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FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES

ETHIOPIAN WATER TECHNOLOGY CENTRE
_____
BUTAJIRA – ZIWAY AREAS DEVELOPMENT

STUDY
Butajira
Lake Zeway
GEOLOGY
JANUARY 2008
Ministry of Water Resources (MoWS) Butajira – Ziway areas
Ethiopian Water Technology Centre (EWTEC) Development Study
Table of contents
1 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA .......................................................................................... 1
1.2 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 PHYSICAL SET UP OF THE AREA .......................................................................................... 3
1.4 APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 3
2 GENERAL GEOLOGICAL AND TECTONIC BACKGROUND ............................................. 6
2.1 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES IN THE MAIN ETHIOPIAN RIFT (MER) ....................................... 6
2.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................. 8
2.3 GENERAL GEOLOGY OF THE MAIN ETHIOPIAN RIFT (MER) ............................................... 10
2.3.1 Precambrian rocks...................................................................................................... 10
2.3.2 Mesozoic Sediments .................................................................................................. 10
2.3.3 Trap Series ................................................................................................................. 10
2.3.4 The rift pyroclastic formation ...................................................................................... 11
2.3.5 Volcanoes and Volcanic complexes .......................................................................... 13
2.3.6 Recent Basalts............................................................................................................ 14
2.3.7 Basaltic Hyloclastite.................................................................................................... 15
2.3.8 Quaternary Sediments ............................................................................................... 15
2.4 THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES .................................................................................................. 16
2.5 GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM ..................................................................................................... 18
3 GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA ..................................................................................... 20
3.1 PRECAMBRIAN ROCKS ...................................................................................................... 20
3.2 MESOZOIC SEDIMENTS..................................................................................................... 23
3.3 TERTIARY UPPER MIOCENE TO PLIOCENE VOLCANIC ROCKS............................................ 26
3.3.1 Arba Guracha Silicics (N1ar)...................................................................................... 26
3.3.2 Anchar Basalts (N1n) ................................................................................................. 26
3.3.3 Nazareth group Dino Formation (NQS) ..................................................................... 26
3.3.4 Nazareth Group Alkaline and Peralkaline Stratoid Silicics (N1 –2n) ......................... 27
3.4 QUATERNARY VOLCANIC AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ........................................................ 28
3.4.1 The Rift Pyroclastic Formations ................................................................................. 28
3.4.2 Volcanoes and Volcanic complexes .......................................................................... 33
3.4.3 Basalts of the Rift Floor .............................................................................................. 37
3.4.4 Quaternary Sediment Deposits .................................................................................. 41
3.5 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES AND VOLCANICITY IN THE PROJECT AREA ............................... 52
3.6 SUMMARY OF SEQUENCE OF EVENTS AND EVOLUTION OF THE GEOMORPHOLOGY ........... 66
4 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY .................................................................................................... 67
4.1 PURPOSE OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION ..................................................................... 67
4.1.1 Geophysical investigation methods............................................................................ 67
4.1.2 Location and Survey layout of geophysical traverses ............................................... 68
4.1.3 Instrumentation and field procedure .......................................................................... 69
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4.1.4 Data Processing and presentation ............................................................................. 75

4.1.5 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION ......................................................................... 76
4.1.6 Summary of results..................................................................................................... 89
4.1.7 HLEM Survey.............................................................................................................. 91
5 GENERAL HYDROGEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE GEOLOGICAL UNITS ....... 92
5.1 QUATERNARY SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS ........................................................................... 92
5.2 VOLCANIC FORMATIONS ................................................................................................... 92
5.3 MESOZOIC SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS............................................................................ 93
5.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS ..................................................................................................... 93
6 CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................. 94
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 95
APPENDICES............................................................................................................................... 97
GEOLOGICAL MAP AND CROSS SECTIONS OF THE STUDIED AREA ............................... 97
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: STUDY AREA COORDINATES ............................................................................................... 1

TABLE 2: SUMMARY MAJOR FEATURES OF RIFT VALLEY LAKES ......................................................... 16
TABLE 3: SUMMARY OF TDS OF THE LAKES .................................................................................... 19
TABLE 4: SUMMARY THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS IN THE STUDY AREA ......................................... 21
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA (THE RED RECTANGULAR LINE SHOWS THE ACTUAL STUDY
BOUNDARY) ............................................................................................................................... 2
FIGURE 2. WENJI FAULT BELT SHOWING THE FOUR EN E’CHELON NNE-TRENDING SEGMENTS WITHIN
THE ZIWAY-SHALA LAKE BASIN. AW = LAKE AWASA; S = LAKE SHALLA; A = LAKE ABIJATA; L =
LAKE LANGANO; Z = LAKE ZIWAY. THREE SHIELD VOLCANOES ARE PRESENT AT EACH WFB
OFFSET (FROM CAROLINE LE TURDU AND ET AL, 1999). ............................................................ 8
FIGURE 3. LOCATION MAP SHOWING DIFFERENT GEOMORPHOLOGICAL AREAS ................................. 53
FIGURE 4. LOCATION MAP OF VES SURVEY POINTS......................................................................... 70
FIGURE 5. LOCATION MAP OF RESISTIVITY SECTION ALONG THE VES POINTS. ................................ 71
FIGURE 6. LOCATION MAP OF ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SURVEY POINTS......................................... 72
FIGURE 7. GEOELECTRIC SECTION ALONG THE RAMA–ADAMI TULU TRAVERSE .............................. 77
FIGURE 8. GEOELECTRIC SECTION ALONG ADAMI TULU-SURO TRAVERSE ..................................... 78
FIGURE 9. GEOELECTRIC SECTION ALONG THE RAMA – ARGO RASA TRAVERSE .............................. 79
FIGURE 10. GEOELECTRIC SECTION ALONG THE ZIWAY- KOSHE-INSENO TRAVERSE ....................... 81
FIGURE 11. GEOELECTRIC SECTION ALONG THE DUGDA-KOSHE TRAVERSE ................................... 82
FIGURE 12. GEOELECTRIC SECTION ALONG THE BUTAJIRA-BIDARA TRAVERSE ............................... 84
FIGURE 13. HORIZONTAL LOOP EM PROFILE, LINE I (DEBUB SHERSHERA).................................... 85
FIGURE 14. HORIZONTAL LOOP EM PROFILE, LINE II (SEMIEN SHERSHERA) ................................... 86
FIGURE 15. HORIZONTAL LOOP EM PROFILE, LINE III (ELLE) .......................................................... 87
FIGURE 16. HORIZONTAL LOOP EM PROFILE, LINE IV (GADILALA BILITI) ......................................... 88
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Acronyms
EWTEC = Ethiopian Water Technology Centre
MoWR /MWR = Ministry of Water Resources
MER = Main Ethiopian Rift
CRV = Central Rift Valley
UTM = Universal Transverse Mercator
m.a.m.s.l = Metre above mean sea level
LRDS = Land Resources Division, Ministry of Overseas Development, England
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1 BACKGROUND
1.1 LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA
Butajia–Ziway Development Study area is situated in the Central Rift Valley (CRV) of the Main
Ethiopian Rift Valley (MER) (See location Maps on next page). The area stretches from the
edges of the western escarpment of the rift valley or the Gurage Chain of Mountain called
Zebidar in the west and to the Lake Ziway in the east. Butajira town is situated about 135 km
and Ziway is located about 160 km from Addis Ababa. The study area covers 30 km by 60 km
(1800km2) within the following coordinates.
Table 1: Study area coordinates
UTM E UTM N
413000 893000
429000 920000
467000 862500
483000 889000
The whole study area is found within Meki River Catchment and it covers parts or whole of
seven woredas, namely: Meskan, Mareko, Soddo Siltie, Adamitulu Jido Kombolcha, Dugda
Bora and Ziway Dugda
The first three Woredas are located in Gurage Zone of Southern Nations Nationalities, and
Peoples Region (SNNPR). Silte is located in Silti zone of SNNPR. Adamitulu Jido Kombolcha,
Ziway Dugda and Dugda Bora are located in East Shewa Zone of Oromia Region.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the geological study are to provide background information for the
hydrogeological study and also to produce geological map of the study area.
1
Figure 1. Location of the study area (the red rectangular line shows the actual study boundary)
2
1.3 PHYSICAL SET UP OF THE AREA
The Ethiopian rift floor rises in rather irregular fashion from the lake Rudolf basin to a maximum
of over 1800m at the water shed north of lake Ziway, and then descends northwards in much
more regular fashion in to Afar Depression, where the rift floor is below sea level. The average
altitude of the plateaux, on both sides of the rift, is about 2500 masl.
The study area covers a small section in the CRV in the area of maximum rift floor altitude. It
includes the rift floor and the escarpment area (western escarpment). Ziway Lake and the
surrounding plains, the ridges and volcanic hills of the rift floor, mainly occupy the rift floor in the
study area. The rift floor in study area varies in altitude 1620 and 2100 m a.m.s.l. The pluvial
lacustrine sediments of the rift system have tended to flatten out the relief of the rift floor to from
flat plains. The escarpment area is mainly characterized by vertical cliffs of high mountain range
rising to over 3000m.a.m.s.l.
Rivers both from the eastern and western escarpment drain towards the rift floor. In the study
area there are two major drainage systems, which are Meki and Ketar River drainages. Ketar
River drains from the eastern escarpment and Meki River drains from the western escarpment.
Both these drainages end up in Lake Ziway. Lake Ziway mainly receives its water from these to
rivers in addition to the inputs from groundwater, precipitation and the runoff from the dry lake
catchment surrounding the lake. Lake Ziway has a surface water outlet as Bulbula River and
drains to the terminal Lake Abijata.
Therefore, the area includes the rift floor, the escarpment, two major drainage systems, and one
major lake with its surface water output.
1.4 APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
The study approach and methodology is based on the following steps,
♦ Review of past studies,
♦ Interpretation of maps, aerial photographs and satellite images,
♦ Planning and implementation of the field geological investigation, and
♦ Site Selection, planning and implementation of geophysical investigation.
Review of past studies was very important and was the first step in the study. Therefore, all
available study documents and maps have been reviewed before planning and commencing the
field study.
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A number of geological studies related to rifting and lake formation have been conducted since
1887. However, major and important studies have been conducted mainly since 1960. These
studies are of mainly for scientific interest. Out of these the most impressive study on the
geology of the Ziway-Shala lake basin System was done by Caroline Le Turdu and et, al.
1999.
In addition to the studies of scientific interest a number of developmental studies that included
geology and hydrogeology have been conducted in the area of which the most important ones
are the following.
The Awash Valley Development Authority has initiated studies for development of the
water resources in the rift valley (Italoconsult in 1970). This authority has made water
resources assessment in the Ziway – Langano-Abijata-Shalla Basin. The main aim of
the study was to divert Meki River into Awash River for extension of irrigation in the
Amibara area.
Following this study a very comprehensive study of the rift valley was done in 1975 by
Land Resources Division, Ministry of Overseas Development, England (LRD). This study
conducted detail study in the Ziway-basin mainly on Lake Ziway and Meki River and
proposed different development scenarios.
Ethio-Korean Joint Venture, 1986 proposed development of 23,000 ha of irrigation

throughout the Meki Delta and lands to the west of Lake Ziway.
Water Resources Development Authority (WRDA) 1987 study considered the

