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Edited by: Institute of Ancient Near Eastern Studies (IPOA),
Faculty of Philology, University of Barcelona
Director: Adelina Millet Albà (University of Barcelona – IPOA)
© Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona

Adolf Florensa, s/n
08028 Barcelona
Tel.: 934 035 430
Fax: 934 035 531
www.publicacions.ub.edu
comercial.edicions@ub.edu
COVER ILLUSTRATION: Collection ivory King of Megiddo.

P. Alexander, Imagini del mondo bíblico, 1991.
(Drawing of D. Alvarado.)
ISBN 978-84-9168-243-1
This document is under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non

commercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 Unported License. To see
a copy of this license clic here http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/3.0/legalcode.
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ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO
Madrid. De nuevo, intentar glosar la personalidad de este investigador, mundialmente famoso, resulta
redundante. Él supo colocar la ciencia bíblica española, en su doble vertiente hebrea y aramea, a una
altura sólo parangonable a la que logró en el Renacimiento con la publicación de la Políglota de Alcalá y
precisamente en este mismo campo del estudio crítico de los textos y sus diversas tradiciones. Después de
prestar atención a la literatura hispano-hebrea medieval, su identificación en 1956 y posterior edición del
Targum Palestinense, cambiaron sustancialmente e impulsaron de manera intensa los estudios targúmicos
y la lingüística aramea en general. Si decíamos que la voz del Dr. Millás se extinguió ayer, la del Dr.
Díez-Macho habríamos de decir que todavía resuena hoy, al fallecer, en pleno ejercicio de su labor
docente, en Barcelona en 1984.
Y séame permitido cerrar aquí esta breve síntesis histórica, sin mentar a los vivos, receptores de tan
vibrante herencia, cuya trayectoria aún abierta es mejor encargar al veredicto del futuro, pero no sin
constatar el bullir inquieto del Área de Estudios Hebreos de la Universidad de Barcelona con amplia
oferta de estudio del judaísmo medieval y moderno, de la literatura targúmica y de la filología semítica
noroccidental en general, en la más avanzada línea de investigación, reflejada a su vez en una abundante
producción bibliográfica. Esta renovación e intensificación académica de los estudios hebraicos se ha
visto acompañada por un renovado interés desplegado por otras instancias de la sociedad en favor de la
presencia y herencia judías en Cataluña a través de la creación de asociaciones de estudio y difusión
cultural, desarrollo de los estudios bíblicos, renovación de los antiguos “calls” e intensificación de todo
tipo de relaciones con el mundo judío. Después de años de una historia ambigua y difícil, podemos
asegurar que lo hebreo, lengua y pueblo, aquí y ahora interesan.
Bibliografía
A.M. Badia i Margarit, L’aportació de la Universitat Catalana a la Ciència i a la Cultura
(Barcelona 1981).
Bosch Vilá, J.: “El orientalismo español. Panorama histórico. Perspectivas actuales”, Diálogo
Ecuménico 2 (1967) 51-66.
Coll, J.M.: “Escuelas de lenguas orientales en los siglos XIII y XIV (Período raymundiano)”,
Analecta Sacra Tarraconensia 17 (1944) 115-118.
Coll, J.M.: “Escuelas de lenguas orientales en los siglos XIII y XIV (Período postraymundiano)”,
Analecta Sacra Tarraconesia 18 (1945) 59-89.
Coll, J.M.: “Escuelas de lenguas orientales en los siglos XIII y XIV (Controversias y misiones a los
judíos)”, Analecta Sacra Tarraconesia 19 (1946) 217-240.
Colon G.: A. J. Soberanas: Panorama de la lexicografia catalana. De les glosses medievals a
Pompeu Fabra (Barcelona 1985).
De La Torre A. y Del Cerro.: Documentos para la Historia de la Universidad de Barcelona. Vol. I.
Preliminares (1259-1451). Introducción, notas y comentario por J. Rubió i Balaguer (Barcelona 1971).
Del Olmo Lete, G.: Semitistas catalanes del siglo XVIII (Sabadell 1988).
Del Valle Rodríguez, C.: “Gramáticos hebreos españoles. Notas bibliográficas”, Repertorio de la
historia de las ciencias eclesiásticas en España 5 (Salamanca 1976), pp. 5-62.
Gonzalo Maeso, D.: “La enseñanza del hebreo en las antiguas universidades españolas”, Miscelánea
de estudios árabes y hebraicos 14-15 (1965-1966) 3-21.
Homenaje a Millás Vallicrosa, I/II (Barcelona 1954/1956).

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Bibliografia

0RQLND %HUQHWW 2WKPDU .HHO Mond, Stier und Kult am Stadttor. Die Stele von Betsaida (et-Tell)
Orbis Biblicus et OrientalisQ)UHLEXUJ6FKZ*|WWLQJHQ
(YD $ %UDXQ+RO]LQJHU ³$OWEDE\ORQLVFKH *|WWHU XQG LKUH 6\PEROH %HQHQQXQJ PLW +LOIH GHU
6LHJHOOHJHQGHQ´Baghdader Mitteilungen
2WWR (LVVIHOGW ³/DGH XQG 6WLHUNXOW´ HQ 2WWR (LVVIHOGW Kleine Schriften. =ZHLWHU %DG 7ELQJHQ
S
+HUEHUW +DDJ ³*ROGHQHV .DOE´ ³6WLHU´ ³6WLHUNXOW´ HQ +HUEHUW +DDJ Bibel-Lexikon (LQVLHGHOQ
=XULFK.|OQFRO
5RQDOG6+HQGHO³$QLFRQLVPDQG$QWKURSRPRUSKLVPLQ$QFLHQW,VUDHO´HQ.DUHOYDQGHU7RRUQ
HG The Image and the Bool. Iconic Cults, Aniconism and the Rise of Book Religion in Israel and the
Ancient Near East/HXYHQSS
*DU\1.QRSSHUV³$DURQ¶V&DOIDQG-HURERDP¶V&DOYHV´HQ$VWULG%%HFNet al., HGVFortunate
the Eyes that See: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman*UDQG5DSLGV0,SS
*UHJRULRGHO2OPR/HWHMitos, leyendas y rituales de los semitas occidentales3OLHJRVGH2ULHQWH
0DGULG

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'DQLHO 6FKZHPHU Die Wettergottgestalten Mesopotamiens und Nordsyriens im Zeitalter der
Keilschriftkulturen:LHVEDGHQ
8UVXOD6HLGO%DUWKHO+URXGD³*|WWHUV\PEROHXQG±DWWULEXWH$UFKDHRORJLVFK±,0HVRSRWDPLHQ,,
6\ULHQ3DOHVWLQD´Reallexikon der Assyriologie%HUOLQ1HZ<RUN'ULWWHU%DQGS
$QWRLQH 9DQHO L’iconographie du dieu de l’orage dans le Proche-Orient ancien jusqu’au VIIème
siècle avant J.-C.3DULV

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UHVSHFWRDVXVPRUDGDVFHOHVWLDOHV

El palacio celestial

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&I * GHO 2OPR /HWH Mitos y Leyendas de Canaán según la tradición de Ugarit 0DGULG S 8QD YHUVLyQ
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No tiene casa Baal, no, como los dioses,
Ni mansión, como los hijos de Ashera,
la morada de El es el cobijo de su hijo ….78,9VV\SDU

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UHFRQRFHODGHPRVWUDGDVXSUHPDFtDGH%DDO

Constrúyase una casa a Baal como la de los dioses,
una mansión, sí, como la de los hijos de Ashera.7899

(OGHFUHWRGH(OHVHORJLDGR\DVXPLGRSRUODGLRVDPDGUHTXHSUHFLVDHOVLJQLILFDGRFyVPLFRGHWDO
HGLILFLRHOSDODFLRGH%DDOVHUiVXPRUDGD\DODYH]HOFHQWURGHRSHUDFLRQHVGHXQDGLYLQLGDGGLQiPLFD
SRUQDWXUDOH]D

Ya que así podrá almacenar su lluvia Baal,
hacer acopio de abundante nieve.
Y podrá dar su voz desde la nubes,
fulminar a la tierra rayos
Una casa de cedro le acabarán
y/o una casa de ladrillo le levantarán..789

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HQWRGDHVWDWUDPLWDFLyQ\VHOHHQFDUJDDODYH]TXHKDJDORVSUHSDUDWLYRVSHUWLQHQWHV&RPLHQ]DDVtD
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Convoca una cuadrilla en tu casa,
una brigada dentro de tu palacio.
Que te aporten los montes abundante plata,
las colinas el más preciado oro,
y construye una casa de plata y oro
una casa del más preciado lapislázuli .789

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…de prisa has de alzar un palacio
en las cumbres de Safón.
Mil acres abarcará la casa,
diez mil fanegas el palacio.789

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SUHGHFLU³\DDWHQGHUiV%DDODPLVSDODEUDV´.789,

'HKHFKR%DDOHVGHQRPLQDGRHQHOSDQWHyQVLOiELFR Hadad be-el ‫ې‬uršƗn ‫ې‬a-zi56FI*GHO2OPR/HWHLa
religión cananea según la tradición de Ugarit 6DEDGHOO %DUFHORQD S VV * GHO 2OPR /HWH - 6DQPDUWtQ ³ks
(Kásios/Casius) =‫ۏ‬azzi = ‫ې‬šÁula Orientalis

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Devoró el fuego en la casa,
las llamas en el palacio.
Y, mira, al séptimo día
Se extinguió el fuego en la casa,
Las llamas en el palacio.
Se había convertido la plata en láminas,

El oro transformado en ladrillos 9,

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que abra una ventana en la casa,
una abertura en el palacio,
que abra incluso una aspillera en las nubes
conforme a las palabras de(l mismo) Kothar-Hasis.789,,

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Se echó a reír Kothar-Hasis,
alzó su voz y exclamó:
¿No te lo dije, ¡oh Baal, el Victorioso!,
que ya atenderías, Baal, a mis palabras?.789,,

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En la fecha del ELEOX, en el principio del mes,
Ea, el Gran Señor, a mi vera
se colocó diciéndome “Toma la azuela
y el hacha de furor; una abertura
haz sobre los fundamentos de piedra?, de
mi proyecto, a lo largo y a lo ancho”.
Atendí yo a las palabras
de Ea, el Gran Rey,
tomé la azuela y el hacha de furor,
una abertura hice arriba,
los cimientos y su gran estructura de piedra
reparé. Vino de vuelta (él):
yo había acabado su totalidad de la obra.

