LESSON 1

BASIC DRAWING/DRAFTING

TOPICS1initions of Curriculum
1. The Technical Drawing/Drafting
2. Drawing Tools, Materials and Equipment
3. Lines and Lettering
4. Pictorial Drawing
5. Computer Aided Design
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. define technical drawing/drafting;
2. identify tools, equipment and materials for drawing;
3. draw different lines and letters;
4. prepare various kinds of pictorial drawings; and
5. discuss basic computer aided design features.

TOPIC 1. TECHNICAL DRAWING/DRAFTING

Technical drawing or drafting is the act and discipline

of composing drawings that visually communicate how
something functions or is constructed. Technical drawing is
essential for communicating ideas
in industry and engineering. To make the drawings easier to
understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units
of measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page
layout. Together, such conventions constitute a visual
language and help to ensure that the drawing is unambiguous and relatively easy to
understand. The need for precise communication in the preparation of a functional
document distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual
arts. Artistic drawings are subjectively interpreted; their meanings are multiply
determined. Technical drawings are understood to have one intended meaning.
Construction contractors use technical drawings to build homes, roadways,
sewage systems, bridges and power plants. Manufacturers need technical drawings to
produce all type of products, from automobile parts to microchips, lighting fixtures to
refrigerators. Technical drawings include blueprints, schematics and diagrams that
communicate how to construct a product, device, machine, highway or home. They also
include sketches and 2D- and 3D-models that represent the appearance of a completed
project. Technical drawing professionals, called drafters or draftspersons, create the
blueprints, schematics and models which manufacturers and contractors use to
construct the final building, civil project or product. Drafters work with designers,
engineers and architects to translate their ideas and designs into technical drawings.

Methods of Drafting
Sketching
A sketch is a quickly executed, freehand drawing that is usually
not intended as a finished work. In general, sketching is a quick
way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches
primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish
a composition before a more finished work, especially when the
finished work is expensive and time-consuming. Architectural
sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams. These sketches, like metaphors, are used
by architects as a means of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool
helps architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and
summarize their complex patterns, hereby enhancing the design process.

Manual or By Instrument
The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of
paper (or other material) on a smooth surface with right-
angle corners and straight sides-typically a drawing board.
A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed
on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of
the table, and over the surface of the paper.
"Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil
or technical pen along the T-square's edge. The T-square is used to hold other devices
such as set squares or triangles. In this case, the drafter places one or more triangles of
known angles on the T-square-which is itself at right angles to the edge of the table-and
can then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page. Modern drafting tables
come equipped with a drafting machine that is supported on both sides of the table to
slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along
the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.
The drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles.
Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and
the French curve, for drawing curves. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that
can be manually bent to most curves. Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating
recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch
every time. This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention
to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top
of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as
drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square
and triangles, and in general, drafting can be a time-consuming process.
In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles
(and text) onto a piece of paper-with respect to the detailing of physical objects-the
drafting effort requires a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial
comprehension, and in all cases demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail
of high order.

Computer Aided Design

Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and
accelerated through the use of computer-aided design systems (CAD). There are two
types of computer-aided design systems used for the production of technical
drawings: two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D").
2D CAD systems such as AutoCAD or MicroStation replace the paper drawing
discipline. The lines, circles, arcs, and curves are created
within the software. It is down to the technical drawing skill
of the user to produce the drawing. There is still much scope
for error in the drawing when producing first and third
angle orthographic projections, auxiliary projections
and cross-section views. A 2D CAD system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its
greatest strength over direct to paper technical drawing is in the making of revisions.
Whereas in a conventional hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a
modification is required, a new drawing must be made from scratch, the 2D CAD system
allows a copy of the original to be modified, saving considerable time. 2D CAD systems
can be used to create plans for large projects such as buildings and aircraft but provide
no way to check the various components will fit together.
A 3D CAD system (such as KeyCreator, Autodesk
Inventor, or SolidWorks) first produces the geometry of the
part; the technical drawing comes from user defined views of
that geometry. Any orthographic, projected or sectioned view
is created by the software. There is no scope for error in the
production of these views. The main scope for error comes in
setting the parameter of first or third angle projection and displaying the relevant
symbol on the technical drawing. 3D CAD allows individual parts to be assembled
together to represent the final product. Buildings, aircraft, ships, and cars are modeled,
assembled, and checked in 3D before technical drawings are released for manufacture.
Both 2D and 3D CAD systems can be used to produce technical drawings for any
discipline. The various disciplines (electrical, electronic, pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.) have
industry recognized symbols to represent common components.
Applications of Drafting
Architectural drawing
The art and design that goes into making buildings is known as architecture. To
communicate all aspects of the shape or design, detail drawings are used. In this field,
the term plan is often used when referring to the full section view of these drawings as
viewed from three feet above finished floor to show the locations of doorways,
windows, stairwells, etc. Architectural drawings describe and document an architect's
design.

Engineering
Engineering can be a very broad term. It stems from the
Latin ingenerare, meaning "to create". Because this could
apply to everything that humans create, it is given a narrower
definition in the context of technical drawing. Engineering
drawings generally deal with mechanical engineered items,
such as manufactured parts and equipment. Engineering drawings are usually created
in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation,
appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc. Its purpose is to accurately and
unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or a component. The end
goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information that will allow a
manufacturer to produce that component.

Technical Illustration
Technical illustration is the use of illustration to visually
communicate information of a technical nature.
Technical illustrations can be component technical
drawings or diagrams. The aim of technical illustration is
"to generate expressive images that effectively convey
certain information via the visual channel to the human
observer". The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these
items to a more or less nontechnical audience. The visual image should be accurate in
terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide "an overall impression of
what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer’s interest and understanding".
According to Viola (2005), "illustrative techniques are often designed in a way that even
a person with no technical understanding clearly understands the piece of art. The use
of varying line widths to emphasize mass, proximity, and scale helped to make a simple
line drawing more understandable to the lay person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other
low abstraction techniques gave greater depth and dimension to the subject matter".
Cutaway Drawing
A cutaway drawing is a technical illustration, in which part of
the surface of a three-dimensional model is removed in order
to show some of the model's interior in relation to its
exterior. The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to "allow the
viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object.
Instead of letting the inner object shine through the
surrounding surface, parts of outside object are simply
removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone
had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts. Cutaway
illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast
between foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of
spatial ordering".