development of 3000 ha using stored water from Weja River, which is the major tributary
of Meki River.
The latest development oriented study that included geology is the one conducted by the
Ethiopian Valley Development Authority 1992. This study was conducted at
reconnaissance level and considered different scenarios of developing irrigated
agriculture around Ziway to be considered for further study.
In addition to the review of past studies available maps, aerial photographs and satellite images
have been interpreted.
Aerial photographs and topographical maps were obtained Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
Satellite images such as Mr.Sid with 30m resolution and SRTM digital elevation data (Shuttle
Radar Topographic Mission) of 90 m resolution have been obtained from EWTEC (Ethiopian
4
Water Technology Centre). Available geological and hydrogeological maps have been collected
from the Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey (EIGS)
Based on the review result of past studies and interpretations of maps, aerial photographs and
satellite the field study was planned. In the field different traverses across the rift direction, along
the rift structures and spot observations were planned and the field investigation was continued
accordingly. In the field different rock formations and their relationship to the other formations
were observed. Rock samples were also collected for thin section study from some appropriate
locations. Interpretation of rocks was also done on site by visual observation using hand lenses
and loops.
Based on the results of the field study and review results for obtaining further subsurface
information geophysiscal investigation lines and points were planned. The locations were
indicated on 1: 50,000 scale topographical maps and based on this the actual survey was
conducted with minor modifications related to accessibility and vegetation cover.
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2 GENERAL GEOLOGICAL AND TECTONIC BACKGROUND
As the study area is situated in the central part of the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER), in order to
understand the general geological condition the general geology and tectotnics of the MER is
summarized below based on review of different works.
2.1 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES IN THE MAIN ETHIOPIAN RIFT (MER)
The present day physiography of Ethiopia is determined by two tectonic phenomenon: The uplift
of the Arebo-Ethiopian swell and its subsequent dissection by the rift system.
The rift system in Ethiopia has divided the uplifted swell into two separates units: The Ethiopian
plateau in the west and Somali plateau to the east.
Following the epeirogenic sinking, which caused marine transgression in early Mesozoic, uplift
of Arabo -Ethiopia swell took place during Eocene. Late in Oligocene extrusion of the trap
Series lava took place, which was accompanied by rifting during Miocene. The rift system is one
of the largest structural features of the Earth's crust, extending for a distance of 6000km from
Mozambique to Syria, equivalent to 1/6th of the earth's circumference (Mohr, 1970). In, Ethiopia
the rift system extends over 1000km in a general NE direction. It covers 150,000km2 and it can
be divided into two broad units: The Main Ethiopian Rift (MER 50-90N and37030'-400E) and the
Afar depression. The relative displacement of the rift floor below the edge of the uplifted
plateaus varies up to as much as 2000m (Mohr, 1971).
The rift margins are marked by high angle normal faults with large throw that comprises several
step-faulted blocks. At places the rift escarpment adjacent to the Quaternary silicic centres
located along rift axis (Aluto, Shalla, and Corbetti Caldera) are generally subdued in part due to
pyroclastic accumulation along the margins.
The central MER is characterized by a set of NNE-SSW normal faults. "En echelon”
arrangement, rift in rift structures, asymmetry and open tensional fissures are its most important
features. The down throw of a single step fault can easily exceed 300m.
A great number of step faults produce a total difference of altitude of more than 1000m between
the top of the plateau and the floor of the rift valley. All these faults are normal faults, which run
for hundreds of kms in the NE and rarely in NS directions.
Some differences in the tectonic lineaments between the eastern and the western escarpment
exist; the former is characterized for all its length by step faults with an important throw. The
latter (Western) shows in its NE sector an abrupt displacement, sometimes exceeding 1500m
6
(Mt. Guraghe) between the top of the plateau and rift floor, whilst in its SW sector the main
faults have a small down throw and progressively die out.
This could be interpreted as due to the fact that the main faults are hidden by a huge quantity of
volcanic products filling a possible former depression existing in this area. The more active and
younger faults are located in the east than in the west.
The Wonji fault of Mohr (1962) shattered the rift floor in to several relatively small horst and
graben. Holocene age has been generally attributed (Mohr, 1972) to the Wonji faults. This
volcano tectonic axis is considered to be the current axis of the crustal extension.
This fault forms an 8 km wide belt of normal faults maintains NNE structural orientation along
the entire length of the Main Ethiopian Rift. In the central sector of the MER, the Wenji Fault belt
is dextrally offset into four en echelon rift axis segments. From North to south, these are the
Gadamsa-East Ziway, Ziway-Shalla, Shalla-Corbetti, and Duguma-Abays segments (Caroline,
et al, 1999).
Caldera topped shield volcanoes occur at each Wenji Fault Belt (WFB) offset: the Alutu Caldera
between Gadamsa-East Ziway and Ziway Shalla Segment, the O’a Caldera (presently occupied
by Lake Shalla) between the Ziway-Shall and Shalla-Corbeti Segments, and the Corbeti
Caldera at the south end of Shalla-Corbeti Segment (Mohr, etal., 1980 in Caroline, et al, 1999).
The Wenji fault Belt represents renewed volcano-tectonic activity from early Pleistocene and is
continuing at the present day. Tectonic movements are still active, as confirmed by young faults,
often affecting very recent formation and by the high seismicity of the whole graben.
The Wonji fault breaks the monotony of an otherwise flat surface, which formed the bed of a
large lake in pluvial time. The ancient lake, deposited sediments, which caused partial or
complete burial of some of the floor faults and older lavas.
7
Figure 2. Wenji Fault belt showing the four en e’chelon NNE-trending Segments within the
Ziway-Shala Lake Basin. AW = Lake Awasa; S = Lake Shalla; A = Lake Abijata; L = Lake Langano;
Z = Lake Ziway. Three Shield Volcanoes are Present at each WFB offset (From Caroline Le Turdu
and et al, 1999).
2.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY
The average altitude of the plateaux, on both sides of the rift, is about 2500 masl. The Ethiopian
rift floor rises in rather irregular fashion from the lake Rudolf basin to a maximum of over 1800m
at the water shed north of lake Ziway, and then descends northwards in much more regular
fashion in to Afar where the rift floor is in extensive region, below sea level.
8
The floor of the rift valley is not uniformly flat, but it is occupied by some reliefs of volcanoes,
rising for about 500m or more, such as it occurs on the plateaux, especially along the
escarpments limiting the rift, where some reliefs, more than 1000m high, occur.
The present day physio-graphy of Ethiopia is determined by two tectonic phenomenons: The
uplift of the Arebo-Ethiopian swell and its subsequent dissection by the rift system.
The rift system in Ethiopia has divided the uplifted swell into two separates units: The Ethiopian
plateau in the west and Somali plateau to the east.
Apart from volcanic piles of the trap series, the high Ethiopian plateau shows a monotonously
flat surface reflecting the Precambrian rock surface at some depth below.
The very great height of the plateau above sea level has caused the rivers to cut deep canyons.
There are numerous examples where faulting on plateau has determined section of river
courses.
Whilst the large scale of physiography of Ethiopia dominated by the tectonic, on smaller scale
other factors are important, especially the denudation caused by rivers, volcanic structures
including cones, craters, lava flows, and amelioration of relief caused by deposition.
The pluvial lacustrine sediments of the rift system have tended to flatten out the relief of the rift
floor to form extensive monotonously flat plains.
The tremendous out pouring of Tertiary flood basalts in central Ethiopia have in general merely
raised the level of the flat surface shown by underlying Mesozoic rocks.
9
2.3 GENERAL GEOLOGY OF THE MAIN ETHIOPIAN RIFT (MER)

2.3.1 Precambrian rocks
Except NW of the project area at Kela Horst, East of Guraghe Mountains, nowhere in Central
Rift Valley and the project area metamorphic rocks are exposed. This metamorphic rock (Biotite
gneiss) is exposed due to uplifting (Dipola, 1979). Basement rocks have also been observed on
the Amaro horst, further south of the Central Rift Valley i.e. SE of Abaya lake. In the Amaro
horst the basement complex lies above 3000m; probably this is the maximum uplifted basement
surface observed anywhere else (Mohr, 1971).
2.3.2 Mesozoic Sediments
Dipola (1979) reported his observation of out crops of Mesozoic sediments in the rift valley.
These Mesozoic sediments crop out at western rift margin, east of Guraghe Mountains (on Kela
horst) .It is underlain by Biotite gneiss, which also exposed at the same locale. The overlaying
upper sandstone was probably subjected to a long period of uplift and erosion, that 200 m thick
cretaceous upper sand stone, whch uncomfortably underlies the trap basalt at Ambo 100km to
the north is absent in Guraghe area (Woldegabriel, 1990).
2.3.3 Trap Series
The trap series consists of a very thick series of lava flows chiefly flood balsats, but with
trachyte and rhyolite occurring more especially near the top of the series. Its thickness ranges
from 300 to 3500m; the actual thickness of the flow depends on many factors. In places the
topography, which pre-existed the earlier flow may have caused pooling in valleys and thinning
or even absence over ridges.
The plateaux were formed consisting of hundreds and hundreds of basaltic lava flows and
ignimbritic units. The trap series in adjacent plateaux of the MER shows an exposed thickness
of about 1000m; elsewhere in Wollo province a thickness of 2000 and sometimes 3000 m is
rather common.
The trap series is mostly made up of basaltic lava flows with subordinately associated
ignimbritic units intercalated between the basic lavas. Also silicic lava flows and lava domes are
sometimes associated with the basalt of the trap series but their volume is always small
compared to that of the ignimbrites. The rocks of the trap series almost always appear strongly
weathered with a soil cover frequently as thick as some tens of meters. The last cover on both
escarps is almost always ignimbrite. The trap series are best exposed along the main faults,
which originated the two escarpments.
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Basalt of the trap series, when good outcrop exists such as at sire, East of langnao, East of
Awasa consists of sub horizontal flows, a few meter thick (3-5m,rarly more) with rather well
preserved scoracious level between the flows. The alternance in time of different eruptive
episodes is demonstrated by the presence of paleo soils layers. Strong variation is observed in
textural features from strongly porphyritic to aphyric basalt types.
Ignimbrites of the trap series always show a well-welded structure with evident fiammea.
Ignimbrites interbedded with basalts of the trap series are generally constituted by few units
(3or5), each about 5 to 20m thick. The last ignimbrite cover, especially on the eastern plateau is
formed by one or two ignimbrite layers 10 to 25 m thick. On top of the western plateau (SW of
Mt Guraghe), the base of the last ignimbrite cover is not visible; therefore, the thickness must be
more than 50m, which is the thickness of the exposed part. In this area no clear distinction can
be made between plateau and rift ignimbrite using only field observation.
Both Plateaux are mostly made up of basaltic lava flows, whilst the rift floor is predominantly
occupied by silicic volcanic, mostly ignimbrites.
In Ethiopia huge out pouring of flood basaltic were consequent up on the swell uplift, continuing
intermittently throughout the Oligocene and, in southern Ethiopia into the Miocene.
2.3.4 The rift pyroclastic formation
The pyroclastic formation includes typical ignimbrites, sillars and layered pumice. In the MER,
these are the most ancient formation out cropping on the floor of the rift valley. Its age is upper
Pliocene, according to Mohr (1967), who assumed the same age for the rift ignimbrites and the
last ignimbritic cover of the plateaux. Several layers constitute the pyroclastic formation with
variable thickness, from 0.5-1m up to 20m or more in a single unit. In many cases, paleosols are
observed between ignimbritic sequences.
Typical ignimbrite is a hard, well-welded rock with nicely developed fiammea containing small
inclusion of foreign rocks. This is the most common type outcropping in this region. Ignimbrite
contains Xenoliths composed of volcanic origin (rhyolite and basalt).
Intermediate rocks are relatively scanty and indicates an evolution towards alkaline and per-
alkaline silicic term. The silicic volcanism of the rift is largely per-alkaline with predominance of
pantellerites over comendites.
A coarse and less welded ignimbritic- like formation of " sillar" type is locally exposed around
east of lake Ziway. It is extremely rich in big pumice fragments and the amount of xenoliths is
impressive.
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Another important pyroclastic product associated with typical ignimbrite is a layered pumice
formation. It is generally constituted by unwedded pumice of small size and each layer is
generally thin. Many thin layers of such unwedded pumice out crop inter-bedded with thin layers
of lacustrine deposits and paleosols. The pumice layers contain some xenoliths, small in size
and amount.
Ashes, consisting of fine and incoherent glass particles, are frequently inter-bedded both with
ignimbrites and pumice layer. Sometimes, these ashes are aggregated to form pisolites; more
rarely the glass particles are slightly cemented and the ash deposits become a cohesive soil (as
tuff).
The total thickness of the ignimbrite is not known, but it exceeds 200m on the west of Nazareth
and E and W of shalla. The ignimbrites are frequently hidden by sequence of lacustrine
sediments and or by stream deposits.
The emplacements of typical ignimbrites,"sillar" and unwelded layered pumice, represent the
most important volcanic event of the Ethiopian rift valley.
The stratigraphic relationship of these principal rock types is not clearly known, but in few
localities (South of Lake Shalla and W of Langano) the sillar type underlies the typical
ignimbrites. Since the ignimbrites are intensely faulted, it is possible to observe this formation
almost everywhere, even when it is covered by more recent volcanic or lacustrine product.
Important quaternary per alkaline silicic centers of the main Ethiopian rift (MER), aligned along
the active wonji fault belt are: Gedemsa caldera, Bora volcano, Alulto volcano, shalla Caldera,
nested Awassa-Korbiti calderas and Duguna volcano.
Important volcano-tectonic collapse, which produced regional calderas, must be related to a

