20. List the various methods of providing control torque.
a) Gravity control and
b) Spring control
21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of moving iron instrument? (Dec 2012)
Advantages:
 Used to measure both A.C and D.C quantities.
 Accurate over a wider range of frequency and greater possibility of using
shunts with ammeters.

 Suitable for economical production.

 Uniform scale.
Disadvantages:
 Temperature coefficient of spring,
 Self heating of coils in voltmeters,
 Stray magnetic fields,
 Changes of reactance of working coils,
 Changes of magnitudes of eddy currents cause errors in moving iron
instruments.
22. List out commonly used damping methods?
a. Air friction damping,
b. Fluid friction damping,
 c. ddy current damping and
d. Electromagnetic damping.
23. Compare the merits of attraction and repulsion type MI instruments?
Attraction Type:
a) Lower value of inductance.
b) Accurate over a wider range of frequency and greater possibility of using shunts
with ammeters.
Repulsion type:
a) Suitable for economical production.
b) Uniform scale.
24. Why electrodynamometer type instrument is called transfer instruments?
A transfer type instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c. source and then used
without modification to measure a.c. This requires the transfer type instrument to have
same accuracy for both d.c. and a.c. which the electrodynamometer instruments have.
25. Define torque to weight ratio in electrodynamometer instrument
To have reasonable deflecting torque, mmf of the Moving Coil must be enough. Thus
mmf = NI, hence current through Moving Coil should be high or number of turns should
be large. The current cannot be made high because it may cause excessive heating of
springs. Large number of turns is the only option but it increases the weight of the coil.
26. Give the expression for torque in moving coil instruments.
Deflecting torque, Td = NBldI=GI and Controlling Torque, Tc=Kθ
27. How the power is measured in ac circuits?
The power in the ac circuit is measured by their average power and is given by P = VIcos ,
where P is the average power, V is the RMS voltage value, I is the RMS current and cos is
the power factor.
28. What are the different coils present in wattmeter?
The different coils present in wattmeter are:
1. Pressure or Voltage coil and
2. Current Coil.
29. Define Meter Constant
The meter constant is defined as the number of revolutions made per Killowatt hour.
30. What are the adjustments in energy meter?
 Main speed adjustment,
 Power factor adjustment,
 Friction adjustment and
 Creep adjustment.
 Light load adjustment,
 Full load unity factor adjustment and
 Lag adjustment (low power factor adjustment).
31. What are the causes of creeping in an energy meter?
 Over compensation for friction.
 Excessive voltage across the potential coil.
 Vibrations.
 Stray magnetic fields.
32. How is creep effect energy meters avoided?
Two diametrically opposite holes are drilled in the aluminium disc of the energy meter.
When one of the holes comes under the edge of a pole of the shunt magnet, the rotation is
being limited. In some cases a small piece of iron is attached to the edge of the disc.
33. What is the shape of scale of electrodynamometer type wattcmeters?
θ = KP dM/dθ ;
Where, θ - deflection, P- power to be measured, M- mutual inductance
The deflection is directly proportional to the power being measured and the scale is
uniform over the range in which dM/d θ is constant. The mutual inductance between fixed
and moving coil can be varied over the range 40 to 50 deg. on either side of zero mutual
inductance position. If the position of zero mutual inductance is at the midscale, the scale
will be uniform over 80 to 100 deg.
34. Define: Transducer
A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it
to another, often is a different form.
35. Write the parameters of electrical transducer.
The parameters of electrical transducer are: i. Linearity ii. Sensitivity iii. Dynamic range
iv. Repeatability v. Physical size
36. List the advantages of electrical transducers.
The advantages of electrical transducers are:
• Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.