Types of Technical Drawing Jobs

Drafters specialize in producing various types of technical drawings. To become
proficient in a technical drawing specialty, a drafter must gain years of experience.
1. Architectural Drafters. Architectural drafters work closely with architects and
contractors. They create drawings of buildings, which contractors use to construct
the structures. They often create several concept drawings of a building to show to
their clients. Once the client and architect agree on a design, the drafter creates
technical sketch, before drawing detailed building plans that specify construction
features such as dimensions, fixtures, plumbing, electrical wiring and building
materials. Many architectural drafters also create 3-dimensional models with BIM
programs, which enable the client, architect and contractor to see how the
completed building will look. Architectural drafting requires knowledge of
construction standards and building codes. For example, some local building codes
restrict a structure’s size or appearance. The drafter must stay abreast of codes and
create plans that meet compliance requirements.
2. Electrical Drafters. Electrical drafters create technical drawings of electrical
infrastructure that powers machinery, home appliances and power generators. For
example, an electrical drafter might create drawings that map the electrical wiring of
a refrigerator, which the manufacturer can use to construct the appliance. Electrical
drafters work with designers and engineers to determine the parts needed to
produce a product, along with its manufacturing cost. They must have expert
knowledge of circuits and alternating and direct current.
3. Mechanical Drafters. Mechanical drafters create engineering drawings, which
manufacturers use to create a product or component. For example, a mechanical
drafter might create the manufacturing plans for an automobile engine block. A
mechanical drawing – also called an engineering drawing – must meet the exact scale
and dimensions required. Mechanical drafters must have knowledge of
manufacturing tolerances such as the strength of materials. They must produce plans
 that detail features such as surface textures and protective coatings. Typically,
mechanical drafters create numerous 3D models that show how a product should
appear from all angles.
4. Civil Drafters. Civil drafters create construction plans for projects such as bridges,
sewage systems, oil pipelines and highways. Along with drawing abilities, a civil
drafter must have expert knowledge of functional aspects of a project. For example,
a drafter drawing plans for a sewage system must understand the physics of water
flow. Civil drafters create detailed plans, which include exact dimensions of a project,
along with the precise materials needed to complete it. They produce construction
blueprints, along with 3D models that represent a project’s completed appearance.
5. Electronics Drafters. Electronics drafters draw schematics of circuits and circuit
boards for equipment and devices such stereo equipment and computers. For
instance, an electronics drafter might draw the manufacturing plans for a stereo
receiver’s circuitry. Electronics drafters create plans with precise dimensions and
details about components manufacturers must use in their construction. They must
have knowledge of manufacturing materials, accounting for functional aspects such
as heat tolerance in wires and board materials, along with an understanding of
electric currents.

Activity
Task/Activity

A. Individual Activity.
1. Explain the importance of technical drawing in other trade areas, provide
specific examples.
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2. Discuss other tasks of technical drafter.

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 TOPIC 2. DRAWING TOOLS AND MATERIALS