huge quantity of pyroclastic (mostly ignimbrite) emplaced by fissure eruptions. Fissural eruption
has been alternating with central eruption (volcanoes), in the plateaux they are relatively large
and old. Others rising in the rift valley are small and very recent, showing at present fumarolic
activity.
Abundance of silicic per-alkaline volcanics (mainly pantellerites) is related both to the fissure
activity and to the several central volcanoes rising from the rift. Volcanic rocks of intermediate
composition (Hawaiite and Mugearite) seem to be relatively scarce.
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2.3.5 Volcanoes and Volcanic complexes
Ignimbrite and pumice are the results of eruption of gas rich silica magma; most probably the
same magma, having lost its gases during explosive activity, was erupted latter on, a viscous
lava flows and domes. Thin and subordinated layers of unwedded pumice and ash deposits are
often found interbedded.
Most of silicic domes pushed their way through the ignimbrites, but it is not always possible to
find clear relations between the two different types of volcanism. Sometimes individual
volcanoes of conspicuous dimension (500m high) made up viscous lava flows stand above the
ignimbrite basement.
There are many volcanic centers in the MER. They are, from north to south, Fantale, Boseti,
Ziquala, Gedemsa, Bora, Tulu moye, Aluto, shalla, Corbetti, Data, Duguna, Damota, and
Wagebetta.
They are made up of several thick and viscous silicic lava flows and pyroclastics such as
rhyolites, trachytes, pumice, ash and obsidian. Most of them have caldera with a diameter
ranging from 2 - 40 km or crater with diameter less than 2km. usually their calderas and craters
are filled by small lakes. The depth of calderas range from 100m to 400m. They stand 500m to
1000m above the rift floor. Their elevation ranges from 2000 - 3000m. For example Fantale is
2007m, Ziquala is 2989 amsl, Aluto is 2335,Corbetti is 2320,and Damota is 2958m .In the Afar
depression, volcanic centers are lesser in number, extent and elevation, some of important ones
are Dofan, Asebot, Afdem and Ayelu. Most of these volcanic centers are associated with the
wonji fault belt. Individual volcano covers an area as big as 500km2.
Some of the recent volcanoes such as Fantale, Bosti, Gedemsa, Aluto, and corbetti have
fumaroles activities.
There are others great number of small volcanic centers, exclusivley made up of silicic
pyroclastics and basaltic cones. They stand above ignimbrite of the rift. Erosion has affected
rather deeply, some of the volcanoes, in a short time, becuse of the completely incoherent
nature of the pyroclastic materials (Eg Bora, Berricho and Tulu moye, Aluto).
The considerable abundance of pyroclastics shows that this area has been a zone of highly
explosive volcanic activity.
Lake shalla caldera is the most important volcano-teconic sinking of the whole Ethiopian rift
valley. The present activity consists of hydrothermal manifestation of which occur all around the
lake.
13
The Corbetti- Post calderal activity is represented by two very recent volcanoes of Uriji and
Chabbi mostly formed of pumice flows and falls with subordinate obsidian lava flows .The age of
Urji and Chebbi is very recent to sub recent as for Aluto, Bor, Berricho, Ittisa, Boseti volcanoes.
The occurrence of a huge wide spread ignimbritic formation and other silicic pyroclastics easily
accounts for the presence of those three regional volcano- tectonic sinkings, in the MER,
namely Gedemsa, Shalla, and Cortetti Caldera (Dipoal, 1972).
2.3.6 Recent Basalts
The basalts are volumetrically, in the Ethiopian rift valley the second volcanic formation, though
they are quite subordinate to ignimbrites. Recent basalts out crop mainly along the base of mt
Guraghe, which limits the rift in Butajira-siliti area, and east of L. Ziway with small lava field,
located south of lake shalla. The recent lava of the Butajira - siliti area is formed by some
horizontal or sub-horizontal lava flows sometimes associated with layers of hyaloclastite, it is
possible to observe this formation that these basalts lie directly on the ignimbrite of the rift .The
thickness of the basaltic formation in this area is only few ten meters. The recent basalt lava on
the opposite side (East of Ziway) has the same character but thickness may reach up to 100m.
In Bishoftu area (Debrezeit), there are recent lava fields and numerous spatter cones, whose
craters are sometimes filled by small lakes.
The recent basalt formation including hyaloclastites must have been emplaced during a rather
long period of time starting from Pleistocene until recent. Very recent to sub recent basaltic
flows which are not affected by any tectonics; they flowed jumping over the faults as it can be
seen for a lava flow coming from one of the biggest spatter cones of this area, which reaches
the southern limit of the wonji sugar estate farm.
Another area where recent basalt can be observed is Melkassa-Fantale area. These basaltic
lava flows are very fresh with abundant scoraceous surfaces of the "aa" type.
Some phreatic explosion craters, though very rare, occur in the recent basalt formation. Tow of
such phreatic explosions craters are found 15km NE of Ziway with 200-250m diameter and 20-
30m depth, the other one is located in Butajira-Siliti area with diameter of 700m and with depth
of >50m (lake level inside the crater).
Basalts of the Plateau are more alkaline than those of the rift, which show a transitional nature
between alkali basalt and tholeiites.
14
2.3.7 Basaltic Hyloclastite
Limited occurrences of sub-aqueous basaltic volcanism are found in some places of the
Ethiopian rift valley. Hyaloclastites are the results of explosive activity of basaltic magma under
shallow water (Tazieff, 1968). The occurrence of hyaloclastite is not surprising here, since in this
region the extension of lake basins in the past could have been greater than at present, as
extensive lacustrine deposits show.
In this region hyaloclastite occur both as small monogenic rings and as horizontal of local
extension. Hyaloclastite rings always show a large top crater, which sometimes is occupied by
small lake such as Chitu. Hyaloclastites consists of a fine glassy material, generally yellowish to
brown in color, which contains small boulders of basaltic lava. In the Central MER hyaloclastites
are subordinate to the other volcanic products.
2.3.8 Quaternary Sediments
Lacustrine sediments (lake deposits) composed of sands; clays, tuffs, pumice and diatomite
were deposited in the rift floor, during the pluvial periods (period of heavy rainfall between 1 to
0.01 million years) in Pleistocene to Holocene period. The pluvial period, which was
experienced in the tropical regions, is the equivalent of glacial period of the temperate zone that
alternate with at least one dry and hot inter-pluvial period (Mohr, 1971).
The lacustrine sediments are the results of drying up of a big lake, which in the past occupied
the floor of the rift valley. Lake Ziway, Langano, Abijata, and Shalla are in fact the remnants of
that ancient large water basin (Mohr, 1971).
Lacustrine sediments are quite important formation, which cover an area of 4,000km2 in the
Main Ethiopian Rift. The thickness of sediments on the floor of lakes basin is not accurately
known. Sediments are probably thickest in tectonic trough, which correspond in part to the
topographic lows occupied by lakes (Lloyd, 1977). Variable sediment thickness occurs, ranging
from about 40m in Bulbula River, and 50m in Boru and Meki Rivers, up to 100m between Mojo
and Koka.
The maximum thickness of sediment as calculated from gravity data (west of Shalla - Abiata
trough) is 580m (Searle and Gouin, 1972), which could have deposited in 290,000 yrs,
according to the deposition rate found by Geze (1975). Geze (1975) has shown that
diatomaceous sediments accumulated, at the left bank tributary of the Bulula River (Abelosa
wadi), during the Holocene lacustrine period at a rate of 1m in 500yr.
15
Alluvial deposits composed of silt, sands and gravel occur along the foot of the rift escarpments
and the lower reach of rivers such as Meki, Bulbula, Ketar, Weja, Irinzaf Irisho and Dobena.
In the Ethiopian rift system, Quaternary lavas and pyrocalstic deposits of the Aden volcanic
series are very frequently interbedded with these sediments (Mohr, 1971).
2.4 THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES
Within the rift system extensive lakes were formed during the pluvial period with concomitant
deposition of lacustrine sands, clay and diatomite. The following table 2 is general summary of
the major rift valley lakes. In addition to these there are small lakes such as Abijata (Tuffa) near
Kibet, Shallo near Awassa and Lake Hora Chitu near Shalla.
The MER, from present day lake -Ziway to Lake Awassa seems to have been occupied by a
single huge lake during a late Pleistocene wet climatic period (pluvial). The lake then dried to a
degree more severe than at the present day (Mohr, 1960).
Table 2: Summary major features of rift valley lakes
No Lake Area (km2) Elevation (m) Max depth (m)

1 Rudolf 8600 375 73
2 Chew Bahir - 520 -
3 Chamo 551 1230 12.7
4 Abaya 1162 1285 13.1
5 Awassa 129 1680 21.6
6 Shalla 409 1570 266
7 Abijata 205 1575 14.2
8 Langano 230 1585 46.42
9 Ziway 434 1637 9
There is evidence in Ethiopia that during Pluvial (Pleistocene) not only were the existing lakes
larger or even joined together, but also that many large lakes existed where today there remain
only dried up basins floored by lacustrine sediments (Mohr, 1971).
During Pleistocene there was pluvial period of heavy rainfall corresponding to that of the glacial
period of the temperate latitude, alternating with hot and dry inter pluvial.
A flat floor of clay, sand, tuffs, pumice and diatomite in the region prove that Ziway - Shalla were
all joined as one huge lake during pluvial period. It seems the present day height of the various
lakes proves gentle post pluvial tilting down to the south, which is supported by the occurrence
16
of higher terraces towards the lower southern region of Lake Shalla, and of the lower terraces
towards the higher northern region of lake Ziway.
Four lakes of tectonic origin (Ziway, Langano, Abijata, and Awassa) with alignment to the main
tectonic trend of the rift are found in rift valley. Mohr (1967) first recognized Lake Shalla to be a
caldera with a trend perpendicular to the main tectonic trend. Therefore, Lake Shalla is
considered as one of the most important volcano-tectonic sinking of the floor of the rift valley.
The existence of terraced pumiceous lacustrine sediments both sides of the fresh transverse
faulting which limits the present lake Awassa basin to the north suggests that in pluvial times
this basin was connected to that of Ziway- Shalla. They were separated by post pluvial block
faulting and tilting. If this single huge lake did once exist, it is not known whether it drained to
north or south. As the southern transverse boundary fault of Lake Awassa basin is also fresh
and probably post-pluvial, it is more likely that drainage was to the south than over the present
day watershed north of Ziway.
A southward drainage down the main Ethiopian rift valley in pluvial times is considered
probably, not only from the absence of any river gorge north of lake Ziway across the
watershed, but also from the occurrence of lacustrine sediments SW of lake Awassa across the
water shed. Lakes Abbaya and Chamo were enlarged and interconnected during the pluvial.
However, Grove and others (1975) agree with Nilsson (1940) that a meandering Channel at
1667m (Italconsult, 1970) crossing the lake basin and the Awash basin divide is an overflow
channel to the Awash basin (Lloyd, 1977).
Thormann (1970) for the first time proposed that ground water flow from lake Awassa towards
Lake Shall, heated by steam and hot water during migration through Corbetti caldera, could
create the geochemical condition of Chiut-Shalla springs (Lloyd, 1977).
From 14C dating of algal limestone and shells, grove and others (1975) proposed lake level rise
at 14,400 years BP followed by a maximum just after 9,500 years BP and another around 6,500
years BP.
By 5,000 years BP lake Ziway had separated at about 1,655m from the large lake (Geze, 1975,
Grove and others, 1975, Leury and Albritton 1975). Lakes Langnao, Abiata and Shalla later
became independent lakes. Remarkable recessional strandlines that surround the modern lakes
result from this last major recession during late Holocene time.
17
2.5 GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM
In the rift system fumaroles and hot springs are most commonly associated with manifestation
of recent volcanicity, ranging in observed temperature from 28 oc to 130 oc (average figure about
60 oc). Geysers are observed at few localities in the rift valley such as Allalobeda in Afar
depression and Kulito area (the MER). Hot springs are numerous on the western plateau or the
Ethiopian plateau but are very few on the Somalia plateau. The hot springs of the plateau
ranging from 27 to 58 oc with an average of about 40oc fail to show such high temperate as
those of the rift system.
Regional heat flow anomalies exist within the rift due to an upper mantle intrusion beneath the
very thin crust layer. Local intrusion of silicic magma chamber is inducing higher heat flow
anomalies like the one at Corbetti. Quaternary sediments in the rift floor serve as impermeable
"Cap" to convective hot water systems in the basin (Lloyd, 1977).
The underlying down faulted tertiary ignimbrite, if not buried too deeply will probably incorporate
the most extensive aquifers and provide a drilling target for hot water/steam production. Locally
the thickness of this ignimbrite range from 200 to 300m (Lloyd, 1977). Rainfall on the rift
shoulder and escarpment area is believed to be the major source of recharge to geothermal
reservoirs in the rift floor.
The reservoir temperature at Aluto (NE of the study area) is 300-350 oc at depth of 2000m
(UNDP, 1985) and at Corbetti it is 200 oc (Kebede et al, 1987). The high temperature gradient at
Corbetti (260-350/km) is related to post calderal volcanoes of Chabbi an Urji.
Under such high temperature (at Aluto) the gas concentration is approximately 2 % by
molecular weight. 99 % by volume of this gas is CO2; the other major constituent is H2S (UNDP,
1985).
The hot springs near Lake Chitu and nearby on shore of Lake Shalla have comparatively low
temperature up to 60 oc. From the Na/K ratio of the spring water chemistry it is suggested that
the spring waters are steam heated and mixed with surface water.
The current dissolved chemical contents (TDS) of the lakes are provided in table 3. This
chemistry of the lakes is related to the activity of geothermal systems groundwater, and current
surface inflow. The lakes with high surface water inflow and less groundwater and geothermal
influence have relatively fresh water (Ziway, Awassa and Langano).
18
Table 3: Summary of TDS of the Lakes
No Lake TDS (ppm) at 110oc

1 Shalla 18,800
2 Abijata 8,260
3 Langano 1,650
4 Ziway 450
5 Awassa 650
19
Ministry of Water Resources (MoWS) Butajira – Ziway
areas
3 GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA
The geology of the study area except for Palaeozoic deposits comprises rocks from
Precambrian age up to recent. Table 4 provides summary of the stratigraphy of the rocks
in the study area. The following sections describe the geological formations in the study
area starting from the oldest formations to the recent ones.
3.1 PRECAMBRIAN ROCKS
In the Rift Valley NW of the project area at Kela Horst, East of Guraghe Mountains a
metamorphic rock (Biotite gneiss) is exposed due to uplifting (Dipola, 1979). Basement
rocks have also been observed on the Amaro horst, SE of Abaya Lake. In the Amaro
horst the basement complex surface lies above 3000m; probably this is the maximum
uplifted basement surface observed anywhere else (Mohr, 1971).
A high grade metamorphic rock biotitle-gnesiss cut by quartzo fieldspathic pegmatitic

veins and minor migmatites is overlain by 150m – 200m thick typical Adigrat sandstone,
cross-bedded quartz sandstone with coarse, medium and fine grained varying in colour
form purple, red, pink, yellow and white resting unconformable on the Precambrian, to
the west of Kela Town in the western escarpment of the project area.
20
Table 4: Summary the geological formations in the study area
Formatio
Age (Million n
Era Period Age Group Formation years) Symbol Description Location Specific locality
Alluvial and talus deposits, clays, sits, sands,

Qab gravel and boulders Rift Valley Butajira Crescent
Lacustrine alluvial and talus deposits, silts, clays,
Quaternary
sands, gravel, bouulders, volcanodasitc sedimes,

Qa tuffs Rift Valley Kuntane-Inseno-Kela Plain
Lacustrine sedimes; Silts, clays, diatomites,

Qi volcanodastic, sediments, tuffs Rift Valley Ziway plain
Central Volcanic
Complexes 1.5-0.3 Qwa Rhyolitic and Trachytic lava flows Rift Valley Gedemotta Caldera
QwPu Pumice and Unwelded tuffs Rift Valley South and Northeast Ziway
Piestocene-Holocene
Wonji Group
Qws Peralkaline silicics undifferentiated Rift Valley South of Abaya Lake
Basalts of the
Cenozoic
rift floor QwBh Basalts of the rift floor Rift Valley Butajira Silte area
Qwbp Pleistocene Basalts Rift Valley East of Ziway
Ignimbrites, tuffs, water lain pyroclastics and

Tertiary
Dino Formation Qdi occational lacustrine deposits Rift Valley West of Ziway
Upper Miocene-Pilocene
Nazareth Group and Dino Formation, Escarpment mountains

Nazareth Group
NQs Undifferntiated Escarpment west of Butajira
Alkaline and per alkaline silicics, rhyolitic doms and Escarpment mountains
N1-2ar flows and ignimbrites Escarpment west of Butajira
Startoid silicis ignimbrites, unwelded tuffs, ash- Escarpment mountains

2-9 N1-2n flows, rhyolites and trachytes Escarpment west of Butajira
Upper Miocene
Escarpment mountains
Middle-
Anchar Baslats 10 - 12 N1n Mildly Alkaine Transitonal Basalts Escarpment west of Butajira
Arba Guracha Escarpment mountains

Silicics 14-11 N1ar Peralkaline Rhyolitic ignimbrites Escarpment west of Butajira
Triassic to Jurassic continental sandstone and Escarpment mountains

Mesozoic Triassic-Jurassic Tj Jurassic marine limestone Escarpment west of Kela
Paleozoic ?
Escarpment mountains
Precambrian pe Gniesses and granites Escarpment west of Kela
21
The thin section study shows that the metamorphic rock has the following composition and
property;
♦ Mineralogical Composition
Orthoclase 50%
Quartz 35%
Plagioclase 13%
Biotite <1%
Opaque 1%
♦ Description of rock texture