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Por mi parte volví a reparar las ruinas ".
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La ciudad celestial

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Así, pues, poned cara

hacia su ciudad, la ‘Fangosa’,
(pues) una poza es el trono de su sede,
un lodazal la tierra de su posesión.789,,,

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…l’âme du mort quitte le caveau pour entreprendre un voyage qui le conduit vers la « Cité »,
résidence où se réunissent les âmes pour jouir de la quiétude éternelleS

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Venid a mi casa, Refaim,
a mi casa os invito,
os convoco a mi palacio.
En pos de él los Refaím marcharon,
en pos de él partieron los divinales, .78,,\SDU
…………
Uncieron los carros, aparejaron sus caballos,
marcharon un día y otro,
al alba del tercero
llegaron los Refaím a las eras,
los divinales a los plantíos.78,,

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Ven te enseñaré a la novia, esposa del Cordero. Y me transportó en espíritu a un
monte de gran altura y me enseñó la ciudad santa, Jerusalén, bajando del cielo,
desde Dios, con la gloria de Dios. Su resplandor es semejante a piedras preciosas,
como piedra de jaspe cristalino: tiene una muralla grande y alta, con doce puertas,
y en las puertas doce ángeles, con nombres grabados, que son los de las doce tribus
de los hijos de Israel. A oriente, tres puertas, y al norte, tres puertas, y al mediodía,
tres puertas, y al occidente, tres puertas. Y el muro de la ciudad tiene doce
cimientos, y sobre ellos, los doce nombres de los doce apóstoles del Cordero. Y el
que hablaba conmigo tenía una vara de oro como metro para medir la ciudad y sus
puertas y su muralla. Y la ciudad es cuadrada, y su longitud es tanta cuanta su
anchura. Y midió la ciudad con la vara unos doce mil estadios: su longitud, su
anchura y su altura son iguales. Y su muralla medía ciento cuarenta y cuatro codos,
medida de hombre, que es la del ángel.
Y las piedras de la muralla son de jaspe, y la ciudad es de oro puro, semejante a
cristal claro. Los cimientos de la muralla de la ciudad están adornados con todas
las piedras preciosaV: el primer cimiento, de jaspe el segundo, de zafiro el tercero,
de calcedonia el cuarto, de esmeralda el quinto, de sardónice el sexto, de
cornalina el séptimo, de crisolina el octavo, de berilio el noveno, de topacio el
décimo, de crisopacio el undécimo, de jacinto el duodécimo, de amatista. Y las
doce puertas, son doce perlas; cada una de las puertas era de una sola perla. Y la
plaza de la ciudad era de oro puro como cristal transparente. Y no vi templo en ella,
pues su templo es el Señor Dios…
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Por encima de todos estos ángeles se encuentra Matrona RWUR QRPEUH GH OD
6KHNLQDK, que sirve en el Palacio del Rey supremo … Recordad que Rabí Simón
dijo: El Santo, bendito sea, ha erigido Arriba un Palacio y también una Ciudad
sagrada. Ésta es Jerusalén, la Ciudad Santa ,,,
Arriba todo está dispuesto de una manera análoga D OD FUHDFLyQ GH DTXt DEDMR,
donde también hay un océano y por encima del mismo, otro océano. El Río de
Fuego rodea el Palacio Celeste y Sagrado, el cual contiene asimismo
compartimentos y un lugar para el Sanedrín, de donde emana el Rigor y al que
nadie tiene acceso, a excepción del Descendiente de la casa de David,,,

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dios de la tempestad, tiene sólo una significación menor y no necesariamente benéfica. No obstante, en la
concepción siro-cananea la vida que viene del agua y su dios, Baal, se integran en un sistema mito-
teológico más amplio, en una cosmo-teología en la que la vida terrena es un avatar del orden cósmico,
azaroso y arriesgado, siempre a punto de ser engullida por las fuerzas de la muerte.
Al frente y origen de esa totalidad cósmica se encuentra, como comienzo incondicionado, el dios
primordial, El, (pro-)creador de todo ser vivo. En primer lugar, padre de los vivientes eternos, los dioses,
sus hijos, pero también de los hombres. Naturalmente en colaboración con su paredra, la diosa Ashera,
primordial como él, pero en segundo lugar, como mujer: se trata de un desdoblamiento exigido por el
esquema generativo empírico que es el módulo representativo más obvio para explicar toda génesis. No
hay, con todo, en esta mito-ideología un relato de creación, sino más bien esbozos de relatos de
procreación: para ella el ser es la vida. Esta tiene, así, en tal ideología un origen y principio anterior al
agua de la lluvia, aunque dependa de ella para su preservación en el contexto terrestre, en su forma
segunda y limitada. El agua, sin embargo, tiene una origen también primordial, como en todas las
cosmologías / cosmogonías orientales, y aparece como el ámbito en que se asienta la divinidad primordial
mentada: el dios El tiene su morada en el “venero de los dos océanos”, que resulta así el ombligo del caos
/ cosmos original, y que otras veces es descrita como la montaña primordial. Dos concepciones que se
complementan en la visión cosmológica global, pues dicha montaña se sitúa en la confluencia y origen de
los dos océanos primordiales. Tan primordial como el propio dios supremo, este caos no es objeto de
creación ni procreación: es el contexto y contextura de la realidad primordial y total. Ese caos primordial,
acuoso y dual, de aguas dulces y amargas, es el sustento y el nido de lo divino en todas las concepciones
orientales, en la egipcia y en la mesopotámica, por ejemplo. Y de esa agua primera fluirán las
emanaciones que aportarán el agua segunda a la tierra bajo la tutela del dios correspondiente.
Pero esta función fertilizadora que expanda el agua fecundante más allá del venero caótico
primordial no es sin más evidente ni fácil. El caos primitivo encierra en sí otras fuerzas y el dios que lo
habita e hipostasía engendra diversos hijos, los tres dioses principales: su hijo queridísimo, quizá el
primogénito, Yam, el Mar, como prolongación sintética del caos primordial ambiguo: agua, pero amarga
y furiosa; y luego la pareja que desdobla esa ambigüedad: el dios de la Muerte, Mot, y el de la Vida, el
“Señor” / Baal. Esta tríada: Yam, Mot y Baal, representan la configuración primordial del cosmos siro-
cananeo y un reparto de funciones y de ámbitos de actuación: océano, infierno, tierra, que constituyen la
geografía mítica común a muchas religiones. Porque esa configuración no será estática, sino dinámica.
Esos tres representantes resultan en realidad tres antagonistas que se enfrentan incesantemente,
míticamente, en torno al hecho primordial que absorbe el interés, la preocupación del creyente y del mito-
teólogo siro-cananeo: la salvaguarda de la vida. Ellos son y serán el enemigo, el patrón, el devorador de la
vida, que resulta así amenazada por sus extremos: su principio y su fin.
Sobre este marco genérico de organización y reparto del espacio cósmico vamos a rastrear las
sucesivas descripciones / dramatizaciones que el mundo siro-cananeo nos ofrece del mismo a lo largo de
su historia. Distinguiremos a ese respecto tres horizontes o perspectivas desde las que se plantea el origen
y funcionamiento de nuestro mundo, básicamente en forma de drama, de relato dramático personalizado.