Drawing/Drafting Tools
Technical drawings, graphic images and sketches can be created using a variety of
instruments, ranging from traditional tools such as pencils, compasses, rulers and a
variety of triangles as well as by computer. Drawing tools are used to make accurate and
legible drawings and models. While the computer can be used for most drawing and
modeling requirements today, traditional drawing instruments such as those mentioned
above are still important very important, particularly for freehand sketching and
experimenting with shapes and lines. Drafting tools may be used for measurement and
layout of drawings, or to improve the consistency and speed of creation of standard
drawing elements. Tools such as pens and pencils mark the drawing medium. Other
auxiliary tools were used for special drawing purposes or for functions related to the
preparation and revision of drawings. The tools used for manual technical drawing have
been displaced by the advent of computer-aided drawing, draughting and design
(CADD). When drawing, sketching or attempting basic graphics work the pieces of
equipment shown below are very useful and often essential.
Tools Description
 A circle template is used to draw circles of set diameters. They are particularly
useful if the circle is too small to be able to use a compass. They are plastic
with a number of accurate circles cut out. The circle template has its centers
indicated at the edge of the circle. These are used to assist in locating the
template accurately on your drawing. The diameter is selected and a sharp
pencil is used to draw the circle or arc.
 The divider looks like a compass, but the difference is the two legs of divider
are provided with needles. This is used to divide a line or curve into equal
parts. It is also used to check the measurements.
 Drafting board is generally made of soft wood and it is in rectangular shape. It
is used to support drawing sheet, so, the size of board is made according the
size of the drawing sheet. The wood portions are joined by tongue and grove
type joint to prevent cracks. At the edge of board, straight ebony edge is
provided for the T-square usage. Paper will be attached and kept straight and
still, so that the drawing can be done with accuracy. Generally, different kind
of assistance rulers are used in drawing.
 A drafting compass is a tool used to draw arcs or circles with known
dimensions on engineering drawing. It is made from movable metal stems
connected by a hinge that allows the width and angle to be adjusted. One stem
has a spike or needle on the bottom and the other has a pencil or pen. Once
the width of the circle that is to be drawn has been set, the needle end is set
and anchored onto the drawing material at the center of the radius of the
circle, while the end with the pencil is swung in a circular fashion to draw a
perfect arch or circle.
 Drafting Table and Stand is a special table with a slanted surface that can be
adjusted based on the desired angle. It is higher than an ordinary writing table
because some drawings, like mechanical drawing, are usually done while the
draftsman is standing. Parallel rulers on each side of the drawing surface align
the drawing paper and provide horizontal and vertical guides for drawing.
 Drawing Templates are plastic or wooden boards which contains spaces of
several shapes or letters. Non-dimensional shapes or variety font letters are
drawn by using templates which makes drawing easier and perfect. Letter
templates are used for drawing text, including digits and letter characters.
Diagrams are usually of a standard letter shape and size to conform to
standards of encodings. For example, in Finland the series used is 1.8 mm,
2.5 mm, 3.5 mm, 5.0 mm and 7.0 mm. Except for the very biggest ones, the
templates are only suitable for technical pen drawing.
 An Ellipse template is used for drawing ellipse or oval shapes accurately.
Diagram 9 shows 30/60 ellipse template. It is particularly useful for drawing
ellipses on isometric drawings.
 The eraser shield is a simple metal or plastic plate, with openings of different
sizes and shapes. These openings allow precise masking of small areas which
allows to erase without smearing or the accidental erasure of surrounding
areas. An eraser shield is useful when correcting and editing a drawing.
 A flexi-curve is also known as a flexible curve or flex curve is a flexible drawing
tool that can be molded to almost any curve or contour. It is usually made
from lead which is wrapped in steel ribbons and covered in flexible plastic or
rubber. They are used to draw curves such as lines connecting points on a
pattern.
 French curves are made of wood, plastic or celluloid and have metric gradation
markings. Some models are flexible and can be bent into different shapes to
provide almost endless possibilities for tracing curves. French curves are used
for drawing curves which cannot be drawn with compasses. A faint freehand
curve is first drawn through the known points; the longest possible curve that
coincides exactly with the freehand curve is then found out from the French
curves.
 Lettering templates guide the draftsman in the execution of uniform lettering
throughout the drawing. As a matter of common practice most creators of
technical drawings hand letter in personally developed styles that identify their
work as clearly as fingerprints.
 Mini drafter is an instrument which can be used for multiple functions in
drawing. It contains two arms which is adjustable to required angle and at the
end of the lower arm a scale set is attached. The scale set contains two scales
connected perpendicular to each which cannot be separated. This instrument
is fixed to the drawing board at one edge with the help of screw provided for
the drafter. Mini drafter is used for drawing horizontal lines, vertical lines,
inclined lines, angles, parallel lines, perpendicular lines etc.
 Protractor is used to draw and measure the angles of lines in the drawing. It
usually is made from clear plastic and is a full or half circle with 0 to 180 degree
or 0 to 360 degree markings on the outer edge of the arc or circle. These
markings are used to measure angles by intersecting lines that can run
clockwise and counterclockwise from the center or starting point, which is
marked by a little hole.
 One of the most basic tools used for drafting is a ruler. Also known as a rule, it
is a straight-edged tool made of plastic, wood or metal with measurement
marking of millimeters, centimeters, inches. It can be up to a yard or meter
long. It is used to measure distances and to draw straight lines from one point
to another. Rulers are used in technical drawing are usually made
of polystyrene. It is used for drawing lines and connecting points. Rulers come
in two types according to the design of their edge. A ruler with a straight edge
can be used with lead pencils and felt pens, whereas when a technical pen is
used the edge must be grooved to prevent the spread of the ink.
 Set squares are used to draw lines with an angle between them. In most of the
structures, 30, 45, 60 and 90-degree lines are most common. So, set squares
make the work easier for this type of drawings. Generally, set squares are of
two types. One is 45 degree set square and another one is called as 30 – 60
degree set square. Both are required in the drawing. 45 set square has a side
of 25 cm while 30-60 set square has 25 cm length on one side.
  Triangular square guides horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines. A scale ruler is
a scaled, three-edged ruler which has six different scales marked to its sides. A
typical combination for building details is 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:25, 1:75 and
1:125. There are separate rulers for zoning work as well as for inch units.
Today scale rulers are made of plastic, formerly they were made of hardwood.
A pocket-sized version is also available, with scales printed on flexible plastic
strips.
 T-square is used to draw horizontal and vertical lines on drawing sheet. It
made of wood or plastic and in T shape. The vertical part of T is called as blade
and horizontal part of T is called as head. The edge of head is uniform level and
attached to the edge of the board. The working edge is used to draw lines
anywhere on the sheet by moving the instrument top to bottom. An
alternative to the T-square is the parallel bar which is permanently attached to
the drawing board. It has a set of cables and pulleys to allow it to be positioned
anywhere on the drawing surface while still remaining parallel to the bottom
of the board.

Drawing Materials
Drafting paper is a silk-paper-like translucent drafting paper that wrinkles when wetted.
It is primarily suitable for pencils and felt tip pens. Pencil marks can be corrected to
some extent with an eraser.
Drawing Sheet is a white paper on an object is drawn which is available in various sizes.
The sheet used for engineering should be of good quality. It should be white in color
with uniform thickness with must resist the easy torn of paper. The surface of sheet
must be smooth.
Types of Paper
Papers are commonly measured by their weight - known as so many grams per
square metre - gsm. Technical drawing papers are measured in this way. Papers suitable
for technical drawings are:
 Cartridge paper - a good quality paper for pencil drawings. A weight often used is
90 gsm, but thinner or thicker cartridge paper may be used. Made from esparto
grass.
 Detail paper - a lighter paper for pencil and colour work. A common weight is 50
gsm.
 Grid papers - often of A4 size. Very suitable for the freehand sketching out of a
layout for a technical drawing. Square, isometric and perspective grids.
 Tracing paper - 38 gsm to 63 gsm. For making tracings of technical drawings.
 Papers and boards for ink work. If wishing to draw with inks - black and/or
coloured inks - a large variety of different papers and boards is available.
 Thick draft paper is a sandwich paper -like, thin translucent sheet of paper.
Manufactured in different strengths, the surface may be slightly polished. This paper
also wrinkles upon wetting. Suitable for pencil and felt tipped pens, and with limitations
for technical pens. An eraser can be used for pencil lines. Ink is difficult to erase without
damage.
Drawing Sheet Layouts
 Border or margin lines: these surround the drawing. For an A4 size sheet these
should be set in 10 mm; for an A3 sheet, 15 mm and for A2, 20 mm. The idea of a
margin is so that the outer edges of the drawing area are protected if the sheet edges
become damaged - at least the drawing area may not be affected.

Drawing Sheet Layouts Suitable for School or College Technical Drawings

 Title block area: the examples in figure below show the portrait layout with a
double rectangle and the landscape layout with a single title block. In the title block
details such as:
 Your name.
 Your class, form or group number.
 The title of the article being drawn.
 The scale of the drawing.
 Height of lettering: in title blocks, features such as names, article titles, etc. are
usually printed in capital letters. Their height will vary according to the size of the
drawing sheet in use. Suggested heights are 6 mm for A4 sheets, 8 mm for A3 sheets
and 10 mm for A2 sheets.

