Abstract:

The report discusses about radar. It highlights the working principles, design & discusses its
relation to natural science, engineering science & EMFW principles. Its wide ranging & conflicting
factors are also analyzed. It concludes with the broad analytical discussion of stakeholder’s
involvement in the practical implementation.

Introduction:

Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of
objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather
formations, and terrain. A radar system consists of a transmitter producing electromagnetic waves
in the radio or microwaves domain, a transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna (often the same
antenna is used for transmitting and receiving) and a receiver and processor to determine properties
of the object(s). Radio waves (pulsed or continuous) from the transmitter reflect off the object and
return to the receiver, giving information about the object's location and speed.

Historical Perspective:
As early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected
from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, a physics instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy
school in Kronstadt, developed an apparatus using a coherer tube for detecting distant lightning
strikes. The next year, he added a spark-gap transmitter. In 1897, while testing this equipment for
communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of an interference beat caused
by the passage of a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that this phenomenon might be used
for detecting objects & the idea of making a detection machine came along. The earliest radar
developments appear to have taken place independently in a number of countries. World War II
accelerated the development of radar to address the direst of situations. That military application
has served as a primary motivation for radar technology development complicates an exposition
on its history due to sundry requirements for secrecy. Consequently, spirited debate amongst radar
developers over who deserves acclaim for certain innovations is not uncommon. The earliest radar
experiments involved continuous waveforms and bistatic configurations to achieve sufficient
isolation between transmitter and receiver. The technology available at the time could only support
detection; range information was not available to the operator. Moreover, many of these initial
investigations involved longer wavelengths – in the vicinity of 60 cm or greater. A requirement
for range information and improved spatial accuracy led to microwave developments and pulsed
radar modes. For years beyond World War II, noncoherent pulsed radar systems were used for a
number of important applications

Working Principle:
The electronic principle on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of sound-wave
reflection. If we shout in the direction of a sound-reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave),
we will hear an echo. If we know the speed of sound in air, we can then estimate the distance and

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general direction of the object. The time required for an echo to return can be roughly converted
to distance if the speed of sound is known.
Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses. The radio-frequency (rf) energy is transmitted to and
reflected from the reflecting object. A small portion of the reflected energy returns to the radar set.
This returned energy is called an ECHO, just as it is in sound terminology. Radar sets use the echo
to determine the direction and distance of the reflecting object.

Basic Types of Radar:

Radars can be classified into the following Basic two types based on the type of signal with which
Radar can be operated.

• Pulse Radar
• Continuous Wave Radar
Now, let us discuss about these two types of Radars one by one.
Pulse Radar: The radar, which operates with pulse signal for detecting stationary targets, is
called the basic pulse radar or simply, Pulse Radar. It uses single Antenna for both transmitting
and receiving signals with the help of Duplexer.
Antenna will transmit a pulse signal at every clock pulse. The duration between the two clock
pulses should be chosen in such a way that the echo signal corresponding to the present clock
pulse should be received before the next clock pulse.
Continuous Wave Radar (CW Radar): This is a type of radar system where a known stable
frequency continuous wave radio energy is transmitted and then received from any reflecting
objects. Individual objects are detected using the Doppler effect, which causes the received
signal to have a different frequency than the transmission, allowing it to be detected by filtering
out the transmitted frequency.

There are 6 major parts of a Radar System:

• Transmitter: It can be a power amplifier like a Klystron, travelling wave tube or a power
oscillator like a magnetron. The signal is first generated using a waveform generator and
then amplified in the power amplifier.
• Waveguides: The waveguides are transmission lines for transmission of the Radar signals.
• Antenna: The antenna used can be a parabolic reflector, planar arrays or electronically
steered phased arrays.
• Duplexer: A duplexer allows the antenna to be used as a transmitter or a receiver. It can
be a gaseous device that would produce a short circuit at the input to the receiver when
transmitter is working.

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 • Receiver: It can be super heterodyne receiver or any other receiver which consists of a
processor to process the signal and detect it.
• Threshold Decision: The output of the receiver is compared with a threshold to detect the
presence of any object. If the output is below any threshold, the presence of noise is
assumed.