- A medium to coarse-grained deformed granite
- Deformation is evident by bending of feldspars twin lamellae and undulose extinction or
deformation lamellae in quartz,
- Slight sericitization of feldspars and granular texture well preserved.
♦ Rock Name
- Deformed Granite.
• Sample Location
- UTM 442924 E, 912605 N
Photo 1. Kela granite
22
Photo 2. Showing Kela granite with pegmatite vein
3.2 MESOZOIC SEDIMENTS
Dipola (1979) reported his observation of out crops of Mesozoic sediments in the rift valley.
These Mesozoic sediments crop out at western rift margin, east of Guraghe Mountains (on Kela
horst). About 30 m thick limestone overlies about 200 m thick sandstone. It is underlain by
Biotite Gneiss, which also exposed at the same locality. The overlaying upper sandstone was
probably subject to a long period of uplift and erosion, that 200 m thick cretaceous upper
sandstone, which uncomfortably underlies the trap basalt at Ambo 100km to the north, is absent
in Guraghe area (Woldegabriel, 1990).
23
The thin section study shows that the Sandstone have the following composition and property;
Quartz 95%
Clay matrix 3%
Opaque 1%
• Description of rock texture

- Medium grained well sorted and matured (it contains very little, i.e., <5% clay matrix),
- Very coarse-grained quartz crystals show undulose extinction and deformation lamellae
indicating that the quartz crystals are polycrystalline. This is a characteristic of quartz
crystals from a metamorphic protolith (source rock).
• Rock Name
- Sandstone (Quartz Arenite).
• Sample Location
- UTM 442724 E, 912605 N
Photo 3. Showing Kela sandstone
24
About 30 m thick reddish grey shale and marls and 20-30 m thick limestone overlie the
sandstone. The limestone is dark grey compact and fossiliferous. Compact greenish grey
horizontal ignimbrite unit unconformably overlies this limestone.
The thin section study from the sample taken from the limestone has shown the following result.
Micrite 60%
Fossils 40%
- In the micritic matrix or mudstone are floating fossils of bivalves, ooids, peloids, brachiopods
- Re-crystallized spary calcite is also present.
- The rock is peloidal-oolitic fossiliferous limestone.
• Rock Name
- Fossiliferous limestone
• Sample Location
- UTM 442671 E, 913406 N
Photo 4. Showing limestone at roadside (UTM 442600 E, 913414 N)
25
Photo 5. Showing Block of limestone close to a roadside (UTM 442600 E, 913414 N)
3.3 TERTIARY UPPER MIOCENE TO PLIOCENE VOLCANIC ROCKS

3.3.1 Arba Guracha Silicics (N1ar)
This is the oldest volcanic rock in the project area, with age ranging 14 to 11 Ma and exposed in
the plateau northeast of the project area. This formation is composed of rhyolites and
ignimbrites.
3.3.2 Anchar Basalts (N1n)
This formation is composed of alkaline to transitional basalts. This is one of the oldest basaltic
rock in the project area, with age ranging 12 to 10 Ma and exposed in the plateau north and
northwest of Butajira Town.
3.3.3 Nazareth group Dino Formation (NQS)
This is volcanic rock occupies the western escarpment and the plateau and considered as
upper Miocene in age (Kazmin et,al, 1981). This formation includes what was mapped by Di
paola (1972) as basalts and ignimbrites of the plateaux Trap series. The Nazareth group
includes ash flow tuffs, pantellritic ignimbrites and un-welded tuffs while the Dino formation is
made up of Dino ignimbrites. These rocks outcrop at the NW part of the plateau part in the
project area.
26
3.3.4 Nazareth Group Alkaline and Peralkaline Stratoid Silicics (N1 –2n)
These are alkaline and peralkaline stratoid silicics; Ignimbries, un-welded tuffs, ash flows,
rhyolites and trachytes. They range in age between 2-9 million years and are mostly located on
the escarpments. This formation occupies the main part of the escarpment west, northeast and
north of Butajira. The rhyolitic part of this formation forms domed hills in the escarpment area.
The rocks of this formation are at places highly weathered and some sections show series of
weathered layers. It is sometimes with columnar-joints. In the escarpment exactly west of
Butajira block jointing is common feature.
Photo 6. Showing Nazreth series volcanics- Rhyolite with columnar joints (UTM 441589 E,
917483 N).
Photo 7. Showing highly weathered rhyolite forming part of Nazreth series volcanic
27
3.4 QUATERNARY VOLCANIC AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

3.4.1 The Rift Pyroclastic Formations
3.4.1.1 Dino Formation (Qdi)
Dino formation includes peralkaline silicis of ignimrites, tuffs, water lain pyroclasics and
occasional lacustrine beds which are overlain by coarse, unwelded pumiceous pyroclastics. The
Dino formation of V. Kazmin and Seife Mikael Berhe (1980) was previously called as Rift
Pyroclastic formation by Di Paola (1972). The rift ignimbrites are highly faulted and outcrop in
most parts of the rift.
This formation covers mainly the Tora-Koshe-Dugda Ridge and has over 300m thickness. 312m
deep borehole drilled at Shirinto Village did not penetrate the formation fully. Geophysical
investigation result has shown over 360 m thickness.
This formation in the Tora – Koshe – Dugda ridge is mainly made up of lithic and pumaceous
tuff alternating with highly weathered reddish brown altered / weathered ash affected by some
white hydrothermal material.
Photo 8. Showing highly weathered Highly weathered ash within the Dino Formation
28
Photo 9. Showing Block Jointing in Dino Formation Tuff
Dino formation also found to occur in the Dobo Fault zone a fault zone which separates Kuntane
– Inseno-Kela-Plain from the Cinder Cones and Basaltic Flow areas. In these areas it is situated
at the fault zone and found intruded or cut by the recent lava flows and cinder-cones.
Dino Formation Tuff

Cinder Cone Contact zone
Part of Kuntane Swampy Plain
Photo 10. Showing Dino Formation overlain by Cinder Cone at Dobo-Sabola fault zone on the
road to Kuntane Swamp.
29
Kuntane Plain
Recent basalt
cutting through the
Dino Formation Dino Tuff
Tuff
Photo 11. Showing Dino Dino Formation overlain by Cinder Cone at Dobo-Sabola fault zone on
the road to Kuntane Swamp. Photo from opposite direction of the above photo.
Photo 12. Close View of Pumaceous lithic tuff of Dino Formation shown on the above
photographs.
30
Thin section study of Dino Formation Tuff at three different localities show that this formation is
dominantly composed of with over 60% Ash/Dust with varying percentage of glass and minerals
of quartz and sanidine. The following is the results of thin section study.
Ash or Dust 85%

Vesicles 15%

- The rock is almost composed of dust or volcanic ash.
- Vesicles are not filled with secondary material.
• Rock Name
- Tuff
• Sample Location
- UTM 431880 E, 886206 N Road to Kuntane Swamp from Har Shetan direction
Ash 50%
Quartz 35%
Sanidine 10%
Glass <3%
Biotite Trace
Opaque <1%

- Angular and Fractured phynocrysts of quartz and sanidine float in the ash or dust matrix
- Devitrification of minor glass shards present.
• Rock Name
- Crystal tuff
• Sample Location
- UTM 446691 E, 907681 N, East of Kela Town
31
Ash 60%
Glass 37%
Sanidine 1%
Quartz trace
Opaque 1%
- Angular phynocrysts of sanidine and quartz float in a matrix of deformed and banded ash or
dust and glass shards.
- Almost complete divitrification of glass.
- Discontinuous layering formed by flattening or compaction is evident.
• Rock Name
- Welded tuff
• Sample Location
- UTM 460782 E, 903642 N
32
3.4.2 Volcanoes and Volcanic complexes
3.4.2.1 Central Volcanic complex (Qwpu)
Some rhyolitic lava flows and domes are found associated with the rift ignimbrites with age
ranging from 0.24 to 0.02 million years. The alkaline and peralkaline silicis of O-Itu Woshe,
Bora, Berecha, Alluto volcanoes, northeast, south and southeast of Lake Ziway. The
pyroclastics are unwelded pumice flows and ashes, which are the final products. Qwpu
represents pumice and unwelded tuffs, Qwo obsidian and pitchtone and Qwa are rhyalitic lava
flows.
Photo 13. Showing Unwellded Pumaceous tuff deposit part of Bora Volcano northeast of Lake
Ziway
3.4.2.2 The Gademotta caldera (Qwa)
This caldera forms a half circle starting west of Ziway town where there are two quarry sites and
a water reservoir for Ziway Town and ends west of Adamitulu having a diameter of about 30
kilometres.
This caldera has been cut by the West Ziway fault and its western rim remains, while the other
part is buried under thick lacustrine deposit.
33
At later stage the western rim of the caldera is intruded by rhyolite volcano (Qwa) well preserved
with vertical inside walls with 100-200m heights. It is made up of pumice and banded rhyolite
resulting from strong silicic magmatic event about 1.3 to 1.05 million years. This caldera is the
oldest collapse structure pre-dating the formation of Ziway Basin, which initiated about 0.3
million years (Caroline, et al, 1999).
Photo 14. Showing Rhyolite that intruded the caldera rim
Photo 15. Showing banded rhyolite with glass and ash layers that intruded the caldera rim
34
To the west of Ziway town the Ethiopian Rural Road Construction and the Dragados (road
Construction Company) have opened two quarries. At the opened quarry, it depicts banding of
black and white crystals and is jointed with strike NW-SE dipping 400E.
Thin section study of this rock at two different localities has shown that this rock is composed of
with over 90% ash and glass. The following is the result of the thin section study.
Ash and Glass 90%

Sanidine 2%
Quartz 1%
Amphibole <1%
Fragments <1%
Opaque 4%

- Devitrification (almost complete) of the glass matrix
- Angular phenocrysts of sanidine and quartz float in the glass and dust matrix.
• Rock Name
- Rhyolite or Welded tuff (or ignimbrite)
• Sample Location
- UTM 461567 E, 877687 N
Within this caldera west of Adami Tulu town at Shisho Tora village highly altered rhyolite uplift
the lacustrine deposit. This hill seems as part of late stage activity of the caldera, probably
magma eruption following the collapse of the caldera and sedimentation within the caldera.
Major part of this rock is altered to a white clay probably kaolinte clay. The sediment deposit
overlaying and dipping away from the hills indicate this event. The lacustrine sediment hill at
Adami Tulu Town can be attributed to similar activity as of Shisho Tora.
35
Photo 16. Showing altered rhyolite hill that intruded the lacustrine deposit west of Adami Tulu at
Shisho Tora.
Photo 17. Showing altered rhyolite hill that intruded the lacustrine deposit west of Adami Tulu at
Shisho Tora. (The lacustrine deposit lay over the rhyolite intrusion at the flank of the hill dipping
in the direction of the hill flank)
Samples have been taken for thin section study from the parent and altered part of the rock.
The result shows that the altered rock is completely devitrified and become ash, whereas, the
parent rock have similar composition as that of the Gademota Caldera Rim. The following are
results of the thin section study.
36
Ash 99%
Quartz 1%

- Two angular phynocrysts of quartz crystals float in an entirely ash matrix (it may originally
have been glass matrix)
• Rock Name
- Altered volcanic ash/tuff
• Sample Location
- UTM 464287 E, 866458 N Shisho Tora. Sampled from the altered part of the rock
Ash 60%
Glass 39%
Crystals of Quartz, sanidine 1%
- The glass shards are flattened and show almost complete devitrification.
- Phenocrysts of quartz and sanidine crystals float in a welded matrix of ash and devitrified
glass.
- Discontinuous lamination is evident which is caused by compaction and welding of
fragments.
• Rock Name
- Welded Tuff or ignimbrite
• Sample Location
- UTM 464364 E, 866827 N Shisho Tora. Sampled from the parent rock
3.4.3 Basalts of the Rift Floor
3.4.3.1 Recent to Sub Recent Basaltic flows and Cones (Qwbp, Qwbh)
Two main fields of recent basalts each having an area of about 800km2 are located close to the
western and eastern escarpments. One lava field is in the Butajira-Siltie area while the other is
east of Lake Ziway. These flows consist of a lot of scoria and their texture varies from aphyric to
porphyritic.
37
Post 0.2 million years fissural basaltic eruptions and superimposed scoria cones (Qwbp,)
outcrop east of lake Ziway. The eastern lava field are generally affected by different faults of NE
orientation.
Photo 18. Showing Grey Scoria Deposit Part Recent basaltic flows East of Lake Ziway
Photo 19. Showing Faulted recent basaltic lava flow deposit east of Lake Ziway
38
In the western lava field (Qwbh) Cinder cones and lava flows are aligned from Silite in the south
to Shershera in the north of Butajira. They look to have come out along a regional fault.
Vesicular basalt with some phenocrysts and red scoria are quarried for road aggregate in the
area. Tentatively their thickness based on the borehole data estimated to be about 30 to 100 m.
This eruption has separated Butajira crescent from the Kuntane-Inseno-Kela plain. Within this
area there are a number of cinder cones and maars. One eruption centre developed into Crater
Lake known as Har Shetal Lake.
Some of the lava fields have AA type flow. This is evident west of Inseno Town between
Shereshera Ile and Dobena Irrigation area. This part of the lava flow is underlain by alluvial
deposits mainly gravels and boulders as shown by Shershera Ile borehole and the dug wells
around Ras Tesssma village.
Drilling results in the area indicate occurrence of coarse alluvial sediment layers below and
within the vesicular and scoria flows of the Butajira area. This indicates that these rocks have
erupted after the rift system has initiated sediment flux from the western escarpment.
Photo 20. Showing Crater Lake Har Shetan
39
Photo 21. Showing Red Scoria/cinder Cone
Photo 22. Showing Lava field with AA type flow covered with thin transported soil supporting
some vegetation. This flow is underlain by alluvial deposits at some places such as Shershera
Ile and Ras Tessem.
40
3.4.4 Quaternary Sediment Deposits
Lacustrine sediments cover quite a vast area in the study area. It consists of layers of
alternating silt and clay with volcanoclastic sediments, sands, ashes, transported pumice slit,
clay and diatomite. According to Caroline, et al, 1999, sedimentation initiated in the Ziway basin
about 0.3 to 0.2 million years which is of the age for the initiation of the Ziway Basin and
continued until present. The Lake Ziway lies in an east dipping dawn-faulted basin bounded to
the west by about 20 km long NNE trending West Ziway Fault of Holocene Age (Ge’ze, 1974 in
Caroline, et al, 1999). This fault forms the Tora-Koshe Dugda ridge Horst, separating the Ziway
basin from Inseno - Kela Plain and impeded the drainage from the western escarpment from
reaching the Ziway Basin.
Lacustrine deposits in the project area occur in two areas. The major part is the Ziway Plain
deposit (Qi) and the second one, which is composed, of lacustrine, alluvial, and pyroclastic
deposits, forms the Kuntane-Inseno- Kela Plain (Qa).
Fan and talus deposits occur in the Butajira crescent (Qab) and along the pediment plains of the
escarpment.
3.4.4.1 Lacustrine Sediments (Qi) of Ziway Plain
In the Ziway Plain the thickness is sometimes considerable ranging from few meters to over 100
m. According to Searrle and Gouin (1972) maximum thickness of 380 m estimated from gravity
measurement in the south of Lake Ziway and 580 m west of Abijata Lake. The Vertical electrical
sounding result conducted during the present study also indicated over 260 m thick lacustrine
sediment. A 71 m and 66 m deep boreholes at Adami tulu, 100m deep boreholes at Meki, 126m
deep borehole of Ziway municipality and 143m deep boreholes at Ziway Prison show complex
mixture of lacustrine and volcano-clastic deposits such as fall deposits reworked pyroclastics
and tuffs.
Pumaceous volcanic fall deposits are evident along Meki river bank and layered lacustrine
deposits are exposed around Adami Tulu and south of Lake Ziway.
41
Photo 23. Showing reworked pumice fall deposit alternating with lacustrine deposit at Meki
River course
Photo 24. Showing reworked pumice fall deposit alternating with lacustrine deposit at Meki
River course
42
Photo 25. Showing Ripple marks within Reworked pumice fall deposit alternating with lacustrine
deposit showing shore area deposition (Meki River Course)
Reworked and rounded pumice fall deposited close to the ancient Lake Ziway shore at Ogolcho
along Ketar river gorge clearly shows that most of the rift silicic volcanic composed of pumice
and ash fall deposits has taken place after the formation of the big lake of the pluvial period.
Photo 26. Showing rounded pumice gravel deposited in shore area (Ketar River at Ogolcho)
43
Photo 27. For view of rounded pumice gravel deposited in the ancient shore area of Lake
Ziway (Ketar River at Ogolcho)
Photo 28. View of rounded pumice gravel deposited in the ancient shore area of Lake Ziway
(Ketar River at Ogolcho)
44
Photo 29.Showing rounded pumaceous gravel deposit at Gademota Caldera west of Lake
Ziway (Shore area of the large ancient lake)
Photo 30. Showing Lacustrine deposit with layers of volcanic shard (glass) deposit west of
Abosa
45
Thin section study of dark volcanoclastic deposit sampled close to the south-western shore of
Lake Ziway at Ziway town side has shown deposition of pyroclastic material under water
condition.
Glass 45%
Lithic/rock fragment 40%
Plagioclase 8%
Quartz 4%
Pyroxene 3%
Opaque trace