LOS MITOS SIRO-CANANEOS DE CREACIÓN
1. El primer horizonte de la creación / organización del cosmos: la creación de la “vida” de todos los
vivientes (Ugarit)
La más antigua y completa versión del pensamiento mítico siro-antiguo nos la ofrecen los textos
ugaríticos (s. XIV a.C.). En ellos el interés se centra, como decíamos, en la salvaguarda de la vida como
contenido y sentido del cosmos: ser es vivir, la nada es la muerte. Este es su horizonte de la totalidad,
pues el cosmos como un todo es primordial, no se crea. El desarrollo de este proceso de salvaguarda se
dramatiza en un doble antagonismo que enfrentan a los tres dioses primordiales como detentores de las
fuerzas básicas del caos / cosmos, bajo la supervisión del supremo dios-padre, El, que asiste impasible a
esos enfrentamientos, los fomenta incluso y acaba sancionándolos.
El primero de esos contrastes es el que enfrenta a Yam, dios del Mar, y a Baal, dios de la Tierra. Es
como si la ciudad portuaria de Ugarit se viera atrapada entre esas dos realidades y de una experimentara
su beneficencia y de la otra su constante amenaza. En realidad no se trata de una mitología simplemente
geográfica: el dios Yam es el correlato del mesopotámico têmtum y del bíblico tehôm, la emergencia del
abismo o caos primordial sin fondo ni frontera que todo lo envuelve y amenaza con engullir en su
indiferenciación informe, y sobre el que se sustenta de manera inestable y arriesgada la tierra. Defenderla
es defender el ámbito de la vida, de la primera diferencia, del ámbito de las nuevas formas de ser, aunque
sea de un ser perecedero y provisional. Por eso la tierra se entiende siempre como espacio fértil: el
desierto es otra forma de vuelta al caos, y como tal, dominio del dios de la muerte que atacará así a la vida
por la espalda, después de la ardua victoria que ha asegurado su afirmación.
El adalid de este enfrentamiento es Baal, el gran héroe y protagonista de esta mitología. Él es el
“Señor de la tierra”, su esposo y fertilizador, el gran dios de la vida, que ha recibido el encargo más arduo
en la configuración del cosmos: defender y salvar en lucha incesante la diferencia y el orden, la vida en
todas sus formas, frente a las fuerza entrópicas del caos y la muerte que la insidian sin cesar e intentan
anegarla y borrarla. La dramatización de este primer contraste es viva e intensa. En un primer momento, y
de acuerdo con su naturaleza caótica, el dios Yam cuenta con el apoyo y beneplácito del dios supremo, El,
el morador de la “aguas primordiales” que tiene en él su imagen más próxima y directa, su primogénito,
diríamos (“el amado de El”, se le llama), aunque esto no se afirme de modo claro. Le recomienda
destronar a Baal, impedir su afirmación, que en el fondo es impedir la renovación de su soberanía sobre la
tierra. No debe olvidarse que estamos ante una mitología cíclica cerrada, que podría iniciarse por
cualquier punto: éste, que señala el contraste Yam-Baal, es el aparentemente más lógico y primordial para
nuestro modo de ver. El bautiza a Yam con un nombre de predilección y le promete un palacio, es decir la
soberanía sobre sus hermanos los demás dioses, “grandes y pequeños”, “mayores y menores”, pero no
impone su favor. Este debe ganarse en la lucha y la victoria sobre su oponente. Las fuerzas que
representan estos tres dioses primordiales, sus hijos, son su propia fuerza y están ahí operantes una vez
que se las ha engendrado, más allá de sus predilecciones naturales como dios primero con su propio
ámbito y ambiente: el océano primordial y la corte de los divinales. La fuerza de la vida, de su propia
vida, que incorpora Baal, se abre ahora a un nuevo ámbito, el de la vida mortal, que resulta una
participación muy parcial de la divina, muy costosa y un poco caricaturesca. No es de extrañar que esa
expansión le resulte en principio carente de importancia, incluso molesta, frente a la potencia caótica,
inmanente y homogénea con su ser original, que representa Yam. Más tarde le veremos cambiar de
opinión y tornarse en defensor de la vida y de Baal, encontrar incluso regusto al juego de la vida terrena
en aventuras amorosas con las hijas de esta vida, según nos certifica la mitología del ciclo menor.

Yam está, pues, abocado a enfrentarse con Baal y a las primeras de cambio su superioridad se
impone: la del furioso Mar contra la inerme y estática Tierra. Baal está a punto de sucumbir, la vida de
quedar engullida. Pero en este preciso momento viene en su ayuda una fuerza autónoma, todopoderosa
por encima de la voluntad misma de los dioses, a la que el mismo dios supremo, El, tendrá que recurrir
cuando quiera imponer su voluntad en contraste con la de otras divinidades, en concreto la de su paredra,
Ashera, que manifiesta tendencia a obrar por su cuenta. Es la fuerza de la magia y de su dios Kothar, que
en la mitología siro-cananea aparece siempre al servicio de la vida. Es como si el caos, el todo primordial
se hubiese fraccionado en dos poderes: el de la voluntad, encarnada en los dioses, y el de la fatalidad (la
ley natural), con sus estructuras propias e infalibles, que hay que saber dominar si se quiere escapar a
ellas y que son el dominio (la magia) de un dios particular, Kothar. En el esquema canónico este dios
debería ser hijo de El y Ashera; en el mito aparece, con todo, como completamente autónomo y en este
caso concreto decididamente del lado de Baal, contrarrestando así el favoritismo de El para con Yam, y
eso de manera comprometida, práctica y activa, posiblemente desde un compromiso previo, desde una
táctica tramada y consensuada de antemano entre los dos.
Cuando Baal está a punto de ser abatido por Yam, en el momento al parecer en el que éste se siente
más ufano y seguro de su victoria, aparece el socio mágico:
¿No te lo dije, ¡oh Principe Baal!,
no te lo repetí, ¡oh Auriga de las nubes!?
Ahora a tu enemigo, Baal,
ahora a tu enemigo debes aplastar,
ahora debes destruir a tu adversario.
Posesiónate de tu reino eterno,
de tu dominio por los siglos de los siglos.
.........
Kothar dos mazas hizo bajar
y proclamó sus nombres:
- Tu tienes por nombre Ayyamur.
¡Ayyamur, echa a Yam,
echa a Yam de su trono
a Nahar del solio de su poder!
Salta de las manos de Baal,
como un águila de sus dedos;
golpea en el cráneo al Príncipe Yam,
en la frente al Juez Nahar.
¡Que se desplome Yam,
y caiga a tierra!
Saltó la maza de las manos de Baal,
como un águila de sus dedos;
golpeó en el cráneo al Príncipe Yam,
en la frente al Juez Nahar.
Se desplomó Yam,
cayó a tierra.
Se doblaron sus artejos
y se decompuso su figura.
Arrastró Baal y deshizo a Yam,
acabó con el Juez Nahar.

/260,7266,52&$1$1(26'(&5($&,Ï1

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Entonces el Benigno, El, el Entrañable,
bajó del trono, se sentó en el escabel,
y dejando el escabel se sentó en el suelo.
Esparció ceniza de aflicción sobre su cabeza,
polvo de humillación sobre su cráneo,
por vestido se cubrió con una túnica ritual.
..........
Alzó su voz y exclamó:
¡Baal está muerto! ¿Que va a ser del pueblo?
¡El hijo de Dagón! ¿Qué va a ser de la multitud?
En pos de Baal voy a bajar al infierno.

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En el sueño del Benigno, El, el entrañable,

en la visión del Creador de las creaturas,
los cielos aceite llovieron,
los torrentes fluyeron con miel.
Se alegró el Benigno, El, el Entrañable,
sus pies en el escabel apoyó,
y desfrunciendo el ceño se echó a reír.
Alzó su voz y exclamó:
- Me sentaré y reposaré.
y reposará en mi pecho mi alma,
porque está vivo Baal, el Victorioso,
porque está en su ser el Príncipe, Señor de la tierra.

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/260,7266,52&$1$1(26'(&5($&,Ï1

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. El segundo horizonte de la creación organización del cosmos: la creación de la casa del hombre
Israel

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En el momento inicial de la creación por Dios de los cielos y de la tierra, siendo ésta un caos informe,
con las tinieblas recubriendo el abismo y un huracán potentísimo (o ‘enviado por Dios’) que se cernía sobre
las aguas, dijo Dios: ….

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Dijo Dios: Hagamos al hombre ࢯƗdƗm a nuestra imagen y semejanza; que ellos dominen a los peces
del mar, las aves del cielo, los animales domésticos y a todo bicho que se mueva sobre la tierra. Y creó
Dios al hombre a su imagen, a imagen de Dios lo creó, varón y hembra los creó.

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HOFDRVLQIRUPHSURSLDGHSXHEORVVHPLQyPDGDVGH]RQDVGHVpUWLFDV

Cuando el Dios Yahweh hizo la tierra y los cielos, y antes de que hubiese brote alguno de las praderas
en la tierra, y la hierba del campo hubiese germinado, pues el Dios Yahweh no había hecho caer la lluvia
sobre la tierra, ni existía el hombre que trabajase la tierra y corriente alguna que surgiese de la tierra y
regara la superficie del terreno, modeló (entonces) el Dios Yahweh al hombre con polvo del suelo e insufló
en sus narices aliento vital, con lo que el hombre se convirtió en un ser vivo.

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Puedes comer de todos los árboles del jardín, pero del árbol de conocer el bien y el mal no comas,
porque el día en que comas de él, tendrás que morir.

/260,7266,52&$1$1(26'(&5($&,Ï1

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El Señor modeló de arcilla todas las fieras salvajes y todos los pájaros del cielo, y se los presentó al
hombre para ver qué nombre les ponía. Y cada ser vivo llevaría el nombre que el hombre le puso.

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¡Esta sí que es hueso de mis huesos y carne de mi carne! ... Por eso un hombre abandona padre y
madre, se junta a su mujer y se hacen una sola carne.

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Bendice, alma mía, al Señor:

Señor Dios mío, eres inmenso.
Te revistes de belleza y majestad,
la luz te envuelve como un manto.
Despliegas los cielos como una tienda,
tus altos salones techas sobre las aguas.
Las nubes te sirven de carroza
y te paseas en alas del viento.
Los vientos te sirven de mensajeros,
el fuego llameante, de ministro.
Asentaste la tierra sobre su cimiento
y no vacilará nunca jamás.