Example of a Drawing Sheet Layout such as would be used in an Engineering Company

Pencil is used to draw on the paper. Any type of pencil is not suitable for drawing.
There are some limitations, the drawing appearance should be very neat and
understandable. Every line of the drawing should indicate its importance. It depends
upon the hardness of pencil.
 Based on the hardness quality pencils are classified into 18 grades and they are:
Grade of Pencil Hardness of Pencil Grade of Pencil Hardness of Pencil
9H Hardest HB Medium hard
Moderately soft and
6H, 5H, 4H Extremely Hard B
black
3H Very hard 2B Soft and black
2H Hard 3B Very soft and black
Very soft and very
H Moderately hard 4B, 5B, 6B
black
F Firm 7B Softest

Out of the above 18 grades of pencils, following grades are used in engineering drawings.
Grade of
Used to Draw
Pencil
3H Construction lines
Dimension lines, center lines, sectional lines,
2H
hidden lines
H Object lines, lettering
HB Dimensioning, boundary lines

A Mechanical pencil (sometimes known as a clutch pencil or refillable pencil) are

used in drawings such as orthogonal or isometric drawings as they provide a very
constant line thickness. The pencils come in a number of line thicknesses with the more
common being 0.35, 0.5, and 0.7. These pencils can be very expensive as are the refills.
 Inking Pens. Technical drawings created in pencil are usually over-traced with ink to
render durable final drawings. Early inking pens consisted of a mechanical device with
an adjustable nib. Modern disposable inking pens have built in ink reservoirs and are
available in many point widths.
Cloth is a drafting linen was formerly used for technical drawings. It was durable and
held up to handling, but it was difficult to use in modern whiteprints for reproduction,
and shrinking was a concern.
Tracing paper. Polished sandwich paper-like, translucent thick paper, which comes in
different strengths. It wrinkles upon wetting. Suitable for both graphite pencils and
technical pens. An eraser or sharp scraper tool is used for corrections.
Tracing tube. Translucent plastic film, which is usually of gray or a light khaki shade.
Common types are 0.05, 0.07 and 0.10 mm thick. These films are also used
in photocopying. The most commonly used materials are polyesters, and sometimes
also PVC or polycarbonate; arguably, a proprietary eponym or genericized trademark for
this is called Mylar.
Dry transfer. Dry transfer decals can speed the production of repetitive drawing
elements such as borders, title blocks, line types, shading, and symbols. They were
frequently used in the production of schematic drawings, maps, and printed circuit
board artwork. Dry transfer lettering such as letterset was used especially in lettering
larger size document annotations, or when consistency of lettering was especially
required.
Pencil Sharpener. As the name suggests, it sharpens pencils. Sandpaper Pad. Makes
pencil points conical and long without breaking. Pencil. Consists of thick graphite used
for writing and drawing. Pencil Eraser. Eraser is used to remove the lines or spots which
drawn by mistake or with wrong measurements. The eraser used should be of good
quality and soft. It should not damage the paper while erasing. Drafting Tape. It secures
the drawing paper on the table. Paper Holders. When the drawing sheet is placed on
the board it may not be in fixed position. To fix the drawing sheet to the board paper
holders are used. Generally used paper holders are thumb pins, spring clips, stick tapes
etc. Care should be taken while removing the clips or tapes otherwise the sheet may
tore. Board Clips are used to hold the drawing paper in position when drawing board is
not available. They are designed to clip on to the edge of a table or portable timber
board and hold the paper down firmly against the flat surface.

Storing Tools, Materials and Drawings

When a session of drawing is finished, it is important that the equipment, which has
been in use, is stored neatly in clean and dry conditions. Dirty and damaged equipment
does not help in the production of good, neat and clean drawings. Drawing boards can
be either placed in purpose-made racks or stacked one on top of the other. Tee squares
should be placed in properly made racks, which make sure that the drawing edges are
not damaged and that their two parts do not become separate. Set squares must be
kept in a clean condition. They may pick up dust and erasing particles and if they are
stored in such a condition other equipment becomes dirty. Pencils can be placed in
racks made from blocks of wood with appropriately sized holes. Compasses are easily
damaged if not stored properly.
The best method of storing drawings is for student to have a folder in which his or
her drawings can be placed without their being folded. Other drawings, such as those
used to demonstrate the principles of working should be stored flat in drawers large
enough to take them unfolded. Take care when placing drawings in folders or drawers.
Careless handling can easily cause them to become damaged, even to be torn. Drawings
must be kept clean if they are to be read easily.

A Suggested Equipment Tidy Box

Figure 15 shows a box, made from wood and hardboard and designed to hold a set of
technical drawing equipment. The main dimensions of the box are:
 Overall length: 330 mm
 Overall depth: 270 mm
 Height: 25 mm
 Thickness of sides: 10 mm

Task/Activity

A. Research Activity. Browse the internet and search for the different drawing
equipment and their usage.

Drawing Equipment Usage

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B. Individual Activity. Discuss other procedures to be observe for proper care and
maintenance of drafting tools and equipment.
 TOPIC 3: LINES AND LETTERING

Alphabet of Lines
Technical drawings provide clear and accurate information how an object is to be
manufactured. It shows and describes clearly and accurately the information required to
build or manufacture a product. Technical drawing is a form of design communication
based on line symbols recognized and understood worldwide. Hence, technical drawing
is often referred to as a universal language understood (readable) by anyone regardless
of the language they speak. Contractors, estimators, tradesmen and builders rely totally
on technical drawings for the information they need to build, construct and
manufacture a product. To work in design and manufacturing industries, the study of
technical drawing –ability to prepare, read and interpret technical drawing is essential.
Line symbols used in technical drawing are often referred to as Alphabet of Lines The
use of line symbols enables engineers/designers to express features of designed
products clearly and accurately. Line features vary not only by width but also by how
they are graphically represented in a drawing. Line significance is conveyed by line
weight or thickness of the line. Every line is drawn at different thickness and darkness to
express contrast as well as importance. Lines that are less important are thin and light.
Key to successful drafting is to have a good technical knowledge of these various line
characteristics – to understand where and when to apply them in technical drawing.