- No welding or banding of fragments is evident
- This pyroclastic rock consists of crystals of plagioclase, pyroxene and quartz and lithic
fragments floating in the glassy matrix
• Rock Name
- tuff
• Sample Location
- UTM 469999 E, 877201 N . At the shore line of Lake Ziway close to Mariam Church
3.4.4.2 Butajira pediment/crescent deposits (Qab)
This area is situated at the foot (pediment plain) of the western rift escarpment, and shallow
groundwater and springs characterize it.
This area is characterized by a complex mixture of sediments composed of unsorted to poorly

sorted alluvial, talus or fan deposits, debris flow and volcano-clastic deposits emanating from
the volcanic centers in the east and around Koto. The sediment thickness varies from 80 m to
about 120m.
3.4.4.3 Fluvio-Lacustrine Deposits (Qa) of Kuntane-Inseno- Kela Plain
Kuntane-Inseno_ Kela Plain (Qa) is a graben filled by pyroclastic, lacustrine and alluvial
deposits. Main part of this graben is filled with fall and reworked water lain pyroclastic deposits.
This sediment has over 300 m thickness. Close to river courses and Old River channels alluvial
deposits composed of gravel, boulders and sand are deposited.
This plain has two main distinct features. The area between Lake Abaya (Tuffa) and Dobena
River area have very flat plain fed by flood and seasonal streams from west of Butajira area.
Mostly this part of the plain gets flooded during the summer and develops temporary lake, which
46
shrinks during the dry season. It is mostly water logged during the rainy season. This is because
of the flat surface topography, runoff from the west and east and the input of the springs,
shallow groundwater and overflow from the lake.
As a result of such complex interaction this plain has both alluvial, lacustrine, pyroclasitic and
hydrothermal deposits. About 1.5 m high calcarete deposits related to the thermal springs occur
close to Kuntane swamp. Currently the hot springs along their outlet have also deposited this
calcarete. The source of this calcrete is assumed from the dissolution of Mesozoic sedimentary
formations expected to lie in deeper zones.
Flood water, cold and hot springs water mix at the plain and evaporate during the dry season
leaving highly mineralised sluggish and dark brown colour water at Kuntane swamp.
Photo 31. Showing Calcarete deposit at Kuntane Plain
47
Western Basaltic hills

Escarpment
Dobo-Sabola
Fault zone
Photo 32. Showing Part of Kuntane Plain with Basaltic-Cinder cone areas and western
escarpment
Photo 33. Showing Eye of Thermal spring with calceret deposit (Kuntane Plain)
48
Photo 34. Showing the thermal spring in the dry season flows to the swamp with tall grasses at
the back. In summer the whole area gets filled with water.
The area including Dobena River plain up to Kela village are characterised by perennial rivers
such as Dobena River, Akamuja, Lebu and Meki rivers. This part is mainly characterised by
alluvial and pyroclastic deposits and recent lava flows.
Towards the western escarpment it is mainly characterised by talus deposits, fan deposits and
alluvial deposits mixed with some lacustrine deposits.
49
Photo 35. Showing Gravel and boulder deposit along Dobena River Course Inseno-area.
Photo 36. Showing Basaltic AA type lava flow at the Dobena River Bed
50
Tora-Koshe-Dugda Ridge
Photo 37. Showing Kela Plain with Tora-Kushe Dugda Ridge further behind
51
3.5 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES AND VOLCANICITY IN THE PROJECT AREA
The geological structures relate to the tectonic events that formed the Main Ethiopian Rift, the
Wenji Fault Belt, volcanism and collapse structures and Holocene faults.
The present symmetrical rift was fully defined by 3.5 million years when a paroxysm of
ignimbrite of the Munisa crystal tuff erupted from large caldera located on the rift floor
(WoldeGabriel, 1987 in Caroline, et al, 1999). This is followed by a line of hundreds of young
faults and volcanic centres along the rift floor close to the eastern escarpment initiated around
1.6 million years known as the Wenji Fault Belt (WFB) by Mohr (1960). Rhyolitic ridges and
domes dated 1.3 – 1.05 million years relate to the activity of a large caldera partly buried
beneath the Langano Abijata-Shala basins and known as Gadamsa Caldera. This could be the
period for the formation of Gademotta caldera whose rims are situated west of Ziway.
The further activity in the Wenji Fault Belt and initiation of West Ziway Fault about 0.3 to 0.2
million years cut the Gademotta caldera resulted in the development of Ziway Basin initiating
sediment flux from the eastern escarpments. The Western Ziway Fault resulted in the
Development of The Tora-Koshe-Dugda Ridge/Horst, which limited the sediment flux from the
western escarpment to Kuntane-Inseno-Kela basin.
Faulting related to the WFB continued into recent associated with fissural basaltic eruptions and
superimposed scoria cones especially in east Ziway areas.
These recent eruptions resulted in deposition of pyroclastic sediments associated with

lacustrine deposits.
In the western escarpment, fault lines oriented in WNW direction cut the main NE and N
trending fault systems of the MER. In Butajira area fault systems form semicircular depression.
This has resulted in the crescent shaped Butajira plain. The shape of the faulted basin and the
transverse faults cutting the general NE trend of the MER in Butajira area indicates that the
Butajira area is a tectonic collapse or caldera.
Recent basaltic and cinder cones have erupted following the MER fault trend, which separated
the Butajira –Collapse structure from the Inseno - Kela Plain. Therefore, the sediment fluxes
from the western escarpment mainly coarse sediments remain in the Butajira-Cresent, while
very fine and limited sediment reaches the Kuntane Swamp.
The tectonic development and associated volcanism have resulted in the following
morphologically distinct areas.
52
Figure 3. Location map showing different geomorphological areas
53
The western Rift escarpment and Butajira Crescent – The escarpment is characterised by
long linear escarpment oriented in the NE direction. It is characterised by steep slope to vertical
face with elevation rising from about 2100 m.a.m.s.l around Butajira to over 3500 m in the
plateaus at the top of the escarpment. Difference of the altitude reaches more than 1000 m
between Butajira low land and the highest point of the crescent cliff.
Generally the escarpment is oriented in the NE direction, which changes to semi-circular arc in
Butajira area with transverse faults oriented in the WNW directions. These fault orientations are
probably related to the formation of Butajira crescent, which seems a caldera/tectonic collapse.
The large-scale pyroclastic flow deposit is distributed in the crescent cliff with a thickness of
several hundred meters (Photo 38). On the other hand, according to the drilling results it is
presumed that the pyroclastic flow deposit, which is the same as the crescent cliff, is distributed
beneath the alluvial fan gravel of about 80m thickness (Photo 39). It is suggested that the
Butajira crescent might be subsided due to some geological event from the viewpoints of
geographical features and the geology.
Photo 38. Welded pyroclastic flow deposit in the southwestern part of Butajira
54
Photo 39. Alluvial fan deposit in the Butajira crescent
As for the geological events that formed the crescent shape the following two assumptions can
be suggested; one is the caldera formation entailed large-scale explosive eruption, the other
one is a geological event and mass movement caused by tectonics which is unrelated to
volcanic eruption.
If it is a caldera formation activity, it is suggested that the granite (Photo 40), granitic gneiss and
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks exposed in the Kela, which is situated in the northern edge of the
crescent cliff should form the caldera wall. There is a possibility of subsidence of more than
1,000 m in maximum though the thickness of the pyroclastic flow deposit in the underground of
Butajira is not clear.
55
Photo 40. Granitic rock in the Kela (northeastern part of Butajira)
On the other hand, regarding the origin of this cliff except the caldera formation, it can be said
that a circle-shaped subsidence might have occurred by some sort of cause (a difference in the
geology?) in association with the large-scale gravity collapse or early lifting activity. If it is a
gravity collapse, it might form a depression contour similar to the caldera. However, it is
recognized that neither collapse sediment nor the characteristic terrain exist in the Butajira
lowland. In addition, it is difficult to say that the pyroclastic flow deposits in the underground can
be the collapse sediment. If the cliff is originated from a rifting, it is difficult to explain rationally
the reason for circular shaped subsidence.
Accordingly, it is considered reasonable that the steep cliff and Butajira lowland were formed
by an eruption of a large- scale pyroclastic flow. The age of the pyroclastic flow deposits is
estimated at the early stages of a rifting on Ethiopia Central Rift. Because the relatively deep
valleys exist in the crescent cliff, that is located in the western edge of the Ethiopia Central Rift.
Generally the inner part of a caldera is buried with a thick lacustrine deposit. However, such a
thick lacustrine deposit cannot be observed in the underground of Butajira lowland. The reason
is considered that Butajira and its surrounding area might have been always eroded because
the eastern half of the caldera wall was eroded due to continuation of subsidence in association
with lifting activity that occurred immediately after forming of the caldera.
56
Butajira Crescent plain - This comprises the crescent shaped fertile land of the escarpment
pediment plain, which includes Butajira town. This is characterised by debris flow from the
escarpment area, alluvial deposit and volcanoclastic deposits. Soils in the area are mainly
derived from the sediments composed of sandy loams.
Photo 41. Showing Butajira Crescent Plain with the Escarpment Mountains at far
Behind
There are two future issues to be studied in Butajira area. One is to clarify detailed stratigraphy
of the pyroclastic flow deposits distributed in the Butajira and the crescent cliff. Another issue is
to confirm the thickness of the pyroclastic flow deposit in the underground of Butajira lowland by
drilling boreholes and a gravity survey.
Cinder Cones and Basalt Flows – These are recent basaltic volcanic cones erupted following
the extensional faults of the MER forming chains of scoria cones and maars both red and black
scoria extending between Kibet town in the west and Kela Plain to the east. These basaltic
flows and cones separate the Butajira-crescent from the Kuntane-Inseno-Kela plain and block
sediment flux from the western escarpment.
This area is characterised by rugged topography as a result of the different shaped cones and
hills. Generally this area has thin soil to bare rock surface. The soils are sandy soils mainly
derived from the fine-grained scoria fall deposits.
57
Recent volcanic activities are basalt lava flows and a lot of monogenetic volcanoes (Photo 42).
The volcanic activities might occur at Holocene age because the terrains of the monogenetic
volcanoes, which are extending northeast to southwest direction, are preserved well. The
distribution of the monogenic volcanoes shows that the basalt magma intruded in the northeast-
southwest direction.
Photo 42. Succession of monogenetic volcano underlain by Butajira crescent sediment
Kuntane – Inseno - Kela Plain - this is flat plain extending between Abaya (Tuffa) Lake in the
west and Kela Town in the northeast. Shallow groundwater, sediment deposits and marshes,
hot and cold springs characterize this plain. It is characterised by soils derived from weathered
volcanic ash and lacustrine sediments.
58
Tora-Koshe-
Kuntane Swamp Dugda Ridge
and Terminal Lake
Direction of
Direction of
Abyaa Lake
Inseno
Photo 43. Showing Kuntane Swampy plain
59
Photo 44. Showing small terminal Lake Abaya/Abijata western end of Kuntane –Inseno Kela
Plain
Photo 45. Showing Inseno Kela Plain
60
Tora-Koshe Dugda Ridge - This area is formed of a linear fault horst extending from about
Tora village in the west to Dugda Village in the east. The ridge is composed of ignimbrite, tuff
and water lain pyroclastics deposits. As per the hydrogeological study result this area has deep
groundwater and has no surface water. This ridge is characterised by an insitu soils derived
from weathering of ignimbrite or tuff.
Ziway Plain – this area includes Lake Ziway and is mainly flat plain characterized by shallow to
relatively deep groundwater and lacustrine deposits. It is characterised by lacustrine sands, silts
and clays interbedded with pumice and other volcanoclastic sediments. Lacustrine clays mainly
used for termite hills, which is the main characteristic feature of this zone. The thickness of this
sediment is estimated to be over 260 m.
A pyroclastic flow deposit, pumice fall deposit and its re-deposited volcaniclastic sediments are
distributed in the western part of Lake Ziway (Photo 46 & 47). The age of those deposits are
later than the Gademotta caldera because those deposits cover rhyolite in the Gademotta
caldera. The re-sedimented volcanoclastic deposit forms the coastal terrace. Lithological facies
suggests the change of lake water levels (Photo 48). It is estimated that a large lake existed in
the past. However, it is necessary to conduct K-Ar dating, fission truck dating of the volcanic
products and/or C14 dating of the organic substance contained in lacustrine deposits.
Photo 46. Succession of pyroclastic flow deposit (lower part) to lacustrine sediments (upper
part)
61
Photo 47. Voluminous plinian pumice fall deposit in the north Meki
Photo 48. Typical wave ripple in lacustrine deposit, north Ziway
62
Gademotta Caldera – West of Ziway a crescent shaped about 30 km wide remnant of a

