=

~
3~8 .J_~S~i~
~n~a~
/ s~
an~d~S
~y~s:!:_
te~ m~s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

i. e. r (---0.25t + l) = 0 fort~ 4
=0.25 for t = 3
=0.75 for t = I
=1 fort= 0
=1.5 fort= -2
and so on.
This can be plotted as shown in Figure l.5l(c).
r(-t) r(-t + I) r(-0.25t + 1)

-I 0 t 0 I 0 1 2 3 4 /
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.51 Waveforms for Example l.7(t).

EXAMPLE 1.8 Express the following signals as sum of singular functions :

II I I I
x(n) x(n )

~
• •
-3 -2 -1 0
•
2
•
3
.
n • 0• 1•
-1
'I I I I •
2 3 4 5 6
•
7
.
n
(a)

f')
(b)
x(t)

L
- 2 -1 0
I~
2
.
I 4 I
-1
(c) (d)
x(t) x(t)

O T 2T 3T 4T 5T 2 4 5 6 r
-1
(e ) (f)
Figure 1.52 Waveform s for Example 1.8.
Solution:
(a) The given signal shown in Figure l.52(a) is:
x(n) = o(n + 2) + o(n + 1) + o(n ) + o(n - I)
o for n $-3
x(n ) = 1 for - 2 $n$1
{0 for n ~ 2
x (n ) = u(n + 2) - u(n - 2)
 ----
Signals 39

(b) The signal shown in Figure 1.52(b) is:

x(n) =8(n - 2) + 8(n - 3) + 8(n - 4) + 8(n - 5)
o for n $ 1
x(n) = 1 for 2 $ n $ 5
{0 for n ~ 6
x(n) = u(n - 2) - u(n - 6)
(c) The signal shown in Figure 1.52(c) is starting at t = -2 with a slope 1 and extends
up to t = -1. Therefore
From -2 $ t $ -1 x(t) = r(t + 2)
At t = -1, the slope is changing from 1 to 0. So at t = 1, we have to add a ramp
with slope -1. This 0 slope is maintained up to t = 1. Therefore
From -2 $ t $ 1 x(t) = r(t + 2) - r(t + 1)
At t = 1, the slope is changing from 0 to -1. So at t = 1, we have to add a ramp
with a slope -1. This -1 slope is maintained up to t = 2. Therefore
From -2 $ t $ 2 x(t) = r(t + 2) - r(t + 1) - r(t - 1)
At t = 2, the slope is changing from -1 to 0. So at t = 2, we have to add a ramp
with a slope 1. This 0 slope is maintained up to t = oo. Therefore
From -2 $ t $ oo x(t) = r(t + 2) - r(t + 1) - r(t - 1) + r(t - 2)
x(t) = r(t + 2) - r(t + 1) - r(t - 1) + r(t - 2)
The analysis is shown in Figure 1.53.
x(t)
, , ,·
,,
• r(t + 2) - r(t + 1)

0 1 2 -2 -1 0 t -2 -1 0 t
-2 -1

(a) (b) (c)

x(t)

r(t + 2) - r(t + 1) - r(t- 1) + r(t- 2)

r(t + 2) - r(t + 1) - r(t - 1)
1

-2 -1 0 1 2
-2 -1 0 1
(e)
(d)
Figure 1.53 Waveforms for Example l.8(c).

(d) The signal shown in Figure l.52(d) is starting from t = 0 with a slope 1/2. So it is ramp
(l/2)r(t). At t = 2, the value of (1/2)r(t) = l. At t = 2, the amplitude is suddenly
falling to -1 and then rising linearly with same slope 1/2. Hence at t = 2, we have
to add a step of -2 amplitude, i.e. -2u(t - 2). At t = 4, the signal terminates. So at
 ••••n■nanmm•w

40
.:2.: .::::. ::::.. ..'.:= ...2. .~~- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
Signals and Systems
--L. __::
t = 4, we have to add a ramp with a slope -(1/2), i.e. -(1!2)r (t - 4). The analysis is
shown in Figure 1.54.
x(t) ,,,,-'

(::i~
~-- -
0 t
0 l 2 '0~ t

-2u(t-2 )
-~ ... ... ... ~~~~J
-- - ✓
------
(a) (b)
x(t)

'2,V:
lt .,,. 1-, (1/2)r(t) - 2u(t- 2) - (112)r(t - 4)

l (.__\1'2-Jt'\.tJ.,,. l
,,
,,
, ,
, ,

2 4 t t 0 2 4 t
0
-1 -1
(c) (d)

Figure 1.54 Wavefo rms for Example l.8(d).

(e) Each rectang ular pulse in the given signal of Figure 1.52(e) can be express ed as the
sum of two step functio ns as shown in Figure 1.55. The pulse train extend s up to
infinity .
· x(t) = u(t) - u(t - T) + u(t - 2T) - u(t - 3T) + u(t - 4T)- u(t - 5T) + .. .

x(t)

u(t) u(t- 2T) u(t - 41)

l

0 T 2T 3T 4T ST t

-1 - u(t-T) -u(t - 3T) - u(t - 51)

Figure 1.55 Wavefo rms for Exampl e 1.8(e).

(f) E h triangu lar pulse in the given signal of Figure 1.52(f) can be express ed as the
su~ of 3 ramp functio ns as shown in Figure 1.56. The pulse train extends upto
infinity .
:. x(t) = r(t) - 2r(t - I)+ r(t - 2) + r(t - 4) - 2r(t - 5) + r (t - 6) + . ..
 Signals 41
x(t)
., ,
,, , ,,
/ ,,
~ ,,-'
/ , / '°", ,/---------
~ ~ '

0
t

Figure 1.56 Example l.8(f),

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

Based upon their nature and characteristics in the time domain, the signals may be broadly
classified as under
(a) Continuous- time signals
(b) Discrete-time signals

Continuous-time signals
The signals that are defined for every instant of time are known as continuous-time signals.
Continuous-time signals are also called analog signals. For continuous-t ime signals, the
independent variable is time. They are denoted by x(t). They are continuous in amplitude as
well as in time. Most of the signals available are continuous-time signals. Figure l.57(a)
and (b) shows the graphical representatio n of continuous-time signals.

Discrete-time signals
The signals that are defined only at discrete instants of time are known as discrete-tim e
signals. The discrete-tim e signals are continuous in amplitude but discrete in time. For
discrete-time signals, the amplitude between two time instants is just not defined. For
discrete-time signals, the independent variable is time n. Since they are defined only at
discrete instants of time, they are denoted by a sequence x(nT) or simply by x(n) where n is
an integer.
The discrete-time signals may be inherently discrete or ~ay be discrete _versions of the
~ontinuous-time signals. Figure 1.57(c) and (d) show the graphical representation of discrete-
time signals.
Both continuous-t ime and discrete-tim e signals may further be classified as under
1. Deterministi c and random signals
2. Periodic and non-periodic signals
3. Energy and power signals
4. Causal and non-causal signals
5. Even and odd signals