Figure 1: Radar System

The Relevance of Radar to First Principles of Natural Science and Engineering

Science:
Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and
understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and
experimentation. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical
science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into
branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science. These branches of natural science may
be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). Radar is a detection
system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects by using a
transmitter producing electromagnetic waves in the radio or microwaves domain. The radar signal
is generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver. The radar
antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and picked up by a
receiving device and Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan position indicator (PPI)
other more advanced radar display systems. So, the very basic principle of radar’s detection system
is electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic wave is a fundamental part of physics. That’s how radar
is directly connected to the physical science which ultimately means it is also part of the first
principle of natural science.
Engineering science, or engineering physics, refers to the study of the combined disciplines of
physics, mathematics, biology, social science, and engineering, particularly computer, nuclear,

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electrical, electronic, aerospace, materials or mechanical engineering. By focusing on the scientific
method as a rigorous basis, it seeks ways to apply, design, and develop new solutions in
engineering. Unlike traditional engineering disciplines, engineering science/physics is not
necessarily confined to a particular branch of science, engineering or physics. Instead, engineering
science/physics is meant to provide a more thorough grounding in applied physics for a selected
specialty. So, mainly it is the applications of the natural science all along but it is not as broad as
natural science.
Engineering science makes a relation between radar scientific principles and mathematics equation
which is the Doppler frequency shift. The velocity of an object in the radial direction with respect
to the radar is related to the Doppler frequency shift:

Now we are going to analyze few parameters & applications of these parameters in mathematical
equations to apply the engineering science for radar.
Frequency: Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. It is
also referred to as temporal frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial frequency and
angular frequency. Frequency is measured in units of hertz (Hz) which is equal to one occurrence
of a repeating event per second. The period is the duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event,
so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency. For cyclical processes, such as rotation,
oscillations, or waves, frequency is defined as a number of cycles per unit time. In physics and
engineering disciplines, such as optics, acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually denoted by a
Latin letter f or by the Greek letter ν (nu)
The relation between the frequency and the period T, of a repeating event or oscillation is given
by,

Wavelength: In physics, the wavelength is the spatial period of a periodic wave, the distance over
which the wave's shape repeats. It is the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the
same phase on the wave, such as two adjacent crests, troughs, or zero crossings, and is a
characteristic of both traveling waves and standing waves, as well as other spatial wave patterns.
The inverse of the wavelength is called the spatial frequency. The wavelength λ is expressed in the
units of length, such as meters, feet, or inches. The commonly used term is meters.
In linear media, any wave pattern can be described in terms of the independent propagation of
sinusoidal components. The wavelength λ of a sinusoidal waveform traveling at constant speed v
is given by,

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 Figure 2: Wavelength

Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous
band of frequencies. In this case the necessary bandwidth of radar receiver depends on the internal
modulation of the signal, the compressed pulse width and a weighting function, to achieve the
required time sidelobe level. A maximum practical bandwidth of approximately 200 MHz is
possible using current techniques.
Generally, the necessary bandwidth B of a pulse in form of a half wave sine signal of duration τ
is:
B = 1/ τ
The influence of the Doppler effect will change the signal duration and bandwidth of the
backscattered pulse. To obtain the Doppler information the installed bandwidth of the radar
receiver must be higher than the signal bandwidth of the transmitted pulse.
In radar system using the intra-pulse modulation of the transmitted pulse, the necessary bandwidth
of radar receiver is much higher than the reciprocal of their pulse width. In this case the necessary
bandwidth of radar receiver depends on the internal modulation of the signal, the compressed pulse
width and a weighting function, to achieve the required time sidelobe level. A maximum practical
bandwidth of approximately 200 MHz is possible using current techniques. High-end receivers
can have a tunable bandwidth.

Figure 3: Bandwidth of a signal

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Pulse Width: Pulse Width (PW) is the elapsed time between the rising and falling edges of a
single pulse. The pulse width (τ) (or pulse duration) of the transmitted signal is the time, typically
in microseconds, each pulse lasts. If the pulse is not a perfect square wave, the time is typically
measured between the 50% power levels of the rising and falling edges of the pulse.
The pulse width must be long enough to ensure that the radar emits sufficient energy so that the
reflected pulse is detectable by its receiver. The amount of energy that can be delivered to a distant
target is the product of two things; the peak output power of the transmitter, and the duration of
the transmission. Therefore, pulse width constrains the maximum detection range of a target. The
duration of the pulse and the length of the target along the radial direction determine the duration
of the returned pulse. In most cases the length of the return is usually very similar to the transmitted
pulse. In the display unit, the pulse (in time) will be converted into a pulse in distance. The range
of values from the leading edge to the trailing edge will create some uncertainty in the range to the
target. Taken at face value, the ability to accurately measure range is determined by the pulse
width.
If we designate the uncertainty in measured range as the range resolution, RRES, then it must be
equal to the range equivalent of the pulse width, namely:
RRES = c PW/2
The problem is that it is virtually impossible to create the perfect leading edge. In practice, the
ideal pulse will really appear like:

Figure 4: Pulse width

To create a perfectly formed pulse with a vertical leading edge would require an infinite
bandwidth. In fact we may equate the bandwidth, B, of the transmitter to the minimum pulse
width, PW by:
PW = 1/2B
Given this insight, it is quite reasonable to say that the range can be determined no more
accurately than cPW/2 or equivalently
RRES = c/4B

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In fact, high resolution radar is often referred to as wide-band radar which we now see as
equivalent statements. One term is referring to the time domain and the other the frequency
domain. The duration of the pulse also affects the minimum range at which the radar system can
detect. The outgoing pulse must physically clear the antenna before the return can be processed.
Since this lasts for a time interval equal to the pulse width, PW, the minimum displayed range is
then:
RMIN = c PW/2
Maximum Unambiguous Range: The maximum range from which a transmitted radar, lidar, or
sodar pulse can be reflected and received before the next pulse is transmitted. This range, Rmax,
𝑐0 .(𝑃𝑅𝑇−𝑃𝑊)
Rmax =
2
Where,
PRT is pulse repetition time
PW is pulse width
Minimal Measuring Range: The minimal measuring range Rmin (“Blind Range”, Figure 5) is
the minimum distance which the target must have to be detect. Therein, it is necessary that the
transmitting pulse leaves the antenna completely and the radar unit must switch on the receiver.

Where:
τ = transmitting time
trecovery = recovery time

Figure 5: Radar’s “Blind Range”

Radar Range Equations:

Radar range equation represents the physical dependences of the transmit power, one can assess
the performance of the radar set with the radar equation (or the radar range equation).

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Non directional Power Density (Su):

Directional Power Density (Sg):

Sg = Su · G
The Antenna Gain (G):

The radar range equation (R):

The Reflected Power (Pr):

The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the equation:

Where;
• Pt = transmitter power
• Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna
• Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna; this can also be expressed as

where;

• λ= transmitted wavelength
• Gr = gain of receiving antenna
• σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target
• F = pattern propagation factor
• Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target
• Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.

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The Relevance of Radar in the field of Electromagnetic Waves:
Radar systems send electromagnetic waves in pulses and not continuously. This makes the average
power emitted much lower than the peak pulse power. Radars are directional and the RF energy
they generate is contained in beams that are very narrow and resemble the beam of a spotlight. RF
levels away from the main beam fall off rapidly. In most cases, these levels are thousands of times
lower than in the main beam.
Continuous wave (CW) radar systems continuously transmit an illumination signal and
simultaneously continuously receive echo reflections scattered from objects. If an illuminated
object is stationary, the frequency of the echo signal is unchanged from that transmitted. However,
if an object is moving, then the frequency of the echo signal is altered due to the Doppler effect.
The Doppler effect is the change in the observed frequency of an (electromagnetic) wave due to
relative motion of the source and observer. By detecting this Doppler frequency, the object’s
motion can be determined. The faster the object moves in a given direction, the larger the Doppler
frequency. The operation of a CW radar system is shown schematically in Figure 6.

Figure 6: CW Radar Using the Doppler Shift to Detect a Moving Object

The Doppler effect, on which simple CW radar relies, is caused by relative motion. If we consider
the signal in Figure 6, the echoes that return to the radar are effectively compressed by the action
of the moving object (or expanded if the object were moving away from the radar). This
compression acts to reduce the wavelength of the reflected signals at the receiver, so the observed
frequency is increased. The higher the speed of the object, the greater the wavelength compression
and therefore an increase in the Doppler frequency shift is observed.
The velocity of an object in the radial direction with respect to the radar is related to the Doppler
frequency shift, fDop by,