caldera rim occurs. It is filled with lacustrine deposit except the remnants of the caldera walls
situated to the west attached with the Tora-Koshe-Dugda ridge.
The hill ranging in a half-circular arc-shape in the western part of Ziway and the lowland of the
southwestern part of the hill is called “Gademotta caldera”. The hill is mainly composed of
rhyolite (Photo 49) and a pyroclastic flow deposit is outcrops only at the end of the northeast of
the hill (Photo 50). A pyroclastic flow deposit is widely distributed in the northwestern side of
Gademotta caldera. On the other hand, there are small hills consisting of sedimentary rock and
rhyolite in the caldera. The rhyolite distributed inside the caldera is later than that of half-circular
arc-shaped hill, because sedimentary rock is intruded by the rhyolite (Photo 51).
Therefore, it is considered that the Gademotta caldera is formed due to the large-scale
pyroclastic flow and rhyolite intruded into the margin of the caldera. After that, sedimentary
deposit buried the depression contour and another rhyolite intruded again in the caldera. It is
estimated that the pyroclastic flow deposit exists beneath the sedimentary rocks inside the
caldera. This deposit is same as the pyroclastic deposits flowed outside the caldera. The
subsidence depends on the scale of the pyroclastic flow. Generally, subsidence reaches more
than several hundred meters.
Photo 49. Rhyolite in the Gademotta caldera.
63
Photo 50. Plinian pumice fall deposit (lower part) and pyroclastic flow deposit in the
northeastern end of the Gademotta caldera
Photo 51. lacustrine sediments intruded in rhyolite
In the sequence of the pyroclastic flow, plinian pumice fall often starts first and make up an
eruption column. Then, the eruption column is collapsed and it is changed to pyroclastic flow.
This typical outcrop can be observed at the northern end of Gademotta caldera (Photo 51).
64
The widespread volcanic ash is formed occasionally accompanied by the large-scale pyroclastic
flow. Such an outcrop of the volcanic ash was found at the southwestern part of Butajira (Photo
38). This ash is mainly composed of volcanic glass so that the capability of identification of the
volcanic glass is required. In the field survey, it was confirmed that the lacustrine deposit in the
western coastal area of Lake Ziway is mostly composed of the volcanic glass by identifying the
grain component.
It is very difficult to trace pyroclastic flow deposit continuously though various kind of pyroclastic
deposits are widely distributed in Butajira-Ziway area. There is no such an outcrop representing
overall stratigraphy in the area. Accordingly practical way of correlation is based on the
lithofacies and assemblage of minerals component. It was confirmed that the pyroclastic flow
deposit in Koshe (Photo 9) is same as the deposit in the Inseno because both deposits show
the same feature of containing obsidian fragments. However, it is difficult to establish
stratigraphy of pyroclastic flow deposits only from the viewpoints of lithofacies. It is effective to
understand the chemical composition of volcanic glass and minerals for identification of
individual pyroclastic flow deposit.
The geological profile of the Gademotta caldera explained that the rhyolite in the Gademotta
caldera is a rock intruded along the caldera rim in the later stage of caldera forming activity and
it is generally called “resurgent dome”. It was also suggested that the caldera possibly fell down
like a piston cylinder.
With regard to occurrence of Butajira crescent cliff, conclusive idea was not obtained although
the possibility of structural depression was discussed. Tentatively this report suggests that the
depression and steep cliff might be formed in association with the caldera forming activity but
further investigation and interpretation are thought to be necessary.
65
3.6 SUMMARY OF SEQUENCE OF EVENTS AND EVOLUTION OF THE GEOMORPHOLOGY
• The oldest rocks exposed due to the uplifting and down faulting related to the MER are the
Precambrian and Mesozoic sediments situated north of Kela Village. The development of
MER attributed to the mantle plume resulting to widespread uplifting and volcanism. In the
central MER volcanism started as early as Eocene with mainly basaltic eruptions followed
by subsequent rifting which continued Late Miocene.
• Anachar Basalts, Arba Guracha Silicics and Nazareth Group/Trap Series volcanic rocks
form the earliest volcanic eruptions and are situated in the western escarpment, where as
they are buried deep under the younger deposits in the rift floor. These rocks are dissected
both by the NE and WNW fault systems.
• Initiation of sediment flux from the western and eastern escarpment,
• Initiation of Wenji Fault resulted in eruption of voluminous acidic rocks Development of
deepening of the MER,
• Subsequent faulting and collapse of Butajira Crescent with NE and WNW faults?
• Gademotta Volcanoe and development of Gademotta collapse/Caldera,
• Initiation of West Ziway Fault, dawn faulting of Gademotta caldera, development of Tora-
Koshe Dugda Ridge and deepening of Ziway Basin. Separations of Ziway basin from the
Butajira area and sediment flux source to Ziway basin became the eastern Escarpment.
The sediment flux from the western escarpment remained west of the Tora – Inseno - Kela
Plain. Therefore, sedimentation continued in two separate basins, Ziway basin and Tora –
Inseno – Kela basin. Rhyolite intruded into the margin of the Gademota caldera, and
• Eruption of Silte-Butajira basaltic flows and cones separating Butajira Crescent from
Kuntane-Inseno-Kela Plain and giving the present topography of the area. Therefore,
coarse sediment fluxes to the Kuntane swamp blocked by these volcanic cones. However,
both coarse and fine sedimentation continued in the Kela Plain.
66
4 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
4.1 PURPOSE OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION
The purpose of the geophysical investigations was to provide subsurface information to be used
in the study of the groundwater resources of the project area.
Geophysical surveys, namely Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) and Horizontal Loop
Electromagnetics (HLEM), were conducted on selected sites with the aim of complementing the
surface geological survey and for identifying areas of groundwater potential for test drilling.
The geophysical investigations consisted of 58 Schlumberger soundings and 2.38 line-km

HLEM readings.
The main objective of the survey is to provide preliminary geological and hydrogeological
information that would be useful in assessing the ground water resource potential of the
project area and sitting test boreholes.
In particular, the VES survey was conducted to help determine:
¾ the nature and thickness of unconsolidated sediments

¾ the depth to groundwater
¾ the thickness of aquifers
¾ the quality of groundwater
¾ the nature and thickness of weathered and fractured zones,
¾ Whereas the HLEM survey was aimed at locating sub vertical fracture or fault zones.
4.1.1 Geophysical investigation methods
In ground water exploration and evaluation the most commonly used geophysical method is
the electrical resistivity method. In most rocks, electric current is conducted electrolytically by
the interstitial fluid and thus resistivity is controlled more by porosity, water content and water
quality rather than by the resistivity of the rock matrix.
In a resistivity survey, a DC or very low frequency current is introduced into the ground via a
pair of electrodes, usually labeled as current electrodes. The potential difference is measured
between a second pair of electrodes. The current and potential measurements are used to
obtain the resistivity of the geological formations.
67
The HLEM is a frequency domain EM system where the primary field is established by
sending an alternating current through a coil of wire. The receiver measures both the in-phase
and quadrature (out-of-phase) components of the resultant field. A cable connecting the
transmitter and receiver provides specifications of the primary field, which is subtracted from
the measured field to yield amplitudes of the secondary field, expressed as a percentage of
the primary. In the horizontal loop mode, the transmitter and receiver coils are horizontal and
kept at a fixed distance apart.
In the horizontal coplanar configuration, a conductive response to a vertically oriented plate-

like body typically appears as a negative peak, flanked by two lower amplitude positive
shoulders.
4.1.2 Location and Survey layout of geophysical traverses
A number of geophysical traverses, which transect major geological and geo-morphological

features, were planned for the execution of the Vertical Electrical Sounding survey. The
selection of the traverses was based on the findings of the geological survey in conjunction
with the road network to assess accessibility and also topographic conditions of the area. At
least one traverse was planned for each major geomorphologic feature so as to investigate the
subsurface conditions.
Almost all traverses have been located along roads, tracks and trails; and along the traverses
sounding stations are on average 3-5 km apart. These traverses are named after the main
towns/villages they cross, and are:
1. The Rama-Adami Tulu Traverse

2. The Rama-Argo Rasa Traverse
3. The Ziway-Koshe-Inseno Traverse
4. The Adami Tulu-Suro Traverse
5. The Dugda-Koshe Traverse
6. The Butajira-Bidara Traverse
7. The Jole-Kibet Traverse
The location of the traverses and the VES points are given in Figure 4 and 5. A total of 58 VES
were completed in all the traverses. The geographic location (x, y) of the sounding stations
were obtained from a 12 channel Garmin GPS receiver in UTM projection, Adindan datum
68
which is accurate to within ± 5m. Soundings which do not exactly lie on a traverse have been
projected to the traverse line for facilitating the preparation of geoelectric sections for
interpretation purpose.
The HLEM survey was made along four lines surveyed and pegged at 20m station interval.
The length of each line was on average about 600m, and a total of 2.38 line-km was covered.
4.1.3 Instrumentation and field procedure

4.1.3.1 Instrumentation
The Sting R1 Resistivity Meter, available with the EWTEC/JICA, was used in the geophysical
resistivity survey, which is supplemented with.
Ni –Cd clip on battery pack

Battery charger
Cable sets /750 m for current and 250 m for potential /
Stainless steel electrodes
Connection cables and clips
The Sting R1 operates on two modes: resistivity and self potential mode. In the resistivity
mode the ratio between voltage and current /V/I/ is automatically calculated and the
resistance value displayed in digital form in ohm-meter.
An Apex MaxMin I+8 electromagnetic unit was used for the Horizontal Loop EM survey. Two
frequencies were read, i.e. 222 and 888 Hz, measuring the in-phase and quadrature
components of the secondary field. Data repeatability was very good, with an accuracy of
±0.2%.
69
Figure 4. Location map of VES survey points.
70
Figure 5. Location map of Resistivity Section along the VES points.
71
Figure 6. Location map of Electromagnetic (EM) survey points.
72
4.1.3.2 Field procedure
The Schlumberger electrode array with maximum current electrode separation (AB) of 1500 m
was used in the Vertical Electrical Sounding survey.
In VES, the current electrode spacing is increased at successive logarithmic intervals after
measurement of the injected current and the resulting potential difference is made.
The sounding curve which is a log- log plot of apparent resistivity as a function of half the
current electrode spacing (AB/2) is readily plotted in the field in order to be able to make
correction to possible errors. Because of the rainy season the ground was usually wet
resulting in good electrode contact.
Photo 52. Showing VES survey
The Horizontal Loop EM (HLEM) survey was done at a coil spacing of 60 meter, and two
frequencies were used (222 and 888 Hz). Data was acquired at 20 m station spacing along
the lines. The transmitting and receiving coils were held in a horizontal position (i.e.Max1 or
horizontal coplanar mode) throughout the survey.
73
Special care was given to achieve constant coil separation. This was done by marking the
stations on the ground with pegs at 20m spacing.
Photo 53. Showing EM survey
74
Photo 54. Showing EM survey
4.1.4 Data Processing and presentation
4.1.4.1 VES survey
The Schlumberger sounding curves collected in the field were primarily interpreted using two
layer master curves and auxiliary charts to obtain layer parameters. The layer parameters so
obtained, i.e. layer resistivities and thicknesses, as a result of the curve matching procedure
were used as initial starting models in an iterative least squares inversion software RESIST.
The starting model is used to generate a theoretical sounding curve, which is then compared
with the observed field curve, and the inversion algorithm uses the difference between the
observed and computed curves to estimate the adjustment to be made to the starting model.
The adjusted layer parameters are again used to generate at theoretical curve, and as such
the procedure is repeated until a satisfactory fit between the observed and calculated curves is
obtained.
The interpreted best-fit layer parameters have been used in the preparation of geoelectric
sections by incorporating available geological and hydrogeologcal information. The geoelectric
sections for each of the traverses are presented in the figures in the following pages, except
75
the Jole-Kibet traverse for which geoelectric section was not prepared due to the rugged hilly
terrain.
4.1.4.2 HLEM survey
The HLEM data required no data processing. Thus, the results of the HLEM survey are
presented in HLEM profile for each traverse.
4.1.5 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1.5.1 VES Survey
4.1.5.1.1 Rama – Adami Tulu Traverse