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La cubriste con el vestido del océano
y las aguas asaltaron las montañas.
Pero a tu bramido huyeron,
al fragor de tu trueno se precipitaron,
mientras subían los montes y bajaban los valles,
cada cual al puesto asignado.
Trazaste una frontera infranqueable,
para que no vuelvan a cubrir la tierra.
………………

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El Señor me estableció al principio de sus tareas,
al comienzo de su obras antiquísimas.
En un tiempo remotísimo fui formada,
antes de comenzar la tierra.
Antes de los abismos fui engendrada,
antes de los manantiales de las aguas.
Todavía no estaban aplomados los montes,
antes de las montañas fui engendrada.
No había hecho aún la tierra y la hierba,
ni los primeros terrones del orbe.
Cuando colocaba los cielos, allí estaba yo,
cuando trazaba la bóveda sobre la faz del abismo,
cuando sujetaba el cielo en la altura,
y fijaba las fuentes abismales,
cuando ponía un límite al mar y las aguas
para que no traspasasen su mandato,
cuando asentaba los cimientos de la tierra.
……………………
El firmamento del cielo es orgullo del cielo
y la bóveda celeste, ¡qué glorioso espectáculo!
El sol cuando sale derramando calor,
¡qué obra maravillosa del Señor!
……………………
También brilla la luna en fases y ciclos,
y rige los tiempos como signo perpetuo.
…………………….
Las estrellas adornan la belleza del cielo
y su luz resplandece en la altura divina.
..……………
Su poder condensa las nubes
y desmenuza las piedras del granizo.
La voz de su trueno estremece la tierra

/260,7266,52&$1$1(26'(&5($&,Ï1

y al verlo, tiemblan las montañas.
…………………
Su sabiduría domeña el océano
y planta islas en el mar.
……………..
Aunque siguiéramos, no acabaríamos,
la última palabra: Él lo es todo.
Encarezcamos su grandeza impenetrable,
Él es más grande que todas sus obras.
««««««

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Y este fue el principio de la creación de todas las cosas, pero él mismo no conocía su propia creación
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Cuando había grandes sequías, tendían sus manos al cielo, hacia el sol, pues consideraban dios a éste,
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griegos, Zeus.

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Bibliografía

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l’honneur de Franz Cumont…5RPDSS

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y en el mismo momento dos personajes con la misma trayectoria vital. La “historia” de Beya tiene en
aquel contexto egipcio el valor de una proclama política en el ámbito de las luchas dinásticas que
conmovieron a aquel país. Se ofrece así como un arquetipo de relato de sublevación / liberación: arranca
de la misma corte regia –el juego está entre nobles y generales–, pasa por la descripción de la opresión
del poder reinante, implica una revuelta que acaba en fuga con la consiguiente persecución del ejército
real y se consuma con la escapada al desierto y el refugio en la Transjordania del norte, en la provincia
egipcia de Upe / Basán. Es claro que este marco épico lo completaría el relator hebreo con sus propias
tradiciones de lucha con los pueblos vecinos y sobre todo lo usaría para encuadrar la otra gran función de
Moisés, la de legislador, cumplida la cual el personaje se esfuma y no vuelve a aparecer en la Biblia, que
será en realidad la Biblia del rey David –presente y futuro de la nación, como decíamos– no la de
Moisés, hasta la época rabínica –a partir del Exilio–, cuando la historia se da por acabada y solo perdure
la norma. El personaje egipcio pudo haber cumplido en mi opinión una función literaria de primer orden:
la de permitir al pueblo hebreo elaborar su propia épica nacional(-religiosa) de manera
sorprendentemente egregia: nace de una confrontación con el gran poder supremo de la zona, Egipto
(cuyo legado cultural y religioso aprovechará), y asume así el rango de gran nación. No me atrevo a
poner la mano en el fuego en pro de esta equiparación, pero no cabe duda que ofrece una alternativa
hermenéutica interesante para comprender una figura como la de Moisés que se nos escurre en su
realidad histórica, pero nos abruma en su significación socio-cultural y religiosa. Me permito ser tan
cruel como para dejar en el aire tal ambigüedad
Es pues difícil distinguir entre la persona y el personaje en la “Epopeya de Mosiés” que nos ofrece
la Biblia y que la tradición judía remata haciéndolo tan excelso e intocable que sólo un “beso de Dios” le
pudo arrebatar el alma. Pero en medio de ese avatar “histórico” se halla condensado, como hecho irrefu-
table, un “código de conducta” del que se le considera autor por inspiración divina y que supone un hito
histórico en el proceso de racionalización del proceder humano, cuya vigencia ha impregnado nuestra
propia cultura.
6. Referencias
J. Assmann, Re und Amun: Die Krise der polytheistischen Weltbilds im Ägypten der 18-20 Dynastie,
Freiburg 1983 [ver J. Assmann, Moshe der Ägypter. Entzifferung eines Gedechnissspur, München 2000].
J. C. de Moor, The Rise of Yahwism. The Roots of Israelite Montheism (BEthL 91), Leuven 1997.
W. Faulkner, Go down, Moses (1940), ver. esp. Desciende, Moisés, Madrid 1990.
S. Freud, Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische Religion (1937), ver. ingl. Moses and
Monotheism (Amsterdam 1939), ver. fran. L’Homme Moïse et la religion monothéiste, París 1986).
M. Halter, Çippora, Paris 2003 (ver. ingl. Zipporah, London 2005).
Z.N. Hurston, Moses, Man of the Mountain, New York 1939.
Th. Mann, Das Gesetz (1944) (ver. esp. Las Tablas de la Ley, Madrid, 1972).
D. Mathews, Royal Motifs in the Pentateuchal Portrayal of Moses (LHBOTS, 571) New York 2012.
M. Pérez Fernández, O. Ruiz Morell, El beso de Dios. Midrás de la Muerte de Moisés (Biblioteca
Midrásica, 35), Estella (Navarra) 2013.

MOISÉS Y LA LEY
Th. Römer, Moïse “lui que Yahvé a connu face à face” (Découvertes Gallimard, Religions 424),
París 2002 (con bibliografía, p. 121)
H. Wouk, The Lawgiver, New York 2012.
M. Wright, Moses in America. The Cultural Uses of Biblical Narratives (American Academy of
Religion Cultural Criticism Series), Oxford 2003.

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Fórmulas introductorias

Yahweh me dirigió la palabra en estos términos
DHijo de hombre, habla a tus compatriotas y díles ...

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Parábola del vigía. Caso del ciudadano desaprensivo

E En el caso de que haga yo venir la espada sobre un país y las gentes del mismo cojan uno de entre
ellos y le pongan por atalaya
y viendo éste abalanzarse la espada sobre el país, toca la trompeta
y pone al pueblo sobre aviso
si el que ha oído el sonido de la trompeta no se apercibe y al llegar la espada le alcanza,
su sangre caerá sobre su cabeza
Oyó el sonido de la trompeta y no se previno, sobre él caerá su sangre,
si se hubiese precavido, habría salvado su vida

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Parábola del vigía. Caso de que éste no cumpla

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DEn el caso de que el atalaya vea abalanzarse la espada
y no toque la trompeta
Esi el pueblo no se apercibe
Fy llegando la espada alcanza a alguno de entre ellos
G éste, por su culpa ha sido alcanzado

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%(QFDUJRGHOPHQVDMHDHijo de hombre habla ... díles
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Pues bien, a ti, hijo de hombre, te he puesto yo por atalaya de la casa de Israel;
si oyes alguna palabra de mi boca,
les amonestarás que se guarden de mí.
Cuando diga yo al impío: impío, vas a morir, si tú no abres tu boca
para advertir al impío de su camino, éste, el impío, por su culpa morirá,
pero yo reclamaré su sangre de tu mano.
En el caso de que tu apercibas al impío de su camino a fin de, que se aparte de él,
si no se convierte de su camino, por su culpa morirá él
y tu habrás salvado tu vida

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Pues bien, tú, hijo de hombre, di a tus compatriotas:
la justicia del justo no le librará en el día de su prevaricación, ni la maldad del impío le servirá de tropiezo
el día en que se aparte de ella y el justo no podrá vivir el día que peque
En caso de que diga yo al justo que va a vivir, y él, confiando en su justicia, comete iniquidad, todas sus
obras de justicia no serán recordadas por la iniquidad que cometió, morirá.
y en caso de que diga yo al impío vas a morir sin remedio, si se convierte de su pecado, si hace lo que es
justo y recto
restituye la prenda, reintegra lo robado,
anda por los preceptos de la vida sin cometer iniquidad, vivirá sin duda, no morirá
todos los pecados que cometió no le serán recordados, porque hizo lo que es recto y justo, de seguro
vivirá

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Los caminos de la justicia de Yahweh

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PLpQGRORGHILQLWLYDPHQWHHQODH[SUHVLyQYo juzgaré a cada uno según sus caminos'HHVWHPRGRHQ
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¿Y dirán los hijos de tu pueblo:
³No es recto el camino de Yahweh´?
¡El vuestro sí que no es recto!
Si se convierte el justo de su justicia y comete iniquidad,
morirá por ésta;
y si se vuelve el impío de su maldad y hace lo que es recto y justo,
a cuenta de ello vivirá.
¿Y diréis: no es recto el camino de Yahweh?
Yo os juzgaré a cada uno según sus caminos, casa de Israel.