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Where,
V = radial velocity of the object (ms-1),
λ = wavelength of the CW signal (m), and
fDop = Doppler frequency (Hz).
In other words, the Doppler frequency is scaled by the wavelength of the illuminating signal to
convert it to a measurement of velocity, and the factor 2 represents the two-way path traveled in
transmission and reception.
The simple concept just outlined is known as an unmodulated CW radar system in that a pure tone
is used to measure the Doppler shift from a moving object. A drawback of such a CW radar system
is that it is unable to detect stationary objects or measure the range to an object (because range is
ambiguous to a wavelength). These limitations can be overcome by modulation of the transmitted
signal. The modulation imparts a code on the CW signal as a function of time and therefore radial
range. For example, the frequency of the transmission can be linearly changed as a function of
time. In this way a particular value of frequency represents a particular time delay and hence can
be associated with a particular range. In fact, linear FM modulation is probably the most common
form used and will be examined in detail in the next section. This type of system is known as
frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar. Figure 7 illustrates the relationship
between frequency and time for this form of modulation.
The time delay, Dt, between the transmitting frequency and the frequency of the echo signal, at
any instant in time, is proportional to the distance to an object. The time taken for an echo to be
received is given by,

Where,
R = range from the radar to the object (m) and
c = velocity of light (ms-1).

Figure 7: The Relationship between Frequency and Time for a Linear FMCW Radar System

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From Figure 8 we can see that knowledge of the linear rate of change of the transmitted signal and
the difference frequency, fd, between the transmitted and received signals allows computation of
the time, Dt, for an echo to be received and hence for the range, R, to a detected object to be
determined.
Figure 4 shows a schematic illustration of a CW signal composed of a single frequency tone. The
amplitude is plotted as a function of the distance traveled by the wave. Thus, the distance between
successive peaks is the wavelength, l. If a similar plot were produced but with time on the
horizontal scale, then the peak-to-peak length would be the period of the signal and its inverse the
signal frequency. The relationship between frequency, f (Hz), and wavelength, l (m), is given by,

Where,
c = velocity of light (ms-1).

Figure 8: Portion of a CW Signal

Critical to the understanding of the operation of CW radar is the notion of phase. Phase represents
the precise location within a cycle of a signal. It is common to refer phase to the points in time at
which the amplitude of the signal becomes zero; it is measured in degrees or radians. A single
cycle of a tone maps out 360 degrees or 2π radians of phase. This is equivalent to a vector equal
in length to the amplitude of the signal rotating through 360 degrees, that is, making one complete
revolution of a circle. By comparing the phase of the outgoing transmit signal with the incoming
received signal, fine motion estimation is possible. Figure 9 illustrates the concept of phase and
relative phase.

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Figure 9: The Top Signal Is Said to Exhibit a Phase of Zero Degrees and the Bottom a Phase of 45 Degrees (with
regard to the Top Signal).

Electromagnetic Waves Spectrum of Radar:

Figure 10: Radar Frequencies

Wide-Ranging and Conflicting Factors of Radar:

Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude,
direction, or speed of objects. Radar stands for Radio Detection And Ranging and in its simplest
form it consists of a transmitted radio signal aimed by an antenna in a particular direction, and a
receiver that detects the echoes off any objects in the path of the signal. Radar was developed
secretly for military use by several nations in the period before and during World War II. A key
development was the cavity magnetron in the United Kingdom, which allowed the creation of
relatively small systems with sub-meter resolution. The modern uses of radar are highly diverse,
including air and terrestrial traffic control, radar astronomy, air-defense systems, antimissile
systems, marine radars to locate landmarks and other ships, aircraft anticollision systems, ocean
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surveillance systems, outer space surveillance and rendezvous systems, meteorological
precipitation monitoring, altimetry and flight control systems, guided missile target locating
systems, self-driving cars, and ground-penetrating radar for geological observations. High tech
radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of
extracting useful information from very high noise levels. The information provided by radar
includes the bearing and range (and therefore position) of the object from the radar scanner. It is
thus used in many different fields where the need for such positioning is crucial. The first use of
radar was for military purposes: to locate air, ground and sea targets. This evolved in the civilian
field into applications for aircraft, ships, and automobiles. In aviation, aircraft can be equipped
with radar devices that warn of aircraft or other obstacles in or approaching their path, display
weather information, and give accurate altitude readings.
Advantages of Radar:
1. Radar can penetrate mediums such as clouds, fogs, mist and snow. The signals used by
Radar technology are not limited or hindered by snow, clouds or fogs. This means that even
in the presence of these adverse conditions, data will still be collected.
2. Radar signal can penetrate insulators. Materials that are considered insulators such as
rubber and plastic do not hinder radar signals from collecting data. The signals will
penetrate the materials and capture the necessary data require.
3. It can give the exact position of an object. Radar systems employ the use of electromagnetic
waves to calculate the distance of an object and its exact position on the earth’s surface or
space.
4. It can determine the velocity of a target. Radar systems have the capability of calculating
the velocity of an object in motion.
5. It can measure the distance of an object. Radar systems work by measuring the exact
distance of an object from the transmitter.
6. It can tell the difference between stationary and moving targets. The data collected by radar
systems is enough to tell whether the object was in motion or it was stationary.
7. Radar signals can target several objects simultaneously. The radio signals used by Radar
operate on wider area and can target more than one object and return data regarding all the
objects targeted.
8. It allows for 3D Imaging based on the various angles of return. The data captured by Radar
systems can be used to map an area and provide 3D images of the area based on the varying
angles of return.
9. It allows for repetitive coverage. Radar systems are not limited to single coverage of a
target. They can provide the same information multiple times about a target.
10. It covers a wider geographical area. The radio signals emitted by RADAR systems cover a
significantly large geographical area at once.
11. Easy data acquisition at different scales. It is easier to acquire data and information of a
target with various resolutions.