This is the easternmost traverse with nearly North - South trend and lying entirely over the lacustrine
sediments. It extends from Rama in the north to south of Adami Tulu almost parallel to the highway.
The geoelectric section defines four major resistivity horizons characterized by widely varying
resistivities corresponding to variable lithologies.
The top layer is characterized by resistivity of 21-64 ohm-m both in the northern half between VES-
2 and 4 and in the southern part between VES-6 and 8. They range in thickness between 20 and
60m, and are interpreted as coarse-grained sediment which are probably water bearing. The only
exception is the area between VES 4 and 5, where the top layer is characterized by very low
resistivity of 7 to 8 ohm-m and 20 to 50 m thickness attributed to highly weathered and/or
decomposed formation or fine grained lacustrine sediment.
In the northern and southernmost areas beneath VES-2 and 8, respectively, the top layer is underlain
by very high resistivities of 266 to 569 ohm-m, probably correlated to dry coarse-grained material
(pyroclastics and/or sediments), which are about 50m in thickness.
A very low resistivity layer of 2-15 ohm-m underlying almost all the area from north to south. Large
thickness in excess of 200 m is a peculiar feature the low resistivity layer in the northern half, whereas
its thickness in the southern half is in the range of 100-140m.
Very low resistivity layer could be the response of highly weathered and decomposed formation or
fine grained lacustrine deposit saturated with groundwater.
The absence of the low resistivity layer at depth in the area beneath VES-4 and 5, is related to the
buried Gademotta caldera rim which is expected to lay under the lacustrine deposits in this area.
76
The last layer observed in the area has high resistivity value of 67 to 527 ohm-m, which may reflect
the weathered to massive nature of the rocks. The depth to these rocks is in the range of 250-300m in
the northern part and 160-210m in the southern part.
S N
VES-8 VES-2
VES-3
VES-7 VES-6 VES-5 VES-4
LEGEND
1 0 1 2
VES-6 VES location
(kilometer)
Layer Resistivity (Ohm-m)
Coarse grained material (probably water bearing)
Dry coarse grained material (pyroclastics and/or sediments)
Water satuarated probably Lacustrine deposits and/or highly decomposed formation
Probably formation/s of Fresh Rhyolite/s or Ignimbrite/s
Figure 7. Geoelectric section along the Rama–Adami Tulu Traverse
4.1.5.1.2 Adami Tulu - Suro Traverse

The geoelectric section along the Adami Tulu-Suro traverse shows relatively simple geometry of the
underlying layers. This traverse shows the general lithological condition within the Gademotta caldera.
These are:
a) a very high resistivity layer of 275-569 ohm-m covering the whole traverse and having 50 to
90m thickness, interpreted as dry coarse grained material of pyroclastics and/or sediments.
b) a very low resistivity layer of 2-6 ohm-m with thickness in the range of 80-120m, probably
representing highly weathered and/or decomposed formation, and
c) a very high resistivity bottom layer with resistivity range of 465-523 ohm-m which may be
attributed to fresh and massive volcanic rocks, probably Rhyolitic and Trachytic rocks.
77
Within the topmost very high resistivity layer beneath VES-8 there is an interbed of low resistivity of 38
ohm-m, which is about 13m thick and found at about 25m from the surface. This layer may be water
bearing locally.
w E
VES-12
VES-11
VES-10
VES-9
VES-8
Elevation (m)
LEGEND
1 0 1 2
VES-8 VES location
(kilometer)
Fine grained material (Probabaly fine grained lacustrine deposit)
Dry coarse grained material (Probably coarse sediment and/or

pyroclastic deposit)
Fine grained lacustrine deposit or highly weathered and decomposed

formation (probably water saturated)
Silicic Volcanics (Rhyolites,trachytes)
Figure 8. Geoelectric section along Adami Tulu-Suro Traverse
4.1.5.1.3 Rama – Argo Rasa Traverse

The geoelectric section along the Rama–Argo Rasa Traverse shows a relatively simple structure
underlying the surface. In general there are three main geoelectric layers beneath the surface. These
are:
a) a very resistive top layer of 222 to 2027 ohm-m, which is 75 to 130m thick and probably being
the response of dry coarse grained formation i.e. pyroclastics and/or sediments.
b) a very low resistivity layer varying between 4 and 11 ohm-m and thickness in the range of 120
to 220m, and interpreted as being a highly weathered and/or decomposed formation or fine
grained lacustrine deposit saturated probably with groundwater of higher salinity.
78
c) a bottom layer having resistivity values in the range of 68-485 ohm-m, probably indicting the
underlying volcanic bedrock with moderate weathering to fresh.
The most conspicuous feature on the section is the large displacement in the geoelectric layers
located between VES-14 and 15, which probably corresponds to a nearly vertical fault.
Figure 9. Geoelectric section along the Rama – Argo Rasa Traverse
4.1.5.1.4 Ziway-Koshe-Inseno Traverse

The geoelectric section along the Ziway-Koshe-Inseno Traverse covers three areas of different
subsurface conditions, i.e. the Inseno plain, the Koshe ridge and the Ziway plain, which will be treated
separately as follows.
79
The geoelectric section of the Inseno plain is composed of four main resistivity layers. The topmost
part comprises a low resistivity layer of 8 -19 ohm-m which is 8 to 23m thick and probably
representing saturated clayey or silty material. It is underlain by a relatively high resistivity layer of 23-
29 ohm-m and 20-60 m thickness interpreted as probably water saturated coarse grained material.
These two layers may represent the unconsolidated sediments in the area, which vary in thickness
from an average of about 40m in the eastern half of the plain to a maximum of about 80m in the
western half.
Throughout the whole area, these layers are underlain by a layer of very low resistivity of 3-8 ohm-m,
which possibly indicates the presence of highly weathered and/or decomposed formation or fine
grained sediment probably saturated with high TDS (total dissolved solids) groundwater. The
thickness of the layer is fairly uniform with an average of about 120m.
The last layer observed in the area is characterized by resistivity range of 30-49 ohm-m, and it may
be attributed to weathered ignimbrites and tuffs based on the regional geologic setting.
The geoelectric section along the Ziway-Koshe part shows complex surface conditions representing
multilayered earth.
In Koshe area four main resistivity layers are found, which may be correlated to various lithologies.
The top 30-40 m is represented by alternating high (79-132 ohm-m) and low (13-17 ohm-m) resistivity,
which could be attributed to weathering products. These layers are underlain by a very high resistivity
layer of 105-346 ohm-m, which may be interpreted as dry coarse grained formation of pyroclastics.
This layer is so extensive that it underlies the whole area east of Koshe up to just west of Ziway with
progressive decrease in thickness from about 127m (at VES-21) to 34m (at VES-36) in that direction.
In the eastern part, however, it is overlain by alternating high and moderate resistivity layers of 233-
436 ohm-m and 23-47 ohm-m, respectively. The high resistivity layer is interpreted as dry coarse
grained formation (pyroclastics and/or sediments), whereas the moderate resistivity layer having the
largest thickness of about 34m beneath VES-4 could be water bearing. In the area of Ziway at VES-4,
the topmost layer consists of very low resistivity (7 ohm-m), which could be clayey material.
At depth, the entire traverse is composed of a very low resistivity layer of 4-13 ohm-m which probably
represents highly weathered and/or decomposed formation or saturated with high TDS (total
dissolved solids) groundwater water. This, however, requires confirmation with deep drilling.
80
INSENO - KOSHE - ZIWAY VES PROFILE
VES -5 3 VES -2 8 VES -5 5 VES -5 4

- -
1880 - VES -21
-
30 - 4 9 oh m-m
- VES -27 VES -2 6
- VES -2 5 13 - 1 7 oh m-m
8 - 9 ohm-m
#
-
1840 - 55 o hm -m VES -2 4
- VES -5 6
-
23 - 2 9 oh m-m #
VES -3 3
-
1800
VES -3 4
-
1760
3 - 8 oh m-m
VES -3 5
1720 10 5 - 346 o hm-m
-
VES -3 6
1680 -
VES-4
283 - 43 6 o hm-m 7 ohm-m
-
1640 #
23 - 47 oh m-m
1600 4 - 13 o hm -m
30 - 4 9 ohm-m
1560
LEGEN D
-
VES points
Low Re sistivity Layer (3 - 8 ohm -m)in the rang e of va lu es for clay and silty cla y probab liy highly altered/w eathered formation
Low Re sistivity Layer (4 - 13 ohm-m )in the ran ge of values for clay and silty clay proba bliy highly altered/weathe red and saturated formation
Low Resistivity Layer (7 ohm -m) in the range of values for clay and silty clay
Low Resistivity Layer (8 - 19 ohm -m) iprobably sandy clay deposit
Low resistivity (13 - 17) ohm-m wethere d volcanic rock
23 - 29 ohm-m fo rm ation p robably composed of coarse grained sediment
23 - 47 ohm-m Formation probab ly weathered volcanic rock / volcanoclastic m aterial
30 - 49 ohm-m prob ably weath ered and saturated volca nic rock
55 ohm -m pro bably coarse un satu rated sed iment
105 - 34 6 ohm-m Volcanic m aterial unsaturated
283 - 43 6 ohm-m dry volcanic or volca no clstic material
Figure 10. Geoelectric section along the Ziway- Koshe-Inseno Traverse

81
4.1.5.1.5 Dugda- Koshe Traverse

The geoelectric section is presented in the figure 11 for Dugda-Koshe traverse.
The section shows that the area is underlain by four main resistivity layers. The two topmost layers
characterized by moderately high (29-95 ohm-m) and low resistivity (7-13 ohm-m) represents
probably weathered pyroclastic deposit material or ash layer of the pyroclastic formation. These layers
have a combined thickness in the range of 30 to 60m, and thus depending on the topographic
condition may be saturated with groundwater.
A very high resistivity layer (346-503 ohm-m) underlies the top layers. It is almost uniform in its
thickness with an average of about 120m, and is interpreted as dry pyroclastic deposit.
The whole area is underlain at depth by a very low resistivity layer of 9-10 ohm-m, which may be
attributed to highly weathered and/or decomposed formation with probable water saturation.
S N
VES-23
VES-19 VES-20
VES-22 VES-18 VES-16
VES-21
Elevation (m)
LEGEND
VES-22 1 0 1 2
VES location
(kilometer)
Weathered pyroclastic material probably turned into sandy soil
Highly weathered pyroclastic material probably changed to clay or silty material
Dry pyroclastics deposits
Probably pyroclastic deposit saturated with water and/or highly weathered and
decomposed formation
Figure 11. Geoelectric section along the Dugda-Koshe Traverse
82
4.1.5.1.6 Butajira-Bidara Traverse
The geoelectric section along the Butajira-Bidara Traverse clearly shows the variable nature of the
subsurface.
In the northeast part of the traverse, just east of Butajira town, the top layer observed has very high
resistivity of 1973 ohm-m and about 50m thickness. This layer is interpreted as fresh and massive
basalt as it can be observed in some of the outcrops in the area. The basaltic layer is underlain by
moderately resistive layer of 35-130 ohm-m.
Further westwards the top layers are characterized by inter-fingering of high and low resistivities. The
high resistivity (15-22 ohm-m) layers may be the response of sandy material, which could be water
bearing, and it ranges in thickness between 25 and 45m. The low resistivity (4-14 ohm-m) layer may
be due to clayey material ranging in thickness from 30 to 60m.
The top layer in the uphill area (i.e. VES-48) is more resistive (51 ohm-m) indicating the presence of
near surface sandy and/or gravelly layers.
The last layer observed in the area has low to moderate resistivities in the range of 35 to 135 ohm-m,
probably representing weathered volcanic rocks (ignimbrite or tuff).
83
Elevation (m)
LEGEND 1 0 1 2
VES-40
VES location (kilometer)
clayey/silty sand material
Coarse grained material (sand and/or gravel)
Clayey material
Probably fresh Basalt
Weathered volcanics probably Ignimbrite and/or tuff
Figure 12. Geoelectric section along the Butajira-Bidara Traverse
4.1.5.1.7 Jole-Kibet Traverse

Due to the very rugged relief along the Jole-Kibet profile, owing to the existence of scoria cones, no
geoelectric section has been prepared. The interpretation, therefore, is based on the general
characteristics of soundings observed in the area.
Along the traverse, the top part of the subsurface is underlain by variable resistivity in the range of 5
to 437 ohm-m depending on the nature of the underlying material. Generally, low resistivities (< 20
ohm-m) are found in areas of loose, unconsolidated cover, whereas high resistivities (100-500 ohm-
m) indicate weathered and/or fractured basalts; totally these are less than 10m thick.
Beneath these surficial layers, very high resistivities in the range of 693 to 2000 ohm-m are present,
which are attributed to massive basalts, varying in thickness between 20 and 50m, the largest being in
the vicinity of Butajira. The massive basalts are underlain by a layer of relatively low to moderate
resistivities varying between 20 and 60 ohm-m, and interpreted as weathered volcanic rocks or
84
unconsolidated coarse sediments. Some of boreholes drilled in these areas encountered these
formations beneath the basalt. This layer is the main water bearing formation in the area.
The VES measured at Kibet (VES-39), though along the line of the Butajira basalts and scoria cones,
behaves differently and has close similarity with those of the Butajira-Bidara traverse (i.e. thick loose
sediments).
4.1.5.2 HLEM Survey
4.1.5.2.1 Debub Shershera I
The HLEM profile shows two distinct zones of contrasting response. In the first zone situated
west of Station 70, both the In-Phase (IP) and Out-of-Phase (OP) responses show sharply
rising curves towards the west, the IP response being lower than the OP response. The line
was further extended west of station 0 for 200m to verify the nature of the steeply rising
responses. The steep rise still continues westwards. Such an anomaly is typical of the
response over a shallow non-conducting magnetic body. It is therefore correlated with the
massive basalt outcropping in the area. Towards the east, i.e. east of Station 70, both the In-
Phase and Out-of-Phase responses are flat and identical, the In-Phase values being very low
and negative. These may indicate the presence of a layered earth, in this case an overburden
layer overlying the massive basalt.
HLEM survey, Debub Shershera I.
60
50
40
IP and OP in %
30
IP-220
OP-220
20
IP-880
10
OP-880
0
-10
-20
-170 -150 -130 -110 -90 -70 -50 -30 -10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290 310 330 350 370 390 410 430 450 470 490
station(m)
Figure 13. Horizontal Loop EM Profile, Line I (Debub Shershera)
85
4.1.5.2.2 Debub Shershera II
The HLEM profile shows very identical responses at the two frequencies used except the
increase in amplitude with frequency. All the responses are positive, and highly similar, and
the form of the anomaly curve does not change with frequency. In general, at each frequency
the Out of Phase response is higher than the In-Phase in amplitude, but at certain localized
places (e.g. station 70,210,350) the reverse is true. This may indicate a horizontally layered
earth, with local anomalies induced by variations in the character of overburden.
HLEM survey, Debub Shershera II.