Alphabet of Lines
1. Object or Visible Line. Thick dark line use to show outline of object, visible edges and
surfaces.

2. Construction Line. A very light and thin line use to construct layout work.

3. Dimension Line. A thin and dark lines use to show the size (span) of an object with a
numeric value. Usually terminates with arrowheads or tick markings.

4. Hidden Line. It is a short dash lines use to show non visible surfaces. Usually shows as
medium thickness.
5. Center Line. A long and short dash lines. Usually indicates center of holes, circles and
arcs. Line is thin and dark.

6. Extension Line. A thin and dark line use to show the starting and ending of
dimension.

7. Cutting Plane Line. Extra thick line use to show cutaway views or plane of projection
where a section view is taken. Arrow indicates direction of view.

8. Short and Long Break Lines. Short and long medium line use to show cutaway view of
a long section.

9. Leader Line. Medium line with arrowhead to show notes or label for size or special
information about a feature.

10. Phantom Line. Long line followed by two short dashes use to show alternate
position of a moving part.

11. Section Line. Medium lines drawn at 45 degrees use to show interior view of solid
areas of cutting plane line.
Some Additional Info Graphs

Technical Lettering is an important part of engineering drawing. It gives information

regarding size, and instructions, in the form of notes and dimension. On a drawing,
whole of the written information is always in the form of lettering. It is not hand
written. Also, it may be added here, that Lettering is appropriate and correct words but
not printing (Printing means production of printed material on a printing press).

Lettering. The writing of alphabets and numerals such as A, B, C, D…………………….Z and

1, 2, 3……………9, 0 respectively is called Lettering. Mainly, there are two types of
lettering most commonly used in engineering drawing viz. Gothic Lettering and Roman
Lettering.
Gothic Lettering. Lettering having all the alphabets or numerals of uniform thickness.
1. Vertical Gothic Lettering
2. Italic or Inclined Gothic Lettering.

Roman Lettering. The lettering in which all the letters are formed by thick and thin
elements.

Type of Lettering Sample

Single Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering. These are
vertical letter having thickness of each line of
alphabet or numerals etc. Same as the single stroke of
a pencil. Since Stroke means that the letter is written
with one or more stems or curves and each made
with single stroke.
Single Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering. These are
single stroke letter inclined at 75' to the Horizontal.

Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering. Vertical

letter drawn by double Stroke of pencil with uniform
thickness between these strokes.

Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering

Double stroke gothic when inclined at an angle of 75'.

Lower Case Vertical Single Stroke Gothic Lettering.

Lower case vertical gothic lettering is shown along
with its sizes.

Lower Case Vertical Double Stroke Gothic Lettering.

It is shown along with its size which is quite self-
explanatory.

Lower Case Inclined Single Stroke Gothic Lettering.

It is shown with its sizes which is self-explanatory.

Roman Lettering. It may be vertical or inclined or

inclined. It can be written with a chisel pointed Pencil
or D-3 type Speed Ball Pen.
The writing of alphabets without the use of drawing
instruments and in free hand is called Free Hand
Lettering. It may be vertical or inclined Gothic
Lettering.

Dimensions
Dimensions in technical drawings are very important. Most drawings will require
dimensioning, although some drawings of assemblies may not. Without precise and
correct dimensioning most drawings are often of little value. The figure below shows
methods of dimensioning lengths, circles and arcs. Note the following:
 Dimension lines are thin lines.
 Extension lines are thin lines. Leave a gap of about 3 mm between the drawing
outline and the start of the extension line and extend the line about 3 mm beyond
the dimension line.
 Arrows should usually be about 3 mm long.
 Other types of 'arrow' will be shown later in this book.
 Figures of dimensions should be about 3 mm high for A4 sheets, 5 mm high for A3
sheets and 6 mm high for A2 sheets.
 Use the abbreviations for circle diameter and circle radius as shown before the
figure of the dimension.
 The bottom left drawing shows dimensioning from a datum. All dimensions are
taken from the bottom left hand corner of the outline.

Methods of Dimensioning Technical Drawing

Dimensioning
The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an
object. A complete set of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed to
construct the part. Dimensioning should follow these guidelines.
1. Accuracy: correct values must be given.
2. Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.
3. Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.
 4. Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility.
The dimension line is a thin line, broken in the middle to allow the placement of the
dimension value, with arrowheads at each end.

Dimensioned Drawing.

An arrowhead is approximately 3 mm long and 1 mm wide. That is, the length is roughly
three times the width. An extension line extends a line on the object to the dimension
line. The first dimension line should be approximately 12 mm (0.6 in) from the object.
Extension lines begin 1.5 mm from the object and extend 3 mm from the last dimension
line. A leader is a thin line used to connect a dimension with a particular area.

Example drawing with a leader.

A leader may also be used to indicate a note or comment about a specific area. When
there is limited space, a heavy black dot may be substituted for the arrows. Also in this
drawing, two holes are identical, allowing the "2x" notation to be used and the dimension
to point to only one of the circles.

Where to Put Dimensions

The dimensions should be placed on the face that describes the feature most clearly.
Examples of appropriate and inappropriate placing of dimensions are shown in figure
below

Example of appropriate and inappropriate dimensioning.

In order to get the feel of what dimensioning is all about, we can start with a simple
rectangular block. With this simple object, only three dimensions are needed to describe
it completely. There is little choice on where to put its dimensions.

Simple Object
To make choices when dimensioning a block with a notch or cutout. It is usually best to
dimension from a common line or surface. This can be called the datum line of surface.
This eliminates the addition of measurement or machining inaccuracies that would come
from "chain" or "series" dimensioning. Notice how the dimensions originate on the
datum surfaces. In figure below, chose one datum surface, and another in the followed
figure. As long as these were consistent, it makes no difference. (We are just showing the
top view).

Surface datum example.

Surface datum example.

In figure below was shown a hole that was chosen to dimension on the left side of the
object. The Ø stands for "diameter".