• Mass-interia effects are minimized.
• Effects of friction are minimized.
• Using very small power level.
• Electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.
• The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium.
37. Give the types of potentiometer.
The types of potentiometer are: i. Translatory ii. Rotational iii. Helipot
38. Give the limitations of thermistor.
Limitations of thermistor are:
i. Non-linearity in resistance Vs temperature characteristics.
ii. Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
iii. Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
iv. Need of shielded power lines, filters etc., and due to high resistance.
39. In what principles inductive transducer works?
i. Variation of self-inductance. ii. Variation of mutual-inductance
40. Write short notes on LVDT.
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) converts the mechanical energy into
differential electrical energy. It has single primary winding, and two secondary windings
wound on a hollow cylindrical former. An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow
former and therefore affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the two
secondary.
41. List the advantages of LVDT.
The advantages of LVDT are:
• High range of displacement measurement.
• Friction and electrical isolation.
• Immunity from external effects.
• High input and high sensitivity.
• Ruggedness
• Low hysteresis and low power consumption.
42. List the limitations of LVDT.
 The limitations of LVDT are:
 Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
 Dynamic response is limited.
 Temperature also affects the transducer.
43. List the two physical parameters in strain gauge.
The two physical parameters in strain gauge are:
i. The change in gauge resistance. ii. The change in length.
44. List out the features of piezo-electric accelerometer.
The features of piezo-electric accelerometer are: i. Instrument is quite small in size and
has a low weight. ii. The natural frequency is very high. iii. Useful for high input
frequencies and the response is poor at low frequencies. iv. The crystal is a source with
high output impedance and in order to avoid loading effect, a voltage monitoring source
of high input impedance should be used.
45. Define: Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducer is defined as a device that converts physical motion into a change in
inductance. It may be either of active or passive type.
46. Give the principle of capacitive transducers.
Capacitive transducer principle is a linear change in capacitance with changes in the
physical position of the moving element may be used to provide an electrical indication of
the elements position. C=KA/d Where K= dielectric constant
47. Mention the methods that are used for generating the two electron beams within the
CRT.
The methods that are used for generating the two electron beams within the CRT are the
double gun tube and split beam method.
48. Mention the two storage techniques used in oscilloscope CRTs.
The two storage techniques used in oscilloscope CRTs are mesh storage and phosphor
storage.
49. CRO has become a universal tool in all kinds of electrical and electronic
investigation. Why?
CRO has become a universal tool in all kinds of electrical and electronic investigations
because in CRO, the vertical input voltage is the voltage under investigation and it moves
the luminous spot up and down in accordance with the instantaneous value of the voltage.
When the input voltage repeats itself at a fast rate, the trace (display) on the screen
appears stationary on the screen.
50. Name the components of a CRO.
The Components of CRO are: i. cathode ray tube (CRT) along with electron gun
assembly ii. Deflection plate assembly iii. Fluorescent screen iv. Glass envelope and v.
base.
51. What is an electron gun?
An electron gun is the source of focused and accelerated electron beam is the electron
gun. The electron gun which emits electrons and forms them into a beam consists of a
heater, a cathode, a grid a pre-accelerating anode, a focusing anode and an accelerating
anode.
 BE8255-BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS AND MEASUREMENT
ENGINEERING