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Pues tengo un asunto que voy a comunicarte,
una palabra que quiero repetirte:
El dicho del árbol y la charla de la piedra;
el cuchicheo de los cielos con la tierra
de los abismos con las estrellas.

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Fundió un baldaquino dosel y un lecho
un estrado divino de veinte mil siclos
Un estrado " divino vaciado en plata,
cubierto con baño de oro.
Un solio divino, un diván de metal precioso,
un escabel divino esmaltado de electro.
Unas andas divinas con abrazaderas
sobre sus varales de oro.
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Dame a la joven ‫ۉ‬urray,
la más graciosa de la estirpe de tu primogénito;
cuya gracia es como la de Anat,
como la belleza de Ashtarte su belleza;
cuyas niñas son gemas de lapislázuli,
sus pupilas, pateras de alabastro.
…………………
yo reposaré en la mirada de sus ojos.

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Se inclinó, besó sus labios;
y sus labios eran dulces,
dulces como las granadas.

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Bibliografía

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/$ORQVR6FK|NHOet al. La Biblia del Peregrino%LOEDRSS
/ $ORQVR 6FK|NHO El Cantar de los Cantares o La dignidad del amor (VWHOOD 1DYDUUD

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127$6$81$75$'8&&,Ï1'(/&$17$5'(/26&$17$5(6

5$OWKDQQStudies in Northwest Semitic%L2U5RPD
3/$UGLxDFK³&UtWLFDGH6DORPyQHQHO&DQWDUGHORV&DQWDUHV´RevB
%%DQGVWUDThe Syntactic Function of the Particle N\ in Biblical Hebrew and Ugaritic'LV
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*%DUELHUR³'LH/LHEHGHU7|FKWHU-HUXVDOHPV+OGE07LP.RQWH[WYRQ´BZ

-%DUUComparative Philology and the Text of the Old Testament2[IRUG
+%ORN³$OOHJRULF*HRJUDSK\LQWKH6RQJRI6RQJV´HQ-'\NHGGive Ear to My Words:
Psalms and other Poetry in and around the Hebrew Bible: Essays in Honor of Professor N.A. van
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(G'KRUPHLa Bible. L’Ancien Testament ,, %LEOLRWKqTXHGHOD3OpLDGH3DUtVSS

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-$(PHUWRQ³/LFHRUD9HLOLQWKH6RQJRI6RQJV"´HQ$*$XOGHGUnderstanding
Poets and Prophets: Essays in Honor of George Wishart Anderson-6276XS6KHIILHOG
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Studies in Near Eastern Languages and Literatures. Memorial Volume of Karel Petráþek3UDKDSS

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npš // ap,9
tǀrep napšô beappô -RE
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c‫ܒ‬r riš 9,
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qdqd dqn 9\SDU
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wehacabartƗ cal-rô’šekƗ wecal-zeqƗnêkƗ (]
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we’et-ge’ôn yerûšƗlayim hƗrrƗb...hƗhôlekîm bišrƯrût libbƗm -HU
hƗcir rabbƗtî cƗm baggôyîm...ĞƗrƗtî bammedƯnôt /DP

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sorprendentemente antinómicos pre-bíblicos, como el de condicionar por una parte la vida a la

obediencia, a la renuncia a la experiencia autónoma de lo bueno y lo malo, y encomendar por otra esa
misma vida-inmortalidad al fruto de una planta. Hasta tal punto que Dios no puede anular su eficacia:
arrancar el árbol o neutralizar su fruto. Tiene que recurrir a un procedimiento externo: cerrar el acceso al
mismo. Se refleja aquí toda la “ciencia” mágica de las plantas vivificantes de por sí y de los
conocimientos secretos que solo el dios de la magia posee y que transmite al exorcista en su lucha contra
hechiceros y serpientes. De nuevo, aunque sometida al poder de Dios, resuena aquí la concepción del
doble poder sobrenatural que domina en todo el Oriente, que perdura en el mundo bíblico (recuérdese la
Serpiente de Bronce, del desierto, cuya vista es más eficaz que la plegaria, de nuevo, claro está, porque
así Dios lo quiere) y está vivo hasta nuestros días en el mundo judío y en el cristiano.
Se trata de dos ejemplos de intertextualidad, de uso de relatos arquetípicos previos por parte de la
Biblia para componer el relato de la propia vivencia religiosa del “problema” ineludible (“de dónde
venimos”) del origen del cosmos y del hombre y el del destino y configuración de la existencia de éste.
2.2. El relato del diluvio

Si en el caso anterior la intertextualidad se combina con una fuerte intervención en la transformación
del arquetipo, en el caso del relato del Diluvio, como explicación del gran riesgo de desaparición de la
especie humana más allá de la muerte que cada uno lleva a cuestas, la dependencia del relato bíblico del
oriental es casi literal. Podríamos hablar más que de intertextualidad, de simple acomodación. El relator
bíblico encuentra en aquella narración una historieta divertida –que refleja el carácter caprichoso y a la
vez benévolo de los dioses mesopotámicos– y que mantenía viva entre sus gentes la nostalgia de la
inmortalidad, de la que un ser humano se hizo acreedor –y con el que se topó ya Gilgamesh cuando fue en
su búsqueda– por pura benevolencia de “su dios personal” en contra de la inquina desproporcionada de
todo el resto del panteón; un modelo adecuado para explicar en qué acabó “la experiencia del bien y del
mal” preferida por el hombre: en completa perversión. Le basta un pequeño prólogo y un epílogo para dar
un nuevo sentido al relato que todo Oriente conocía (el Mito de Atraḫasis)6, para descubrimos el hastío de
Dios que, no obstante, se deja vencer por su “gracia” y salva in extremis a la humanidad, para urdir un
nuevo plan que le diera esperanza de pervivencia. El resto es simple transcripción del relato mesopo-
támico: el arca, los animales, los pájaros mensajeros, el hombre y su familia, el diluvio torrencial-caótico.
La sensatez narrativa de nuestro relator dota a su versión de una verosimilitud que el relato mesopotámico
había concebido en proporciones míticas, estando los dioses de por medio. De todos modos, del nuevo
arquetipo así logrado queda ese juego de pecado-castigo-gracia enunciado en el prólogo-epílogo, todo el
resto la moderna prehistoria de la tierra y sus edades lo tiene por pura ficción. Pero el relator bíblico, que
escribía la historia antigua de la humanidad, no podía prescindir de un “hecho histórico” aceptado por
aquella sociedad. Lo asumió y lo transfiguró creando un nuevo arquetipo literario en la perspectiva de su
religión “moral”, de su Dios justo y benévolo, no caprichoso.
6. Cf. W.G. Lambert – A.R. Millard, Atra-ḫasis. The Baylonian Story of the Flood. With the Sumerian Flood Story by M.
Civil (Oxford 1969); R.M. Best, Noah’s Ark and the Ziusudra Epic (Winona Lake IN, 1999).