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Conflicting Factors of Radar:
1. Radar takes more time to lock on an object. Since radio signals travel freely in air and
space, it takes more time to get to the object and back.
2. Radar has a wider beam range (Over 50ft Diameter). The beam range for radar is quite
wide and not target specific
3. It has a shorter range (200ft). Unlike Lidar, radar signals operate at a limited range of 200ft.
4. It cannot track if an object is decelerating at more the 1mph/s. If an object is in motion, it
may be a challenge for radar systems to collect data from the object.
5. Large objects that are close to the Transmitter can saturate the receiver. The radio signals
work best when the object is further away from the receiver and not closer.
6. Readings may be falsified if the object is handheld. If the target is held in the hand, the data
collected may not be accurate.
7. It cannot distinguish or resolve multiple targets. If there are several targets, the radio signals
may not tell the objects apart.
8. It cannot resolve targets that are obstructed by a conducting material. Radio signals have
challenges maneuvering materials that are conductors. If an object is behind such material,
it is difficult for it to obtain the data regarding the target.
9. It can be interrupted with other signals. Radio signals travel through air and space where it
can be combined with other radio signals from other frequency. If not properly directed,
the signals can be interrupted by other signals and alter the information being transmitted.
10. It cannot be used beyond the ionosphere. The radio signals emitted by radar systems do not
work beyond the ionosphere. If they go beyond the ionosphere, they will be deflected back
to earth.
11. It can be oversensitive. The signals from radar systems tend to be oversensitive sometimes
which may lead to inaccurate data.

Involvement of Stakeholders in Practical Implementations:

A stakeholder is a party that has an interest in a company and can either affect or be affected by
the business. The primary stakeholders in a typical corporation are its investors, employees,
customers, and suppliers. However, with the increasing attention on corporate social responsibility,
the concept has been extended to include communities, governments, and trade associations.

Figure 11: Different Types of Stakeholders

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The usage of Radar is increasing year by year. New technologies are being invented having the
radar sensors in it. The construction of radar is very complex. We have to maintain all the safety
measurements & rules that have been set up by corresponding authority, organizations &
governments. Radar is a technology that has been used in vast area of fields. A radar system
consists of a transmitter produces electromagnetic waves to detect the objects & receives that
signal by a receiver. So, the basic working principle is electromagnetic wave. Different radars use
different bands of frequency to detect the object(s). We have to make sure we follow the exact
frequency band for a certain type of radar.
Waves and Frequency Ranges
Radar systems typically use wavelengths on the order of 10 cm, corresponding to frequencies of
about 3 GHz. This very large range is subdivided into different subranges due to different physical
properties. The subdivision of the frequencies into the different ranges was previously measured
according to criteria that were historically developed and are now obsolete, and so a new
classification of the frequency bands was created. In NATO the new subdivision is used.
The following graphic shows an overview:

Figure 12: Waves and frequency ranges used by radar.

Therefore, currently there are two valid designation systems for frequency bands which are
compared in Figure 12. The IEEE favors the designation system, which originated historically and
whose intentionally unsystematic distribution of the letters to the band designation partly
originates from the time of the 2nd World War. Its selection was initially intended to keep the
frequencies used secret.
A newer frequency band classification is used within NATO. Its band boundaries are adapted to
the technologies and measurement possibilities in the different frequency ranges. They are almost
logarithmically distributed and the system is open to the high frequencies. In this system, further
frequency bands up to the terahertz range can easily be defined in the future. This designation
system is also of military origin and is a band division for the electronic war, in which radar
equipment finally occupies an essential place.
So, it would be better to select the NATO standards to manufacture radars.