PART-B
Unit-I

1. Find the current through each branch using network reduction technique

Hints :
 Solve using series parallel connections
 Find the total current using Ohm’s law
 Then find the branch currents using current division rule
2. Calculate (i) the equivalent resistance across the terminals of the supply (ii) total
current supplied by the source and (iii) power delivered to 16 ohm in the circuit
shown.

Hints :

 Solve using series parallel connections

 Find the total current using Ohm’s law.
 Then find the power using I2R formula
3. Determine the current through the 2 Ω resistor and the total current delivered by the
battery using Kirchhoff’s laws

Hints :
  Solve using series parallel connections
 Find the total current using Ohm’s law.
 Then find the power using I2R formula
4. Determine the current through 800Ω resistor

Hints :

 Solve using series parallel connections

 Find the total current using Ohm’s law.
 Then find the power using I2R formula
5. The problems given from 1 to 4 can also be solved using
 Mesh analysis
 Nodal analysis
6. What theorem is applied in reducing the network into a voltage source in series with
equivalent resistance? State and use that theorem to determine the current I flowing in the
4 Ω resistor shown in figure. Find also the power dissipated in the 4 Ω resistors.

Hints
 Use Thevenin’s theorem
 Find Rth
 Find Vth

7. State and explain superposition theorem. Using only superposition theorem find the
current in the 10Ω resistor in the circuit shown in figure

Hints
  Use source transformation
 Use mesh loop analysis

8. Determine the voltage across the terminal AB in the circuit shown in the figure.

Hints
 Use source transformation

9. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in figure.

Hints
 Use Thevenin’s theorem
 Find Rth
 Find Vth

10. Find the power loss in 1Ω resistor RL using Norton’s theorem in the figure shown

Hints
 Use Norton’s theorem
 Find Rth
 Find IN
11. State and explain maximum power transfer theorem. Determine the load resistance to
receive maximum power from the source, also find the maximum power delivered to the
load in the circuit shown in the figure.
 Hints
 Find Rth
 Find the maximum power transferred Rth=RL

12. Find the value of R and the current flowing through it in the circuit shown when the
current in the branch OA is zero

Hint
 Use star delta conversion
13. Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent for the figure

Hints
 Use Thevenin’s theorem
 Find Rth
 Find Vth
14. Find the current in each resistor using superposition principle of figure.

Hints
 Use mesh loop analysis
15. Determine the equivalent resistance across AB of the circuit shown in the figure
below.
 Hint
 Use star delta conversion
16. Compute the current in 23 ohm resistor using super position theorem for the circuit shown
below

Hints
 Use source transformation
 Use mesh loop analysis

UNIT-II

1. Explain the construction of D.C.Generator/D.C Motor/D.C Machine with neat diagram.

Hint:
 Draw the cross sectional diagram of DC Generator diagram
 Explain each part of DC Generator
2. Explain the working principle of D.C.Generator with neat diagram.
Hint:
 Draw the working principle diagram
 Explain the working of DC Generator
3. Derive the EMF equation of DC generator
Hint:
 Write all the notation used
 Derive the EMF Equation
 Mention the emf equation for lap and wave winding separately.
4. Illustrate the different types of D.C Generator
Hint:
 Write the different types of generator
 Draw the types diagram
5. Explain the working principle of D.C Motor
Hint:
 Draw the working principle diagram
 Explain the working of DC Motor
6. Derive the torque equation of DC motor.
Hint:
 Write all the notation used
  Derive the torque Equation
 Mention the armature and shaft equation.
 Write the armature equation for shunt and series motor separately.
7. Explain the various method of controlling speed of D.C shunt motor
Hint:
 Write all the speed equation of DC motor
 Write the different methods(Armature control, field control and Voltage control)
 In each method, draw diagram, explain the control method with the help of diagram,
draw the graph, Advantage and disadvantage.
8. Explain the various method of controlling speed of D.C series motor
Hint:
 Write the speed equation of DC motor
 Write the different methods(Armature control and field control)
 In each method, draw diagram, explain the control method with the help of diagram,
Advantage and disadvantage.
9. Explain the construction of Three phase Induction Motor
Hint:
 Draw the cross sectional diagram of Three Phase Induction Motor
 Explain stator with diagram
 Explain the two types of rotor(Squirrel cage and slip ring) with diagram
10. Explain the methods of controlling speed of Three phase Induction Motor
Hint:
 Write the speed equation of Three phase Induction Motor
 Write the different methods of speed control on stator and rotor side
 In each method, draw diagram, explain the control method with the help of diagram.
11. Explain the construction of Alternator (or) Synchronous Generator (or) A.C Generator
Hint:
 Draw the cross sectional diagram of Alternator
 Explain stator with diagram
 Explain the two types of rotor(salient pole and smooth cylindrical) with diagram
12. Derive the EMF equation of an Alternator
Hint:
 Write all the notation used
 Derive the EMF equation of an Alternator
13. Explain the principle of operation of Synchronous Motor
Hint:
 Draw the working principle diagram
 Explain the working of Synchronous Motor
14. Explain the operation of Single phase Induction Motor
Hint:
 Draw the working principle diagram
 Explain the working of Synchronous Motor
15. Write short notes on Stepper motor
Hint:
 Draw the cross sectional diagram
 Write the types
 Explain the each type of Stepper motor
16. Write short notes on Brushless D.C Motor
Hint:
 Draw the cross sectional diagram
 Explain the construction and working
17. Explain the construction and working principle of Transformer with neat diagram
Hint:
  Draw the diagram of Transformer
 Mention the types(shell and core)
 Explain each type with diagram
 Explain the working of transformer
18. Derive the EMF Equation of Transformer
Hint:
 Write all the notation used
 Derive the EMF equation of Transformer