LA BIBLIA Y SU INTERTEXTUALIDAD
2.3. La novela de José y el relato del Éxodo

Un caso similar de intertextualidad casi a nivel de plagio lo ofrece la llamada Novela de José (Gn.
37–48), seguida del relato del Éxodo bajo Moisés (Ex. 1ss.), por la que se objetiva la gran experiencia
histórica de Israel, de su creación como pueblo y a la vez la de su arraigo egipcio como tal pueblo. El
relato adquiere ahora tintes claramente épicos, como corresponde a todo recuento de los orígenes de una
nación. El típico nómada sin nombre ni patria que baja a Egipto para calmar su hambre se introduce, casi
se cuela diríamos, en la misma corte del Faraón en virtud de la propia valía moral de su clan. Y el
arquetipo que se adopta para orquestar este ascenso no es otro que la Novela de los dos hermanos, bien
conocida en el Levante bajo el influjo cultural de Egipto7 –no se olvide que de éste le llega su gran agio
cultural-literario, el alfabeto–. El arquetipo estaba dado y el relator hebreo no disponía de nada en su
tradición literaria que lo igualase. Lo adopta y de nuevo lo transforma según su ideario religioso: su héroe
es un protegido y asistido de su Dios que le dota de cualidades y poderes que le abren el paso hasta el
mismo Faraón. Pero es sobre todo su rectitud lo que le ensalza. Y así, de un relato diríamos de vidas
privadas con final más bien fantástico el relator bíblico crea un marco épico que aboca a la salvación y
creación de una nación. Y si su salvación como tribu resulta de su entrada en la corte del rey de Egipto, su
liberación final como pueblo saldrá de esa misma corte por medio esta vez no de un ministro de palacio,
sino de un “hijo” de la familia real, el increíble Moisés, que Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Zora N.
Hurston y otros varios autores han tenido por un “mulato”, un hebreo-egipcio8. Uno pensaría que el
personaje literario es de pura extracción hebrea. Pues bien, hace años el Prof. John C. de Moor publicó
una obra9 en la que descubría el personaje Moisés bajo la figura del Visir rebelde Beya. Su aventura se
relata en diferentes textos egipcios, estelas, papiros, etc., y ha pasado por lo general desapercibida a la
exégesis bíblica. Sin embargo ambas figuras son asombrosamente coincidentes en sus avatares históricos
–los que supusieron la sucesión del faraón Seti II y los reinados de Sethnakht y Tausret-Siptah– y sobre
todo en su actitud religiosa, que enemistó a Beya con la autoridad faraónica y forzó su éxodo a
Transjordania, hasta el punto de que el exégeta De Moor, profesor de A.T. en la Facultad Protestante de
Teología de Kampen, llega a afirmar que si no son el mismo personaje, hemos de admitir que hubo en el
mismo lugar y en el mismo momento dos personajes con la misma trayectoria vital. La “historia” de Beya
tiene en el aquel contexto egipcio el valor de una proclama política en el ámbito de las luchas dinásticas
que conmovieron a aquel país. Se ofrece así como un arquetipo de relato de sublevación / liberación:
arranca de la misma corte regia –el juego está entre nobles y generales–, pasa por la descripción de la
opresión del poder reinante, implica una revuelta que acaba en fuga con la consiguiente persecución del
ejército real y se consuma con la escapada al desierto y el refugio en la Transjordania del norte, en la
provincia egipcia de Upe / Basán. Es claro que este marco épico lo completa el relator hebreo con sus
propias tradiciones de lucha con los pueblos vecinos y sobre todo lo usa para encuadrar la otra gran
función de Moisés, la de legislador. Cumplida la cual el personaje se esfuma y no vuelve a aparecer en la
Biblia, que será en realidad la Biblia del rey David –presente y futuro de la nación– no la de Moisés, hasta
la época rabínica –a partir del Exilio–, cuando la historia se de por acabada y solo perdure la norma. El
7. Cf. J. López, “Los dos hermanos”, en J. López, Cuentos y fábulas del Antiguo Egipto (Pliegos de Oriente 9; Madrid –
Barcelona 2005), pp. 125-136.
8. Cf. S. Freud, Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische Religion (1937), versión inglesa de Moses und Monotheism
(Amsterdam 1939); Th. Mann, Das Gesetz (Stockholm 1944), hay versión en español (1972); Z. N. Hurston, Moses, Man of the
Mountain (New York 1939). O simplemente un “constructo” egipcio; cf. J. Assman, Moisés el egipcio, Madrid 2004 (vs. esp.).
9. Cf. J. C. de Moor, The Rise of Yahwism. The Roots of Israelite Montheism (BEThL 91; Leuven 1997).

relato egipcio ha cumplido en mi opinión una función literaria de primer orden: la de permitir al pueblo
hebreo elaborar su propia épica nacional(-religiosa) de manera sorprendentemente egregia: nace de una
confrontación con el gran poder de la zona, Egipto, y asume el rango de gran nación.
2.4. Profecía y lírica

A partir de entonces el relato bíblico se repliega a las propias tradiciones que organiza según el
esquema que dimana de su religión concebida como compromiso-Alianza con las consecuencias
inherentes al propio comportamiento. Se advierten, con todo, motivos tomados del ámbito cultural;
incluso la “historia sincrónica” tiene modelo mesopotámico. Pero el relato se convierte en crónica,
familiar diríamos, hecha desde una visión reduccionista y un enfoque interpretativo rígido, implacable,
impuesto por la experiencia exílica. No hay lugar para la literatura y su inexorable intertextualidad: la
experiencia de la propia historia no tiene perspectiva exterior. O mejor dicho: sí que la tiene en los
géneros que no se refieren a la crónica interna: profecía y lírica. La primera, tan típica y propia del mundo
bíblico –la Biblia se presenta como palabra divina, esencialmente hecha verbo profético– tiene su modelo
formal, y posiblemente no cabe otro, en la profecía mesopotámica –Asiria y Mari–, como ya en su día
dejó claro Claus Westermann10 y han resaltado abundantes estudios posteriores11. Es como si Dios no
pudiese hablar de otra manera: esquema oracular y contenidos religiosos son coincidentes. Pero es sobre
todo en la lírica sacra donde la intertextualidad bíblico-oriental es patente. Todas las formas de poema
sacro, de salmo, tienen su modelo en las literaturas orientales. Incluso de algún salmo (Sal. 29) se ha
pensado que proviene tal cual de la lírica cananea12. Pero quizá sea en los salmos penitenciales y de
lamento donde la dependencia arquetípica sea más manifiesta, hasta el extremo de poder intercambiarse
en las respectivas colecciones, siempre con las precisas correcciones que impone el rígido monoteísmo
bíblico13. Se trata de modelos tan universales que explican su utilización incluso en nuestros días como
expresiones de la espiritualidad moderna, del folklore profano incluso. Un caso especialmente
sorprendente, por unificar historia y expresión lírica, lo constituyen las Lamentaciones por la Jerusalén
destruida. Con ellas el relator bíblico se remonta a una tradición milenaria que se lamentó de similares
desgracias con el mismo tono y efusión verbal ya en el tercer milenio a.C. Jerusalén entra así en el
catálogo de las grandes urbes que hicieron historia, a partir del prototipo que ofrece la ciudad de Ur14. El
individuo particular, israelita y babilonio, por su parte derrama su pena ante su dios usando los mismos
interrogantes ante su olvido y las mismas súplicas reclamando su intervención urgente ante el ataque de
sus adversarios. Aquí habríamos quizá de hablar más que de inter-textualidad, de “inter-animidad”. El
abandono existencial del hombre genera un grito similar en todas las culturas.
10. Cf. Cl. Westerrmann, Grundformen prophetischer Rede (Beiträge zur Evangelischer Theologie 31; München 1960).
Véase también A. Rofé, The Prophetical Stories (Publications of the Perry Foundation for Biblical Research; Jerusalem 1988).
11. Cf. entre otros autores F. Ellermeier, Prophetie in Mari und Israel (Herzberg 1968); E. Noort, Untersuchungen zur
Gottesbescheid in Mari (Neukirchen–Vluyn 1977); A. Malamat, Mari and the Early Israelite Experience (Oxford 1989); L.
Cagni, Le profezie di Mari (Brescia 1995); J.M. Sasson, “About ‘Mari and the Bible’”, RA 92 (1998) 97-123.
12. Cf. J.L. Cunchillos, Estudio del Salmo 29. Canto al Dios de la fertilidad-fecundidad… (Institución San Jerónimo 5;
Valencia 1976); O. Loretz, Psalm 29. Kanaanäische El- und Baaltraditionen in jüdischer Sicht (UBL 2; Altenberge 1984).
13. Cf. la obra clásica de H. Gunkel, Introducción a los Salmos (Clásicos de la Ciencia Bíblica 1; Valencia 1983); Ed. R.
Daglish, Psalm Fifty-One. In the Light of Ancient Near East Patternims (Leiden 1962).
14. Cf. S. Kramer, Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur (AS 12; Chicago 1940).

2.5. Literatura sapiencial

Pero donde la intertextualidad bíblica adquiere un nivel más explícito es en el género que hemos
dado en llamar sapiencial, una de cuyas características ya advirtió en su día Von Rad es la
“universalidad”15. Al hablar de la lírica hemos insinuado que algunas de sus piezas podían intercambiarse
en las diferentes colecciones, bíblicas y extrabíblicas. Pues bien, ese caso se da de manera abierta y
confesa en el género proverbial. El Libro de los Proverbios se ha apropiado de colecciones extranjeras,
que atribuye a sus autores no hebreos, incluso de una sección de la egipcia Enseñanza de Amenémope (Pr.
22, 17-24, 22), como es bien sabido16. En este caso tampoco hablaríamos de intertextualidad propiamente
tal, sino de simple apropiación o cita larga, más que de plagio, pues el material era bien conocido. Esto
nos recuerda el sorprendente fenómeno que nos ofrece Calderón en su comedia “Los cabellos de
Absalón”, en la que se reproduce como uno de sus actos el respectivo de “La venganza de Tamar”, de
Tirso de Molina, no sabemos en virtud de qué acuerdo o usurpación. A su vez la literatura oriental nos ha
dejado colecciones de proverbios morales que podrían haber también entrado en la miscelánea bíblica tal
cual17. Nos presenta incluso alguno de ellos según la fórmula paternal bení, “hijo mío”, tan típica del
género. Por lo demás, la lírica no sacro-cultual, la narrativa midráshica y la literatura proverbial
manifiestan también un alto nivel de intertextualidad. Es bien conocida la dependencia del Cantar de los
Cantares respecto de la poesía amorosa egipcia, aunque la espontaneidad y universalidad de la
experiencia que refleja aconseja no insistir demasiado en tal dependencia y otorgar un alto grado de
autonomía a la expresión bíblica. Lo mismo pude decirse del posible reflejo de la concepción cananea de
Baal como “esposo de la tierra” en Os. 2, concepción que está a su vez a la base de la interpretación /
aceptación alegórica del Cantar y de su introducción en el lenguaje místico (el matrimonio espiritual;
véase más abajo). En el otro gran producto de la poética sapiencial bíblica, el Libro de Job, la
intertextualidad se manifiesta de manera más clara, aun tratándose también de un tema / experiencia
igualmente universal: El justo doliente18. El poema babilónico de este nombre ofrece un antecedente
literario bien conocido en el Antiguo Oriente y pudo servir de pauta para situar al personaje y su
problema, mientras el desarrollo sistemático dramático de la tesis teológica es un producto típicamente
hebreo sin parangón conocido19. Aquí como en otras muchas ocasiones el nuevo arquetipo eclipsa sus
modelos precedentes. Una intertextualidad más clara la observamos en el caso de la narrativa sapiencial
de tema similar, el Libro de Tobías, cuya referencia a la parte narrativa de la Novela de Ahiqar20, que
parece conocer, resulta ineludible, quizá como su contra-modelo, mientras la sección de dichos y
proverbios se insertaría como una colección más de este género al que nos hemos referido más arriba. La
obra era bien conocida en el mundo judío postexílico. En el caso de relatos bíblicos como los de Ester y
15. G. von Rad, Sabiduría en Israel (Madrid 1985, tr.), pp. 379ss.
16. Cf. A. Marzal, La enseñanza de Amenemope (Madrid 1965).
17. Cf. W.G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (Oxford 1960) 222ss.; en este sentido son de sumo interés, por su
proximidad histórica y cultural, los textos provenientes de Ugarit. cf. D. Arnaud, Corpus des Textes de Bibliotèque de Ras
Shamra-Ougarit (1936-2000) (AuOr Supp 23; Sabadell 2007), pp. 139ss.
18 Cf. W.G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, pp. 21-62.
19. J.C. De Moor, The Rise of Yahwism, pp. 131ss. considera el Libro de Job una obra de posible origen cananeo y al
personaje Job un trasunto del Ayyabu de las cartas de El-Amarna, desgraciado reyezuelo de la región de Basán, zona
especialmente significativa en la tradición cananea y que al parecer ha conservado hasta nuestros días un remedo de aquella
tradición (la tumba del Sheikh al-miskīn).
20. Véase el texto traducido por H.L. Ginsberg en J.B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old
Testament (Princeton NJ 1955), pp. 427-430.