When the left side of the block is "radiuses" as in figure below, the rule that do not
duplicate dimensions was broke. The total length is known because the radius of the
curve on the left side is given. Then, for clarity, the overall length of 60 was added and
noted that it is a reference (REF) dimension. This means that it is not really required.
 Example of a directly dimensioned hole.

Somewhere on the paper, usually the bottom, there should be placed information on
what measuring system is being used (e.g. inches and millimeters) and also the scale of
the drawing.

Example of a directly dimensioned hole.

This drawing is symmetric about the horizontal centerline. Centerlines (chain-dotted) are
used for symmetric objects, and also for the center of circles and holes. The dimension
can be made directly to the centerline, as in figure above. In some cases this method can
be clearer than just dimensioning between surfaces.

Task/Activity

A. In a short bond papers and using penicl write Letters A to Z (upper and lower cases),
Numbers 0 to 9 following these formats:
1. Single Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering
2. Single Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering
3. Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering
4. Roman Lettering
5. Free Hand Lettering

B. Draw the dimensions of the following objects.

 TOPIC 4. PICTORIAL DRAWING

Different Types of Pictorial Drawings

1. Isometric Drawing. This drawing is a 3D and all in dimensional proportions,
though they are not shown as a true shape with 9 corners. All the horizontal
lines are drawn 30° degrees from the base line, it is an easy way of drawing 3D
pictures. Like pictorial drawings it shows 3 sides.
2. Oblique Drawing. It is a simple type of technical drawing, which shows an object
in three dimensions. The front face of the object is square to the viewer. All
verticals are perpendicular to the baseline while all receding horizontals are at
45° degrees to the baseline.
3. Perspective Drawing. It is a 3D picture that makes it look more realistic, they
seem to like they recede the further it is put away. If the receding lines are
extending they will eventually meet up at points known as vanish points.
4. Axonometric Drawing. This type of drawing is a projection, it is used to create a
pictorial drawing of a certain object, the object is rotated on one or more of its
axes relative to the plain of projection. There are three different types of
axonometric projections.

Isometric drawing, also called isometric projection, method of graphic representation

of three-dimensional objects, used by engineers, technical illustrators, and, occasionally,
architects. The technique is intended to combine the illusion of depth, as in
a perspective rendering, with the undistorted presentation of the object’s principal
dimensions—that is, those parallel to a chosen set of three mutually perpendicular
coordinate axes.

The isometric is one class of orthographic projections. (In making an orthographic

projection, any point in the object is mapped onto the drawing by dropping a
perpendicular from that point to the plane of the drawing.) An
isometric projection results if the plane is oriented so that it makes equal angles (hence
“isometric,” or “equal measure”) with the three principal planes of the object. Thus, in
an isometric drawing of a cube, the three visible faces appear as equilateral
parallelograms; that is, while all of the parallel edges of the cube are projected as
parallel lines, the horizontal edges are drawn at an angle (usually 30°) from the normal
horizontal axes, and the vertical edges, which are parallel to the principal axes, appear in
their true proportions. A pictorial representation of an object in which all three
dimensions are drawn at full scale rather than foreshortening them to the true
projection. An isometric drawing looks like an isometric projection but all its lines
parallel to the three major axes are measurable.

Making an Isometric Drawing

Rectangular objects are easy to draw using box construction, which consists of
imagining the object enclosed in a rectangular box whose sides coincide with the main
faces of the object. For example, imagine the object shown in the two views in the Step
by Step feature at right enclosed in a construction box, then locate the features along
the edges of the box as shown.
The Step by Step feature shows how to construct an isometric drawing of an object
composed of all “normal” surfaces. Normal is used technically to mean “at right angles.”
A normal surface is any surface that is parallel to the sides of the box. Notice that all
measurements are made parallel to the main edges of the enclosing box—that is,
parallel to the isometric axes. No measurement along a non-isometric line can be
measured directly with the scale, as these lines are not foreshortened equally to the
normal lines. Start at any one of the corners of the bounding box and draw along the
isometric axis directions.
Isometric drawings are not typically dimensioned. When they
are, the dimensions should appear in the same plane as the
isometric axes and read from the bottom of the sheet or aligned
in the isometric planes. (Courtesy of Brandon Wold.)

Step by step Box Construction: Follow the steps to create an isometric sketch of
rectangular object.
 1. Lightly draw the overall dimensions of the box.

2. Draw the irregular features relative to the sides of the box.

3. Darken the final lines.

Step by step Normal Surfaces in Isometric Drawing: Follow these steps to create an
isometric drawing of the object shown below, which has normal surfaces only.
1. Select axes along which to block in height, width, and depth dimensions.

2. Locate main areas to be removed from the overall block. Lightly sketch along
isometric axes to define portion to be removed.

3. Lightly block in any remaining portions to be removed through the whole block.

4. Lightly block in features to be removed fom the remaining shape along isometric
axes.

5. Darken final lines.

Oblique Projection is a type of projection in the drawing of which such projectors are
drawn, which are at some angle other than 90° with the plane. Generally, one view of
the object is made parallel to the plane. The projection lines are drawn at 45°angle. This
view resembles the orthographic projection. The more detailed side of the object is set
toward the bigger angle axis. In this way, the actual dimension of the shape of the
object is shown on it. The two axes of the side are set perpendicular to each other while
the third axis is set at some-suitable angle. This axis is called receding axis, the axis
makes an angle from 30° to 60° with the horizontal axis.

Types of Oblique Projection. The following are the two types of oblique projection
according to construction.
1. Cavalier Oblique Drawing. Mostly this type of drawing is constructed in Oblique
Projection. In this drawing, one axis is horizontal, and the other is vertical while
the third axis is at 45° to the horizontal line.
2. Cabinet Oblique Drawing. In this drawing, one axis is horizontal, and the other is
vertical while the third axis is from 30° to 60° to the horizontal line.

Such drawing resembles much with the actual image. The dimensions on the horizontal
and vertical axes are given from the actual scale, whereas the scale on the inclined plane
is 1/2 or 2/3 of the actual scale.
Orientation of an Object. The selection of the direction of an object is very important
for making the oblique drawing explanatory. For this purpose, the longer side of the
object is kept along the horizontal axis. Also, the more detailed and the side having
more curves is taken along the horizontal axis. While the size with fewer details is kept
along the receding axis.