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Radars & Frequency Bands:
Radar sets of a so-called “C-band family” operate with certainty in the new G-band, but radar sets
with the letter “L” in the designator (e.g. SMART-L) no longer operate in the L-band but in the D-
band. The frequencies of radar set today range from about 5 megahertz to about 130 gigahertz
(130,000,000,000 oscillations per second). However, certain frequencies are also preferred for
certain radar applications. Very long-range radar systems usually operate at lower frequencies
below and including the D-band. Air traffic control radars at an airport operate below 3 GHz (ASR)
or below 10 GHz (PAR).

Figure 13: Some Radar Types and Its Frequency Band

As different types of radars & digital technologies based on radar system work on different band
level, so, we have to select the appropriate frequency band as shown in Figure 13 for manufacturing
a certain radar system perfectly.
Radar Market Overview:
Market analysis plays a huge role in manufacturing goods. We have to analyze the present state of
market for business perspective. According to a research done by Ploughshares Fund, 13,850
nuclear weapons are possessed by different countries, with the U.S. and Russia accounting for

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92% of the total number. This increasing number of nuclear weapons has given rise to high security
concerns. Owing to the potential threats, during the Second World War, the US navy had
developed a device named radar, an electronic detection system that uses radio waves to sense and
detect objects such as weapons, missiles, aircraft, ships, and vehicles within a specific range. It
comprises antennas, emitters, transmitters, and receivers. Apart from military applications, there
are several other capabilities and applications of radar in automotive, weather forecasting, air
traffic control systems ocean surveillance, and other applications. The global radar market
generated $24.37 billion in revenue in 2018, and the revenue is projected to grow at a CAGR of
4.32% from 2019 to 2025.
North America held the maximum market share, accounting for approximately 37.48% of the total
demand. Increasing emphasis on security concerns, increasing terrorist attacks, rising nuclear
bombing threats, high investments by governments, and technological furtherance are some of the
prominent factors driving the North America radar market.
High budgets are provided by governments for the military sector to automate all the security and
defense systems. Sophisticated radar systems are being developed and deployed in the military
sector. According to IndustryARC analysts, the application segment is poised to grow at a healthy
CAGR of 5.75% through 2025.

Figure 12: Radar Market Revenue, 2016-2021 ($Million)

From the above market analysis & graph shown in Figure 7 we can observe that the radar market
revenue is increasing year by year by a significant margin & as per statistics, the numbers would
increase every year. Countries are spending huge amount of money on radar technologies to
strengthen their military units & they would continue to do so. Almost all the military arsenals
have radar technologies integrated into them. So, the revenue generated from the radar market is
incredibly high.
Hence, considering all the factors analyzed above, we can conclude that the manufacturing radars
for military is hugely profitable & so, if we want to manufacture radars, we should focus on
manufacturing it for militaries & it’s associated units.

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Performance Standards for Radar Equipment:
Different countries & organizations set different set of performance standards for manufacturing
radar equipment. The standard parameters vary for different types of radar equipment. If we want
to manufacture these, we have to maintain all the performance standards.
As for example, the performance standards for radar equipment to be used on ships are given
below:
According to 16(i) of the Convention on the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative
Organization, the provisions of Regulation 12, Chapter V, of the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, the organization proposed amendments to that regulation. It’s the
resolution A.222(VII) by which it adopted performance standards for radar equipment,
The organization recommends member governments to ensure that:
(a) Radar equipment installed on or after 1 September 1984 conforms to performance standards
not inferior to those specified in the Annex to the present resolution;
(b) Radar equipment installed before 1 September 1984 conforms at least to the performance
standards set out in resolution A.222(VII).

All radar installations should comply with the following minimum requirements:

1.1 Range performance

The operational requirement under normal propagation conditions, when the radar antenna is
mounted at a height of 15 metres above sea level, is that the equipment should in the absence
of clutter give a clear indication of:

Coastlines

. At 20 nautical miles when the ground rises to 60 metres

. At 7 nautical miles when the ground rises to 6 metres.
. 2 Surface objects
. At 7 nautical miles a ship of 5,000 tons gross tonnage, whatever her aspect.
. At 3 nautical miles a small vessel of 10 metres in length.
. At 2 nautical miles an object such as a navigational buoy having an effective echoing area of
approximately 10 square metres

1.2 Minimum range

The surface objects specified in 3.1.2 should be clearly displayed from a minimum range of
50 metres up to a range of one nautical mile, without changing the setting of controls other
than the range selector.