UNIT-III

1. Write a short note on electricity generation using renewable energy source solar
Hint:
 Draw the diagram of solar power plant
 Mention the types
 Explain each type with diagram
 List the advantages and disadvantages of solar power plant

2. Write a short note on electricity generation using renewable energy source wind
Hint:
 Draw the diagram of wind power plant
 Mention the types
 Explain each type with diagram
 List the advantages and disadvantages of wind power plant

3. Draw and explain the working of sodium vapour lamp and mercury vapour lamp
Hint:
 Draw the diagram of vapour lamp
 Explain the working of the lamp
 List the advantages and disadvantages of lamp

4. Draw a schematic diagram of a fluorescent tube and discuss the role of (a) choke (b)
tubelight (c) starter
Hint:
 Draw the diagram of fluorescent tube
 Explain the working of the fluorescent tube
 List the advantages and disadvantages of fluorescent tube

5. Draw the electric circuit of a domestic refrigerator and explain the role of each
components and its working
Hint:
 Define refrigeration
 Draw the diagram of domestic refrigerator
 Explain the components of domestic refrigerator
 Explain the working of domestic refrigerator
 List the advantages and disadvantages of domestic refrigerator
6. Draw the electric circuit of a air conditioning and explain its working
Hint:
 Define air conditioning
 Draw the diagram of air conditioning
 Explain the components of air conditioning
  Explain the working of air conditioning
 List the advantages and disadvantages of air conditioning
7. Write a short notes on the characteristics of NiCd, lead acid and Li ion battery
Hint:
 Define the type of battery
 Draw the diagram
 Explain the charging and discharging characteristics
 Write the charging and discharging characteristics

8. List the different types of protective devices(fuse, earthing and circuit breakers) used
in electrical system and explain in detail
Hint:
 Define the protective devices
 Explain the types of protective devices
9. Write short notes on energy Tariffs.
Hint:
 Define the protective devices
 Explain the types of protective devices

UNIT IV

1. With a neat diagram explain the working of a PN junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias and show the effect of temperature on its V-I characteristics.
Hint:
 Define PN junction diode
 Draw the PN junction diode diagram
 Explain the working of diode
 Explain the characteristics
2. With a neat diagram explain the working of a zener diode in forward bias and reverse
bias and show the effect of temperature on its V-I characteristics
Hint:
 Define zener diode
 Draw the zener diode diagram
 Explain the working of diode
 Explain the characteristics
3. Describe the static input and output characteristics of CE, CC and CB configuration of
a transistor with neat circuit diagram
Hint:
 What is CE configuration
 Draw the circuit diagram
 Steps to obtain input and output characteristics
 Draw the characteristics
 Repeat the above procedure for CC and CB.
4. Derive the gain for various configuration of amplifiers using Operational amplifiers
Hint:
 List the three configuration
 Draw inverting amplifier and derive the gain
 Draw Non inverting amplifier and derive the gain
 Draw differential amplifier and derive the gain
5. Write short notes on i) Differentiator ii) Integrator
Hint:
 Define differentiator
 Draw differentiator and derive the output expression
 Define Integrator
 Draw Integrator and derive the output expression
6. Draw the circuit diagram and explain the working of half wave rectifier and full wave
rectifier
Hint:
 Define half wave rectifier
 Draw half wave rectifier circuit and derive the output expression
 Define full wave rectifier
 Draw full wave rectifier circuit and derive the output expression
7. Examine the operation of a Monostable multivibrator using IC555 with necessary
waveforms and explain in detail.
Hint:
 Define Monostable multivibrator
 Draw Monostable multivibrator circuit and derive the time period
 Explain the operation of Monostable multivibrator