Step by Step Box Construction to Create an Oblique Drawing. Follow the steps to draw
a cavalier drawing of the rectangular object shown in the two orthographic views.

1. Lightly block in the overall width (A) and height (B) to form the enclosing rectangle
for the front surface. Select an angle for the receding axis (OZ) and draw the depth
(C) along it.

2. Lightly block in the details of the front surface shape including the two holes,
which will appear round. Add the details of the right-side surface shape. Extend
lines along the receding axis connecting the edges to form the remaining surface
edges.
 3. Darken the final lines.

Step by Step Skeleton Construction in Oblique Drawing. Follow the steps to construct
an oblique drawing of the part shown using projected centerlines. Oblique drawings
are especially useful for showing objects that have cylindrical shapes built on axes or
centerlines.

1. Position the object in the drawing so that the circles shown in the given top view
are parallel to the plane of projection. The circles will show true shape in the
oblique view. Draw the circular shape in the front plane of the oblique view and
extend the center axis along the receding axis of the oblique drawing.

2. Add the centerline skeleton as shown.

3. Build the drawing from the location of these centerlines.

 4. Construct all important points of tangency.

5. Darken the final cavalier drawing.

Perspective. Linear or Point projection perspective is one of two types of graphical

projection perspective in the graphic arts (the other type is Parallel projection). Linear
perspective is an approximate representation, generally on a flat surface (such as
paper), of an image as it is seen by the eye. The most characteristic features of Linear
perspective are that objects appear smaller as their distance from the observer
increases; and that they are subject to foreshortening, meaning that an object's
dimensions along the line of sight appear shorter than its dimensions across the line of
sight. Also all objects will recede to points in the distance, usually along the horizon line,
but also above and below the horizon line depending on view used.

A cube in two-point perspective Rays of light travel from the object, through the picture
plane, and to the viewer’s eye. The basis for graphical
perspective.

Perspective works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an
imaginary rectangle (realized as the plane of the painting), to the viewer's eye, as if a
viewer were looking through a window and painting what is seen directly onto the
windowpane. If viewed from the same spot as the windowpane was painted, the
painted image would be identical to what was seen through the unpainted window.
Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the
other side of the window. Because each portion of the painted object lies on the straight
line from the viewer's eye to the equivalent portion of the real object it represents, the
viewer sees no difference (sans depth perception) between the painted scene on the
windowpane and the view of the real scene. All perspective drawings assume the viewer
is a certain distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to that viewer.
An object is often not scaled evenly: a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can
appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening.

Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly
opposite the viewer's eye, represents objects infinitely far away. They have shrunk, in
the distance, to the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to (and named after)
the Earth's horizon. Any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel
lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective
drawing means that the drawing has a single vanishing point, usually (though not
necessarily) directly opposite the viewer's eye and usually (though not necessarily) on
the horizon line. All lines parallel with the viewer's line of sight recede to the horizon
towards this vanishing point. This is the standard "receding railroad tracks"
phenomenon. A two-point drawing would have lines parallel to two different angles.
Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing, one for each set of parallel
lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing.

Perspectives consisting of many parallel lines are observed most often when drawing
architecture (architecture frequently uses lines parallel to the x, y, and z axes). Because
it is rare to have a scene consisting solely of lines parallel to the three Cartesian axes (x,
y, and z), it is rare to see perspectives in practice with only one, two, or three vanishing
points; even a simple house frequently has a peaked roof which results in a minimum of
six sets of parallel lines, in turn corresponding to up to six vanishing points.
Of the many types of perspective drawings, the most common categorizations of
artificial perspective are one-, two- and three-point. The names of these categories refer
to the number of vanishing points in the perspective drawing.

Aerial (or atmospheric) perspective depends on distant objects being more obscured by
atmospheric factors, so farther objects are less visible to the viewer. In general, distant
objects become lighter in daytime and darker at night as they recede. Aerial perspective
can be combined with, but does not depend on, one or more vanishing points.
One-point perspective. A drawing has one-point perspective when it contains
only one vanishing point on the horizon line. This type of perspective is typically used for
images of roads, railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed so that the front is directly
facing the viewer. Any objects that are made up of lines either directly parallel with the
viewer's line of sight or directly perpendicular (the railroad ties/sleepers) can be
represented with one-point perspective. These parallel lines converge at the vanishing
point.
 One-point perspective exists when the picture plane is parallel to
two axes of a rectilinear (or Cartesian) scene—a scene which is
composed entirely of linear elements that intersect only at right
angles. If one axis is parallel with the picture plane, then all elements
are either parallel to the picture plane (either horizontally or
vertically) or perpendicular to it. All elements that are parallel to the
picture plane are drawn as parallel lines. All elements that are perpendicular to the
picture plane converge at a single point (a vanishing point) on the horizon. How to draw
one point perspective: https://www.thesprucecrafts.com/one-point-perspective-drawing-tutorial-1123412

Two-point perspective. A drawing has two-point perspective when it contains

two vanishing points on the horizon line. In an illustration, these vanishing points can be
placed arbitrarily along the horizon. Two-point perspective can be used to draw the
same objects as one-point perspective, rotated: looking at the corner of a house, or at
two forked roads shrinking into the distance, for example. One point represents one set
of parallel lines, the other point represents the other. Seen from the corner, one wall of
a house would recede towards one vanishing point while the other wall recedes towards
the opposite vanishing point.
Two-point perspective exists when the painting plate is parallel to
a Cartesian scene in one axis (usually the z-axis) but not to the
other two axes. If the scene being viewed consists solely of a
cylinder sitting on a horizontal plane, no difference exists in the
image of the cylinder between a one-point and two-point
perspective. Two-point perspective has one set of lines parallel to
the picture plane and two sets oblique to it. Parallel lines oblique to the picture plane
converge to a vanishing point, which means that this set-up will require two vanishing
points. How to draw two point perspective: https://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-Make-a-Two-Point-
Perspective-Drawing/