Judit, esencialmente literarios, no sería descabellado presuponer igualmente arquetipos antiguo-orientales,

pero de relatos centrados en la mujer como protagonista el Oriente Antiguo no nos ha transmitido
ejemplos.
2.6. Literatura escatológica

Para poner punto final a este somero recorrido, bien conocido por lo demás, que ha buscado dejar
clara la inserción de la Biblia Hebrea en la experiencia existencial y en el relato del Antiguo Oriente,
vamos a referirnos a un tipo de su intertextualidad poco reconocido y donde el relato bíblico podría
parecer nuevo y sin precedentes. Me refiero al cuadro escatológico básico que dará paso a una desbordada
creación literaria en época intertestamentaria, pero que tiene ya sus antecedentes bíblicos en el Libro de
Isaías. Dada la naturaleza de las religiones orientales, religiones naturales basadas en el ciclo de la
fertilidad, el horizonte escatológico no ofrece significación alguna. Para ellas el sentido del cosmos se
solventa en los orígenes, en la “protología”, el resto es repetición sin fin; la historia, el hacer humano, no
camina más allá de sí misma. Pues bien, es a esa protología concebida como una lucha primordial entre
fuerzas antagónicas, entre dioses y monstruos, a la que recurre la Biblia para orquestar su visión del final
de la historia y el inicio del nuevo eón, la “escatología”. En este caso no solo el tema sino su formulación
literal está tomada del mito baálico21. Resulta sorprendente encontrar en Is. 27:1 (cf. 51:9; Sal. 74:14;
104:26; Job 3:8; 40:25) la mención de “Leviatán (lwytn), el dragón-serpiente huidiza, Leviatán, la dragón-
serpiente escurridiza, el dragón (tannîn) del mar”, con el que se las verá Yahwe “en aquel día”. La figura
pasaría a la apocalíptica cristiana, es el “draco habens capita septem…, serpens antiquus” (Ap. 12, 3; 20,
2) y se ha convertido en un ingrediente de nuestra cultura. Pues bien, tal expresión y nombre definen al
enemigo al que se enfrenta en la protología cananea el dios de la vida y la fertilidad, Baal, y al que vence,
asegurando el triunfo de la vida. El dios Mot se lo echa en cara: “cuando aplastaste a Lotán, la serpiente
huidiza, acabaste con la serpiente escurridiza, el ‘tirano’ de siete cabezas…” (KTU 1.5 I 1-3; véase KTU
1.3 III 40-42, aquí el monstruo es Tunnanu, el Tannin de la Biblia)22. Pero la cosa no acaba aquí. La rica
protología cananea, por muy ahistórica que se la suponga, no podía ignorar el hecho de la muerte. Lo
incorpora en la forma de un dios, Mot, el gran enemigo de Baal, como lo hacen otras cosmogonías
orientales, p. e. la fenicia23. Esta teomaquia primordial entre el dios de la vida y el de la muerte, entre la
vida y la muerte, de un dios que muere por salvar la vida, que baja al infierno, el reino de la Muerte, para
volver triunfante del mismo, tiene su contra-reflejo en la esperanza cristiana que en la plenitud de los
tiempos, escatología por tanto, nos presenta, según la formulación de Pablo (1Cor. 15:54) a Cristo
luchando contra la “Muerte” personificada y venciéndola: “La muerte ha sido aniquilada definitivamente.
¿Dónde está Muerte tu victoria?... Gracias sean dadas a Dios que nos da la victoria por medio del Señor
nuestro Jesucristo”. La diferencia será con todo sustancial: el modelo, si de hecho se lo utilizó, fue de
21. Cf. G. del Olmo Lete, “Ugarit e Israel. La religión de la vida y de la muerte”, en J. Campos Santiago – V. Julián Pastor
(eds.), Congreso Internacional: “Biblia, Cultura Histórica y Encrucijada de Culturas” (Salamanca 2002), Zamora 2004, pp.
149-156.
22. Cf. G. del Olmo Lete, Mitos y leyendas de Canaán según la tradición de Ugarit (Fuentes de la Ciencia Bíblica 1; Madrid
1981) 213ss.; C. Uehlinger, “Leviathan”, en K. Van der Toon, et al., (eds.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible
(Leiden – Boston – Köln 19992), pp. 511-515.
23. G. del Olmo Lete, “Los mitos siro-cananeos de creación”, en M.L. Sánchez de León (ed.), Religions del món antic. La
Creació (Segon sicle de conferències; Palma 2002), pp. 63-87.

nuevo remodelado y cambiado en un arquetipo de sentido diferente: de la fertilidad recurrente a la inmor-

talidad eterna. Baal vence a la Muerte de manera provisional, el combate debe repetirse cada año, la
muerte no es abolida nunca, está ahí siempre presente, es de hecho “inmortal”, la existencia humana no
puede escapar a la dialéctica de la alternancia vida-muerte. La victoria de Cristo, en cambio, se anuncia
total y definitiva, su muerte-resurrección anula a la “Muerte” de una vez por todas. Pero se trata de
horizontes antropológicos diferentes que aquí no corresponde desarrollar. Con todo es claro que dentro de
su heterogeneidad última los dos modelos (el del “dios que muere y resucita” y el de “Cristo Redentor”)
mantienen una notable simetría descriptiva que sugiere una clara intertextualidad a nivel de arquetipo
literario. A este respecto no se ha de olvidar que en la Fenicia del siglo I a.C., en la frontera con la Galilea
del N.T., se celebraba cada año, en Tiro, el festival de la égersis de Baal en el que se recogía y actualizaba
esta ideología cananea24.
3. Intertextualidad descendente
Es hora ya de que pasemos al segundo sentido de la intertextualidad bíblica, la que llamábamos

descendente, esa a la que nos referimos normalmente cuando nos planteamos el tema de “La Biblia en la
Literatura”. Partimos ahora de la Biblia como hecho literario consolidado y con valor propio, al margen
de su prehistoria, y como prototipo descriptivo de situaciones en ella relatadas. Al mantener su carácter
prototípico en culturas que la aceptan como norma religiosa indiscutida, esta intertextualidad no abocará a
la creación de nuevos prototipos que la transciendan o anulen, ningna creación que parta de ella la
suplantará, el prototipo bíblico quedará siempre como primordial y “clásico”. Prescindimos aquí de todo
el nivel de “representación” (predominante en la Edad Media y el Barroco: “misterios”, “autos”, “teatro
de colegio”) así como del de “reconstrucción” (“novela histórica”). Estos niveles pertenecen a la intertex-
tualidad descendente de “grado cero”25: no hay propiamente “intertexto” sino simple reelaboración del
texto mismo. No obstante se ha de tener en cuenta, en el caso de aparentes “novelas históricas”, que
puede haber obras de este género en las que el texto bíblico es un “pre-texto” de un análisis de la realidad
que aquéllas transmiten en una dimensión que transciende el relato que sirve de punto de partida. Me
permito aducir la obra de Th. Mann, Joseph und seine Brüder (1933-1943)26 como ejemplo egregio de tal
intertextualidad “historizante”. La preocupación por este tipo de intertextualidad bíblica estuvo ya más o
menos presente en los grandes comentarios, pero fue sobre todo a partir de la creciente preocupación por
la “Biblia como Literatura”, a partir de los años 40 del siglo pasado cuando se incrementó de manera muy
notable el análisis de la presencia de la Biblia en las diferentes literaturas nacionales27, en los diversos
géneros e incluso en autores concretos. Yo mismo me preocupé hace años de compilar, como ayuda a mis
24. Cf. G. del Olmo Lete, El continuum cultural cananeo. Pervivencias cananeas en el mundo fenicio-púnico (AuOrSupp
14; Sabadell 1996), pp. 77-80.
25. Tanto la “representación” (teatro) como la “novela histórica” (narrativa) se habrían de enmarcar en el primero de los
cinco tipos de “relations transtextuelles” que enumera Genette (Palimpsestes, p. 8), mientras el uso “prototípico” de un texto co-
rresponde a su tipo cuarto (“hypertextualité”), que supone un “hipertexto” y su correspondiente “hipotexto” en un proceso de
“transformación diegética y pragmática”, relativa al universo-marco y a la acción en sí respectivamente (pp. 341ss.), proceso del
que la correlación entre la Odisea de Homero y el Ulises de Joyce (pp. 355-357) es un ejemplo “prototípico”.
26. Cf. la versión española de J. Parra: Th. Mann, José y sus hermanos, vols. I-IV (Madrid 2000-2011).
27. Un ejemplo egregio a este respecto lo constituye la obra de D.L. Jeffrey, A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English
Literature (Gran Rapids MI 1992).