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1.3 Display

1.3.1 The equipment should without external magnification provide a relative plan display in the
head-up unstabilized mode with an effective diameter of not less than:
1. 180 millimetres* on ships of 500 tons gross tonnage and more but less than 1,600 tons gross
tonnage;
2. 250 millimetres* on ships of 1,600 tons gross tonnage and more but less than 10,000 tons
gross tonnage;
3. 340 millimetres* in the case of one display and 250 millimetres in the case of the other on
ships of 10,000 tons gross tonnage and upwards.
1.3.2 The equipment should provide one of the two following sets of range scales of display:

1. 1.5, 3, 6, 12 and 24 nautical miles and one range scale of not less than 0.5 and not greater than
0.8 nautical miles; or
2. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 nautical miles.
1.3.3 Additional range scales may be provided.

1.3.4 The range scale displayed and the distance between range rings should be clearly indicated
at all times.

1.4 Range measurement

1.4.1 Fixed electronic range rings should be provided for range measurements as follows:
1. where range scales are provided in accordance with 3.3.2.1, on the range scale of between 0.5
and 0.8 nautical miles at least two range rings should be provided and on each of the other
range scales six range rings should be provided, or
2. where range scales are provided in accordance with 3.3.2.2, four range rings should be
provided on each of the range scales.

1.4.2 A variable electronic range marker should be provided with a numeric readout of range.

1.4.3 The fixed range rings and the variable range marker should enable the range of an object to
be measured with an error not exceeding 1.5 per cent of the maximum range of the scale in use, or
70 metres, whichever is the greater.

1.4.4 It should be possible to vary the brilliance of the fixed range rings and the variable range
marker and to remove them completely from the display.

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1.5 Heading indicator

1.5.1 The heading of the ship should be indicated by a line on the display with a maximum error
not greater than plus or minus 1 degree. The thickness of the displayed heading line should not be
greater than 0.5 degrees.
1.5.2 Provision should be made to switch off the heading indicator by a device which cannot be
left in the "heading marker off" position.

3.6 Bearing measurement

3.6.1 Provision should be made to obtain quickly the bearing of any object whose echo appears on
the display.
3.6.2 The means provided for obtaining bearings should enable the bearing of a target whose echo
appears at the edge of the display to be measured with an accuracy of plus or minus 1 degree or
better.

3.7 Discrimination

3.7.1 The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate indications on a range scale of 2
nautical miles or less, two small similar targets at a range of between 50 per cent and 100 per cent
of the range scale in use, and on the same azimuth, separated by not more than 50 metres in range.
3.7.2 The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate indications two small similar
targets both situated at the same range between 50 per cent and 100 per cent of the 1.5 or 2 mile
range scales, and separated by not more than 2.5 degrees in azimuth.

3.8 Roll or pitch

The performance of the equipment should be such that when the ship is rolling or pitching up to
plus or minus 10 degrees the range performance requirements of 3.1 and 3.2 continue to be met.

3.9 Scan
The scan should be clockwise, continuous and automatic through 360 degrees of azimuth. The
scan rate should be not less than 12 revolutions per minute. The equipment should operate
satisfactorily in relative wind speeds of up to 100 knots.

3.10 Azimuth stabilization

3.10.1 Means should be provided to enable the display to be stabilized in azimuth by a transmitting
compass. The equipment should be provided with a compass input to enable it to be stabilized in

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azimuth. The accuracy of alignment with the compass transmission should be within 0.5 degrees
with a compass rotation rate of 2 revolutions per minute.
3.10.2 The equipment should operate satisfactorily in the unstabilized mode when the compass
control is inoperative.

3.11 Performance check

Means should be available, while the equipment is used operationally, to determine readily a
significant drop in performance relative to a calibration standard established at the time of
installation, and to check that the equipment is correctly tuned in the absence of targets.
3.12 Anti-clutter devices
Suitable means should be provided for the suppression of unwanted echoes from sea clutter, rain
and other forms of precipitation, clouds and sandstorms. It should be possible to adjust manually
and continuously the anti-clutter controls. Anti-clutter controls should be inoperative in the fully
anti-clockwise positions. In addition, automatic anti-clutter controls may be provided; however,
they must be capable of being switched off.