8
7
IP and OP in %
6
IP-220
5
OP-220
4
IP-880
3
2
OP-880
station(m)
Figure 14. Horizontal Loop EM Profile, Line II (Semien Shershera)
4.1.5.2.3 Elle
The HLEM profile shows a highly variable character of the anomaly curves along the line. The
responses at the two frequencies are identical except the differences in amplitude, which
increase with frequency. Along the line noticeable IP and OP lows were observed at Station
50 and 330 to 350. The area near Station 350 marks the western end of the Inseno plain and
the start of the basaltic terrain, which is controlled by a fault trending in the NE-SW direction.
Thus, the anomaly may be related to the underlying fractures.
86
HLEM survey, Elle.
60
50
40
IP and OP in %
IP-220
30
OP-220
IP-880
20
OP-880
10
-10
station(m)
Figure 15. Horizontal Loop EM Profile, Line III (Elle)
4.1.5.2.4 Gadilala Biliti

The HLEM profile shows a distinct anomaly at station 380, which is clearly differentiated from the
adjacent eastern and western parts. This might be an indication of a fault controlled conductor.
The eastern and western parts the profile are more gentle, and can be explained by a horizontally
layered earth model.
87
HLEM survey, Gadilala Biliti
20
18
16
14
IP and OP (%)
12 IP-220
10 OP-220
IP-880
8
OP-880
6
0
0
0
50
90
13
17
21
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
53
station(m)
Figure 16. Horizontal Loop EM Profile, Line IV (Gadilala Biliti)
88
4.1.6 Summary of results
4.1.6.1 VES Survey

Although the Vertical Electrical sounding survey was of reconnaissance type with observations
spaced at 3 to 5 km interval very useful information was obtained regarding the geoelectrical
characteristics of the various subsurface layers. This survey result is also provided complementary
information to explain the general geological setup of the area as observed from surface outcrop
observations.
4.1.6.2 Rama – Adami Tulu Traverse

The layer characterized by resistivity of 21-64 ohm-m both in the northern half between VES-2 and
4 and in the southern half between VES-6 and 8 and interpreted as coarse grained sediment with
thickness between 20 and 60m which are probably water bearing and important as aquifers.
The very low resistivity layer of 2-15 ohm-m found at depth and which could be the response of highly
weathered and decomposed formation or thick fine grained lacustrine deposit. As the general geology
of the area indicates it is most probably fine grained lacustrine deposit. This geophysical survey thus
confirms the occurrence of thick lacustrine deposit in this area.
In the area between VES4 and VES 6 (or at VES5) there is a high resistivity formation at shallow
depth. This formation is also found at depth all along the survey route. Its occurrence at shallow depth
around VES5 can be correlated to the rim of the Gademotta caldera which is buried under the
lacustrine deposit in this area.
4.1.6.3 Adami Tulu-Suro Traverse

This traverse shows the general lithological variation within the Gademotta Caldera. The top layer is
mainly represented by coarse sediment/and or dry lacustrine deposit within the caldera. This layer is
underlain by most probably fine grained saturated lacustrine deposit, which is typical of caldera
infilling. This low resistivity layer is underlain by higher resistivity formation indicating the volcanic rock
forming the bottom of the caldera.
4.1.6.4 Rama – Argo Rasa Traverse

This traverse indicated the lithologiacal changes from the Ziway plain to Koshe-Dugda Ridge and the
possible existence of a structure separating the two areas.
89
4.1.6.5 Ziway-Koshe-Inseno Traverse

In the Inseno area, the topmost layers comprising the low resistivity layer ( 8-19 ohm-m ) and the
underlying relatively high resistivity layer (23-29 ohm-m) interpreted as saturated clayey or silty
material and water saturated coarse grained material, respectively, are of importance as aquifers.
These layers are 40 to 80 m thick, the thickest part being found in the western part of the plain.
The very low resistivity layer of 3-8 ohm-m underlying the unconsolidated sediments and probably
attributed to highly weathered and/or decomposed formation, which is on average about 120m thick.
In the area of Koshe depth to groundwater is known to be deep, and this has also been confirmed by
the geophysical results to be in the range of 160-180m. Groundwater may be found at relatively
shallow depth of 100m in the escarpment area west of Koshe bordering the Inseno plain.
In the vicinity of Ziway (VES-4, VES-36) the moderately conductive layer of 23-47 ohm-m could be
water bearing, and thus groundwater may be found at 20-40m depth.
This section also indicates the probable occurrence of fault separating the Koshe ridge from the
Inseno Plain.
4.1.6.6 Dugda-Koshe Traverse

In this traverse, the top 40 to 60m having low resistivity is probably weathered pyroclastic deposits or
ash deposits, may locally be water bearing. Groundwater may also be found at large depths in excess
of 200m within the highly weathered and decomposed formation as observed in the Ziway-Koshe
traverse. The depth to deep groundwater is expected to decrease southwest of Koshe to 150-200m
within the project area.
4.1.6.7 Butajira-Bidara Traverse

This section indicated the occurrence of thick sediment deposit (up to 80 m thick) that overlies
weathered volcanic rock material.
The sediment is generally inter-fingering sandy and clayey materials which are typical of pediment
plain deposits and potentially water bearing. The layers underlying these unconsolidated sediments
are characterized by low to moderate resistivities and interpreted as weathered ignimbrite and/or tuff
that could also be potentially water bearing.
90
4.1.6.8 Jole-Kibet Traverse

The major formation encountered in this area is massive basalt characterized by very high resistivities
in the range of 693 to 2000 ohm-m. This formation is believed to be non-water bearing. It is, therefore,
the underlying relatively low resistivity layer (20 to 60 ohm-m) that could be of interest as an aquifer.
The top part of the water-bearing layer may be found in the depth range of 40 to 60m.
4.1.7 HLEM Survey

The HLEM survey was used to delineate faults, which might control the occurrence and movement of
groundwater. Accordingly, along the Debub Shershera I and II profiles, there is no well-defined
anomaly suggesting the absence of vertical conductors or structures. The results rather indicate a
horizontally layered earth, with anomalies caused locally by variations in the character of overburden.
However, the HLEM profile in Elle area picked up a number of anomalies at Station 50 and
330 to 350. These anomalies may be related to underlying fractures, which are controlled by
faults. There is also an indication of a fault-controlled conductor on the profile of Gadilala Biliti at
station 380, which is clearly differentiated from the adjacent eastern and western parts.
91
5 GENERAL HYDROGEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE GEOLOGICAL UNITS
For the occurrence of groundwater in the study area the major geologic units are the Quaternary
sedimentary deposits and the volcanic formations. Therefore, a general description is provided
in the following sections. The Mesozoic sedimentary formations, except the small outcrop at the
escarpment close to Kela village normally occur at greater depth probably over 1000m as can
be estimated from the rift displacement in the area.
5.1 QUATERNARY SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS
Sediment deposits varying in composition from clay to gravel and depositional environment
varying from lacustrine to fluvial, fan and tulus deposits occur in the area.
The dominant lacustrine deposit occurs in Ziway plain. This sediment is composed of clay and
silt deposits alternating with reworked pyroclastic deposits such as pumice, ash, volcanic
shards. In the shore areas this sediment is mainly composed of gravels and sands derived from
pyroclastic materials. The thickness of this deposit is generally over 200m. This formation in
spite of its variability is one of the major aquifers in the study area. Ziway plain sediment is
therefore one of the major aquifer to be considered for groundwater development.
The second area of sediment deposition was the Kuntane – Inseno-Kela plain. This plain is
characterised by sediment deposits composed of lacustrine, fluvial, pyroclastic, talus and fan
deposits. It has thick sediment deposits of over 200 m. This area is also major aquifer zone in
the study area.
The third sediment deposition area is the Butajira Crescent. This area is characterised by gravel
and sand deposits with clay and silt derived from fan, talus (debris flow) and river deposits with
an average thickness of about 80 m. This area is also considered area of good aquifer in spite
of its limited areal extent.
5.2 VOLCANIC FORMATIONS
The major volcanic formations in the study area are of the Quaternary pyroclastic deposits. The
older volcanic formations (Tertiary Volcanic Rocks) are situated in the escarpment areas and
deep under the Quaternary formations.
There are minor rhyolite and basaltic formations situated east of Lake Ziway, west of Lake
Ziway and around butajira.
With regards to groundwater, the major formations are the rift pyroclastic deposits. These
formations can be considered as major volcanic aquifers in the study area.
92
The older volcanic rocks composed of rhyolites and basalts are situated in the escarpment and
deep under the Quaternary formations in the rift valley area. These rocks can be important
fracture aquifers in fractured areas. Therefore, these formations especially in the rift fracture
zones can be important aquifers
5.3 MESOZOIC SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS
The Mesozoic sedimentary formations (the Limestone and Sandstone) are situated over 1000m
below the current ground surface under the Tertiary volcanic formations. These formations are
deep potential groundwater aquifers. The small exposure around Kela village is situated in the
escarpment and is not important as a potential source for groundwater.
5.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
As of the Mesozoic sedimentary formations the Metamorphic rocks are also situated over
1000m below the current ground surface under the Mesozoic Sedimentary formations and
Tertiary volcanic formations. The metamorphic rocks are not important formations for
groundwater.
93
6 CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS
The geological formations of the study area are directly related to the development of the rift
system and the subsequent volcanic and tectonic events that resulted in the development of
different geomorphological units. To understand the current geomorphology of the area needs
clear understanding of the tectonic and volcanic events at a regional and local basis.
Butajira area shows a crescent shaped plain as a result of crescent shape collapse of the area
along the main trend of the western rift escarpment. This collapse could not be well explained
whether it is a tectonic gravity collapse or large caldera whose eastern rim is further collapsed
and buried as a result of subsequent rift faulting. In the current study the evidences more
suggest a large caldera collapse whose eastern rim is further collapsed and buried as a result of
subsequent rift faulting. However, further study is required to confirm its exact origin.
Gademotta caldera whose rims are composed of rhyolite is evident from its topography to the
west of Lake Ziway. The major part of this caldera is cut by fault system and lies under the
current Ziway plain lacustrine sediment. The Rhyolite flows situated along the rim were once
considered as part of the caldera activity. However, the current study has shown that the
Gademotta caldera is formed due to the large-scale pyroclastic flow and rhyolite intruded into
the margin of the caldera. The caldera has initially developed from large-scale Plinian pumice
fall deposit and pyroclastic flow deposit.
The volcano tectonic activities and the resulting geomorphologies in the rift has resulted into
complex mixing of volcanic, lacustrine and fluvial deposits within the rift valley giving rise to
different aquifers of significance to groundwater storage and movement.
The geophysical study conducted in the area confirms the different geologic units as found from
surface geological study.
With regards to groundwater in the study area both the sedimentary deposits as well as the
pyroclastic deposits within the rift have major significance.
94
REFERENCES
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Ziway, Ethiopia). Journal of Hydrology 245 (2001) 1-18.
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96
APPENDICES
GEOLOGICAL MAP AND CROSS SECTIONS OF THE STUDIED AREA
97

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FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES

BUTAJIRA – ZIWAY AREAS DEVELOPMENT

4.1.4 Data Processing and presentation ............................................................................. 75

TABLE 1: STUDY AREA COORDINATES ............................................................................................... 1

EWTEC = Ethiopian Water Technology Centre

MoWR /MWR = Ministry of Water Resources

MER = Main Ethiopian Rift

CRV = Central Rift Valley

UTM = Universal Transverse Mercator

m.a.m.s.l = Metre above mean sea level

LRDS = Land Resources Division, Ministry of Overseas Development, England

Table 1: Study area coordinates

1.3 PHYSICAL SET UP OF THE AREA

1.4 APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

The study approach and methodology is based on the following steps,

♦ Review of past studies,

♦ Interpretation of maps, aerial photographs and satellite images,

♦ Planning and implementation of the field geological investigation, and

♦ Site Selection, planning and implementation of geophysical investigation.

Ethio-Korean Joint Venture, 1986 proposed development of 23,000 ha of irrigation

Water Resources Development Authority (WRDA) 1987 study considered the

2 GENERAL GEOLOGICAL AND TECTONIC BACKGROUND

2.1 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES IN THE MAIN ETHIOPIAN RIFT (MER)

2.3 GENERAL GEOLOGY OF THE MAIN ETHIOPIAN RIFT (MER)

2.3.2 Mesozoic Sediments

2.3.3 Trap Series

2.3.4 The rift pyroclastic formation

Important volcano-tectonic collapse, which produced regional calderas, must be related to a

2.3.5 Volcanoes and Volcanic complexes

2.3.6 Recent Basalts

2.3.7 Basaltic Hyloclastite

2.3.8 Quaternary Sediments

2.4 THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES

Table 2: Summary major features of rift valley lakes

No Lake Area (km2) Elevation (m) Max depth (m)

2.5 GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM

Table 3: Summary of TDS of the Lakes

No Lake TDS (ppm) at 110oc

3 GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1 PRECAMBRIAN ROCKS

A high grade metamorphic rock biotitle-gnesiss cut by quartzo fieldspathic pegmatitic

Table 4: Summary the geological formations in the study area

Alluvial and talus deposits, clays, sits, sands,

sands, gravel, bouulders, volcanodasitc sedimes,

Lacustrine sedimes; Silts, clays, diatomites,

Qws Peralkaline silicics undifferentiated Rift Valley South of Abaya Lake

Qwbp Pleistocene Basalts Rift Valley East of Ziway

Ignimbrites, tuffs, water lain pyroclastics and

Nazareth Group and Dino Formation, Escarpment mountains

NQs Undifferntiated Escarpment west of Butajira

Startoid silicis ignimbrites, unwelded tuffs, ash- Escarpment mountains

Arba Guracha Escarpment mountains

Triassic to Jurassic continental sandstone and Escarpment mountains

♦ Description of rock texture

Photo 1. Kela granite

Photo 2. Showing Kela granite with pegmatite vein

3.2 MESOZOIC SEDIMENTS

• Description of rock texture

Photo 3. Showing Kela sandstone

• Description of rock texture

Photo 4. Showing limestone at roadside (UTM 442600 E, 913414 N)

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