8. Examine the operation of a Astable multivibrator using IC555 with necessary

waveforms and explain in detail.
Hint:
 Define Astable multivibrator
 Draw Astable multivibrator circuit and derive the time period
 Explain the operation of Astable multivibrator

9. Explain the types of ADC and DAC with neat diagram

Hint:
 Define ADC
 List the types
 Draw the block diagram of each type and explain.
 Repeat the above procedure for DAC
10. Discuss and explain the functional diagram of 723 IC regulator and LM317.
Hint:
 Define 723 IC regulator
 Draw the pin diagram
 Draw the block diagram of each section and explain.
 Repeat the above procedure for LM317

UNIT V

1. Explain the static characteristics of measurements systems.

Hint:
 List the static characteristics
 Define each static characteristics
2. Explain the dynamic characteristics of measurements systems
Hint:
 List the dynamic characteristics
 Define each dynamic characteristics
3. Explain the types of errors in measurement
Hint:
 List the types of errors in measurement
 Explain each type of errors in measurement
4. Explain the construction and working of PMMC / Moving coil instrument with neat
diagram. Also derive the torque equation.
Hint:
 What is PMMC
 Draw the diagram of PMMC
 Explain the various parts of the instrument
 Explain the working of PMMC
 Derive the torque equation
 List the advantages and disadvantages of PMMC
5. Explain the construction and working of Moving iron instrument with neat diagram.
Also derive the torque equation.
Hint:
 What is Moving iron instrument
 Types of Moving iron instrument
 Draw the diagram of Moving iron instrument
 Explain the various parts of the instrument
 Explain the working of Moving iron instrument
 Derive the torque equation
 List the advantages and disadvantages of Moving iron instrument
6. Explain the construction and working of dynamometer type wattmeter with neat
diagram. Also derive the torque equation.
Hint:
 What is dynamometer type wattmeter
 Draw the diagram of dynamometer type wattmeter
 Explain the various parts of the instrument
 Explain the working of dynamometer type wattmeter
 List the advantages and disadvantages of dynamometer type wattmeter
7. Explain the construction and working of induction type energy meter neat diagram.
Also derive the torque equation.
Hint:
 What is induction type energy meter
 Draw the diagram of induction type energy meter
 Explain the various parts of the instrument
 Explain the working of induction type energy meter
 List the advantages and disadvantages of induction type energy meter
8. Explain the construction and working of thermo electric transducer
Hint:
 What is thermo electric transducer
 Draw the diagram of thermo electric transducer
 Explain the various parts of the thermo electric transducer
 Explain the working of thermo electric transducer
  List the advantages and disadvantages of thermo electric transducer
9. Explain the construction and working of RTD
Hint:
 What is RTD
 Draw the diagram of RTD
 Explain the working of RTD
 List the advantages and disadvantages of RTD
10. Explain the construction and working of Strain gauge
Hint:
 What is Strain gauge
 Draw the diagram of Strain gauge
 Explain the working of Strain gauge
 List the advantages and disadvantages of Strain gauge
11. Explain the construction and working of LVDT
Hint:
 What is LVDT
 Draw the diagram of LVDT
 Explain the working of LVDT
 List the advantages and disadvantages of LVDT
12. Explain the construction and working of LDR
Hint:
 What is LDR
 Draw the diagram of LDR
 Explain the working of LDR
 List the advantages and disadvantages of LDR
13. Explain the construction and working of Piezoelectric transducer.
Hint:
 What is Piezoelectric transducer
 Draw the diagram of Piezoelectric transducer
 Explain the working of Piezoelectric transducer
 List the advantages and disadvantages of Piezoelectric transducer
14. Explain the construction and working of CRO
Hint:
 What is CRO
 Draw the diagram of CRO
 Explain the working of CRO