3.13 Operation

3.13.1 The equipment should be capable of being switched on and operated from the display
position.
3.13.2 Operational controls should be accessible and easy to identify and use. Where symbols are
used, they should comply with the recommendations of the Organization on symbols for controls
on marine navigational radar equipment.
3.13.3 After switching on from cold the equipment should become fully operational within 4
minutes.
3.13.4 A standby condition should be provided from which the equipment can be brought to an
operational condition within 15 seconds.

3.14 Interference
After installation and adjustment on board, the bearing accuracy as prescribed in this
Recommendation should be maintained without further adjustment irrespective of the movement
of the ship in the earth's magnetic field.

3.15 Sea or ground stabilization (true motion display)

3.15.1 Where sea or ground stabilization is provided the accuracy and discrimination of the display
should be at least equivalent to that required by this Recommendation.

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3.15.2 The motion of the trace origin should not, except under manual override conditions,
continue to a point beyond 75 per cent of the radius of the display. Automatic resetting may be
provided.

3.16 Antenna system

The antenna system should be installed in such a manner that the design efficiency of the radar
system is not substantially impaired.

3.17 Operation with radar beacons

3.17.1 All radars operating in the 3 centimetre band should be capable of operating in a
horizontally polarized mode.
3.17.2 It should be possible to switch off those signal processing facilities which might prevent a
radar beacon from being shown on the radar display.
So, we have to follow the performance standards for different types of radars used in various fields
as per requirements for manufacturing.
Ensuring Safe Environment:
While manufacturing radar, we have to ensure safety for us & our employees because accidents
do occur many times.
Radar “sees” things long before they can be seen with the naked eye. It serves as both an early
warning and a tracking device for military and civilian purposes. We all have a personal radar that
we can use to warn us of things that can pose a threat to our safety. It’s called awareness.
Radar, like most instruments, needs to be calibrated against known standards. On a personal basis,
that standard is a commitment to awareness.
Sandy Smith, EHS Today editor, summarized the reasons for accidents:
• Companies complacent about safety
• Employees complacent about safety
• Human nature to ignore potential consequences of actions
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) isn’t comfortable
• Work environment not foolproof

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To that list, the following are few more reasons for accidents:

Anger Failure to recognize No pre-planning

Blind spots Inappropriate clothing Physical limitations

Disregard for rules Indecision PPE (lack of, defective, not worn)

Distractions Lack of training Rushing

Emotion Lack of guards/barriers Skipping a step/shortcut

Equipment failure Lack of safety culture Thinking mind can multi-task

Fatigue Lack of supervision Weather conditions

Failure to compensate Loss of focus Wrong/damaged tools

It only is by addressing the reasons for accidents, that we can improve our state of awareness and
as a result, keep ourselves more alert to safety. That’s how we can ensure safety to us & to our
employees.

Conclusion:
Radar, an electronic detection system that uses radio waves to sense and detect objects such as
weapons, missiles, aircraft, ships, and vehicles within a specific range. It comprises antennas,
emitters, transmitters, and receivers. It is being used in almost every military application. Apart
from military applications, there are several other capabilities and applications of radar in
automotive, weather forecasting, air traffic control systems ocean surveillance, and other
applications. In conclusion, we have to make sure we are following all the things analyzed above
to manufacture radars profitably.

Reference:
[1] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar
[2] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
[3] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_physics
[4] “Principles of Modern Radar, Vol III Radar Applications”; William L. Melvin &
James A. Scheer; 3rd edition; 2013
[5] Available at: https://lidarradar.com/info/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-radar-systems
[6] Available at: https://www.radartutorial.eu/09.receivers/rx10.en.html.
[7] Available at: https://fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/es310/radarsys/radarsys.htm

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[8] Available at:
https://www.radartutorial.eu/07.waves/Waves%20and%20Frequency%20Ranges.en.html
[9] Available at: https://www.industryarc.com/Report/15805/radar-market.html
[10] Available at: https://puc.overheid.nl/nsi/doc/PUC_2430_14/2/#73076
[11] Available at: https://www.ehstoday.com/safety/article/21919211/why-safety-should-be-on-
our-radar
[12] Available at: https://www.slideshare.net/niteshkumar192/radar-system
[13] “A New Gated CW Radar Implementation”; John F.Autin, John Caserta, Mark A.Bates
Horsham; 2010.

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