Three-point perspective is often used for buildings seen from above (or below). In
addition to the two vanishing points from before, one for each wall, there is now one for
how the vertical lines of the walls recede. For an object seen from above, this third
vanishing point is below the ground. For an object seen from below, as when the viewer
looks up at a tall building, the third vanishing point is high in space.
Three-point perspective exists when the perspective is a view of a
Cartesian scene where the picture plane is not parallel to any of the
scene's three axes. Each of the three vanishing points corresponds
with one of the three axes of the scene. One, two and three-point
perspectives appear to embody different forms of calculated
perspective, and are generated by different methods. Mathematically, however, all
three are identical; the difference is merely in the relative orientation of the rectilinear
scene to the viewer. How to draw three point perspective: https://www.mybluprint.com/article/how-to-
crush-3-point-perspective-for-the-ultimate-3-d-drawing-experience
Foreshortening

Two different projections of a stack of two cubes, illustrating oblique parallel

projection foreshortening (A) and perspective foreshortening (B)

Foreshortening is the visual effect or optical illusion that causes an object or distance to
appear shorter than it actually is because it is angled toward the viewer. Additionally, an
object is often not scaled evenly: a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can
appear as a trapezoid.
Although foreshortening is an important element in art where visual perspective is being
depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of two-dimensional representations of
three-dimensional scenes. Some other types where foreshortening can occur
include oblique parallel projection drawings. Foreshortening also occurs when imaging
rugged terrain using a synthetic aperture radar system.

Task/Activity
A. Draw the following utilizing your own figure or subject. Observe standardized title
block.
1. Isometric
2. Oblique
3. Perspective (one, two and three point perspective)
 TOPIC 5. BASIC COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

CAD (Computer Aided Design) is the use of computer software to design and document
a product’s design process. Engineering drawing entails the use of gr aphical symbols
such as points, lines, curves, planes and shapes. Essentially, it gives detailed description
about any component in a graphical form.

Background
Engineering drawings have been in use for more than 2000 years. However, the use of
orthographic projections was formally introduced by the French mathematician Gaspard
Monge in the eighteenth century.

Since visual objects transcend languages, engineering drawings have evolved and
become popular over the years. While earlier engineering drawings were handmade,
studies have shown that engineering designs are quite complicated. A solution to many
engineering problems requires a combination of organization, analysis, problem solving
principles and a graphical representation of the problem. Objects in engineering are
represented by a technical drawing (also called as drafting) that represents designs and
specifications of the physical object and data relationships. Since a technical drawing is
precise and communicates all information of the object clearly, it has to be precise. This
is where CAD comes to the fore.

CAD stands for Computer Aided Design. CAD is used to design, develop and optimize
products. While it is very versatile, CAD is extensively used in the design of tools and
equipment required in the manufacturing process as well as in the construction domain.
CAD enables design engineers to layout and to develop their work on a computer
screen, print and save it for future editing.

When it was introduced first, CAD was not exactly an economic proposition because the
machines at those times were very costly. The increasing computer power in the later
part of the twentieth century, with the arrival of minicomputer and subsequently the
microprocessor, has allowed engineers to use CAD files that are an accurate
representation of the dimensions / properties of the object.

Use of CAD
CAD is used to accomplish preliminary design and layouts, design details and
calculations, creating 3-D models, creating and releasing drawings, as well as interfacing
with analysis, marketing, manufacturing, and end-user personnel. CAD facilitates the
manufacturing process by transferring detailed information about a product in an
automated form that can be universally interpreted by trained personnel. It can be used
to produce either two-dimensional or three-dimensional diagrams. The use of CAD
software tools allow the object to be viewed from any angle, even from the inside
looking out. One of the main advantages of a CAD drawing is that the editing is a fast
process as compared to manual method. Apart from detailed engineering of 2D or 3D
models, CAD is widely used from conceptual design and layout of products to definition
of manufacturing of components. CAD reduces design time by allowing precise
simulation rather than build and test physical prototypes. Integrating CAD with CAM
(Computer Aided Manufacturing) streamlines the product development even more.
CAD is currently widely used for industrial products, animated movies and other
applications. A special printer or plotter is usually required for printing professional
design renderings. CAD programs use either vector-based graphics or raster graphics
that show how an object will look.

CAD software enables

 Efficiency in the quality of design
 Increase in the Engineer’s productivity
 Improve record keeping through better documentation and communication

Today, the use of CAD has permeated almost all industries. From aerospace, electronics
to manufacturing, CAD is used in all industry verticals. Since CAD encourages creativity
and speeds up productivity, it is becoming more and more useful as an important tool
for visualization before actually implementing a manufacturing process. That is also one
of the reasons CAD training is gaining more and more importance.

Types of CAD Software

Since its introduction in late 1960’s, CAD software has improved by leaps and bounds. A
broad classification of CAD is:
 2D CAD
 3D CAD
 3D Wireframe and Surface Modelling
 Solid Modelling
With more and more companies (if not all) turning to CAD / CAE / CAM to achieve
efficiency, accuracy and reduced time-to-market of products, there is a growing demand
for CAD software. The industry leaders in this space include AutoCAD, Dassault Systems
and Altair.

Task/Activity
A. Discuss other basic features of AutoCAD.
 REFERENCES
https://careertrend.com/list-6570934-tools-used-technical-drawings-.html
https://theconstructor.org/construction/instruments-engineering-drawing/20067/
https://www.tasstudent.com/2018/01/01/drawingequipment/
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maintenance-or-steemph-cebu-s-5th-art-guide
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawing_tool
http://www.navybmr.com/study%20material/14069a/14069A_ch3.pdf
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical-engineering/2-007-design-and-
manufacturing-i-spring-2009/related-resources/drawing_and_sketching/
https://civilseek.com/oblique-drawing-projection/
https://careertrend.com/facts-5042740-definition-technical-drawing.html
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Technical_drawing
https://www.joshuanava.biz/geometric/oblique-projection.html
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Technical_drawing
https://schoolworkhelper.net/technical-drawing-alphabet-of-line/
https://careertrend.com/facts-5042740-definition-technical-drawing.html
https://tips.clip-studio.com/en-us/articles/807
https://edengdrawing.blogspot.com/2013/02/technical-lettering.html
https://www.designtechcadacademy.com/knowledge-base/introduction-to-cad