alumnos de la asignatura “La Biblia en la Literatura” (“Literatura y Mito I”), una guía bibliográfica que
recogiese, siguiendo el orden de los “libros” bíblicos y sus protagonistas, las obras de la literatura
universal (poesía, teatro y narrativa) que o bien “representan” el relato bíblico o bien “interpretan” la
realidad humana desde el mismo como arquetipo (un empeño claramente inabarcable). Tal guía ha ido
incesantemente incrementándose y puede servir para lograr una primera impresión de lo descomunal del
fenómeno. En nuestros días se han compilado enciclopedias de varios volúmenes sobre “La recepción de
la Biblia”28 y sobre “La presencia de la Biblia en la Cultura”29, e incluso está en prensa un “Diccionario
enciclopédico de la Biblia en la Literatura Universal”30. Dejando de lado el sistemático tratamiento de ese
cúmulo de obras esbozado en la mentada guía, vamos a fijarnos en tres relatos bíblicos que han alcanzado
en nuestro mundo cultural, más o menos religioso judeo-cristiano, una significación que transciende
incluso la creación literaria para alcanzar un valor antropológico de primer orden. En concreto nos
referimos a la “Vida de Adán y Eva” como prototipo existencial, al “Éxodo” como modelo político y al
“Cantar” como la osadía verbal del lenguaje místico.
3.1. Adán y Eva

La “Vida de Adán y Eva”, dejando de lado su versión apócrifa, desde el drama de inspiración
roussoniana de Friedrich G. Klopstock, Der Tod Adams (1757), a la novela de Pío Baroja El árbol de la
ciencia (1911)31, desde Marc Twain (1892-)32 a Gioconda Belli (2008)33, pasando por Imre Madách
(1862)34, Bernard Shaw (1921)35, George Tabori (1991)36 y otros varios, se ha tomado como el modelo
simbólico de la existencia humana y sus momentos decisivos. En un relato ingenuo y casi fabulesco, que
ha quedado como plasmación imprescindible, la Biblia nos ofrece una captación genial de los aspectos
esenciales que determinan y agitan la existencia humana y que ha “inspirado” obras de una intensidad
literaria realmente de primer grado. La intertextualidad es aquí manifiesta y explícita, incluso diríamos
que transciende la noción misma de “intertextualidad del prototipo” para alcanzar el sentido de “tesis
resumida y encriptada” en un simbolismo casi plástico, que está reclamando su desarrollo, un texto que se
hace “pre-texto” manifiesto. Recuérdese a este propósito la cita de Steiner aducida más arriba. Adán y
Eva es el “hombre” (’ādām), somos nosotros, todo lo que se pueda decir a ese propósito resulta algo “déjà
vu”. Atención especial recibirá el tema del origen del mal. El mal viene del maligno que aparece de
repente en el mismo Paraíso y se halla en constante acecho para extraviar a los hijos de Dios y malograr
28. J.M. Klauck et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of the Bible Reception (Berlín 2009-).
29. A. Beavis, N.J. Gilmour, Dictionary of the Bible and Western Culture (Sheffield 2012); Ph. Culbertson, E.M.
Wainwright (eds.), The Bible in/and Popular Culture: A Creative Encounter (Atlanta 2010).
30. Cf. S. Parizet (ed.), La Bible dans les Littératures du Monde. Dictionnaire (París, en prensa: Les éditions du cerf).
31. Cf. P. Baroja, El árbol de la ciencia (Letras Hispánicas 225; Madrid 1994). En ésta el autor lleva a cabo una utilización
arquetípica del tema bíblico como esquema antropológico válido para formular la antinomia vida / ciencia, como futuro
ineludible del hombre, y a la postre la dialéctica histórica tradición / progreso, ciencia / religión. El tratamiento explícito del
tema se lleva a cabo en un capítulo central, pero el planteamiento resuena en toda la obra.
32. Cf. M. Twain, The Diaries of Adam & Eve (1892-; versión española El diario de Adán y Eva, Madrid 2005). Una
edición-versión más crítica y anotada de los diferentes textos de M. Twain la ofrece R. Santervás, La Biblia según Mark Twain
(Avatares 50; Madrid 2002).
33. Cf. G. Belli, El infinito en la palma de la mano (Premio Biblioteca Breve 2008; Barcelona 2008).
34. Cf. I. Madách, Az ember tragédiája (1862; versión española La tragedia del hombre, Corvina 1978).
35. Cf. B. Shaw, Back to Methuselah. A Metabiological Pentateuch (Harmondsworth 1921).
36. Cf. G. Tabori, Die Goldberg-Variationen (1991; versión española Las variaciones Goldberg, Adriana Hidalgo ed. 2003).

su obra. El mal, como el bien (divino), tienen un origen extraterrestre, vienen del Más allá, o lo que es lo
mismo, tienen una consistencia o polaridad absoluta: “está ahí” y por eso no sabemos “de dónde viene”,
por que no viene… El mal sale al paso a Dios en su propia obra ya desde el principio.
En nuestros mismos días la “vida de Adán y Eva” ha continuado seduciendo la pluma de otros
muchos escritores, como le pasó a Marc Twain, por la oportunidad que les ofrecía el relato bíblico de
imaginar y completar los temas y situaciones básicas de la existencia humana que allí se esbozan de
manera simple y sucinta. En ese marco alucinante del jardín de Edén se ve nacer la conciencia humana y
enfrentarse a todos los parámetros esenciales: la vida y la belleza, la soledad y la relación con los demás
seres vivos, la palabra y el ordenamiento del mundo, la ley y la libertad, el amor entre hombre y mujer y
sus exigencias, la seducción y el pecado, el dolor y la muerte, etc. Todo en estado germinal y sin apenas
elaboración conceptual, en estado primario y simbólico, como material fácilmente maleable. Y por
encima de todo está la aparición del hombre histórico, su caída, como un proyecto frustrado que deja
supurando en carne viva la imagen de lo que pudo ser y no fue, como un destino orientado desde los
inicios a la tragedia y el dolor. Dejando aparte obras como las de Platts Rutherford H., The Forgotten
Books of Eden (1927), E. Pagels, Adam, Eve and the Serpent (1989), P. Norris, Eve a biography (1998),
probablemente el tratamiento más espectacular de la primera pareja y su destino como encarnación del
destino del hombre en su historia es el que nos ofrece el gran poeta y dramaturgo húngaro, citado más
arriba, I. Madách, Az ember tragédiája (La tragedia del hombre) (1862/1978). Con una técnica de flash-
back-and-front (que ya preconizaba Victor Hugo en su La legende des siècles [1859], que
paradigmatizaba Bernard Shaw en su Back to Methuselah [1921], y que retomará M. Vicent en su Balada
de Caín [1987]). Madách hace reencarnarse a Adán y Eva en sucesivas épocas y situaciones históricas
para someterlas a un enjuiciamiento crítico y valorar su sentido como respuesta al destino humano del que
ellos son el paradigma original. Su visión es certera y su pensamiento de plena actualidad. A su vez una
breve pero aguda y desenfadada versión del relato bíblico (Gn. 1–4) la ofrece el autor francés Michel
Tournier en La famille Adam (1978). Las antinomias que plantean aquellas primeras figuras de hombre y
sus comportamientos originales quedan al desnudo.
Después de tan abundante manoseo del tema podría suponérselo agotado. Pues no. Vamos a
detenernos un momento en una obra reciente que resulta un prodigio de frescura e imaginación creadora:
la más arriba citada de la escritora nicaragüense Gioconda Belli, El infinito en la palma de la mano
(2008). Como en un relato apócrifo de los primeros momentos de la pareja primordial, pero que respeta el
escenario que sugiere el relato bíblico, asistimos al despertar del hombre a la vida (arrojado del Paraíso, la
gran ilusión: ficción y anhelo) y al encuentro, pertrechado ya con todos los parámetros primordiales
mentados, a su amanecer a todas las cosas y también a las contradicciones y contrasentidos de la creación.
Hay que transgredir para obtener sabiduría, matar para vivir, ser cruel con los seres vivos tus semejantes.
El relato mantiene todo a lo largo de sus páginas un nivel de gran frescura y inmensa capacidad de
metáfora, alcanzando cotas de gran calidad en la descripción y descubrimiento del “conocimiento” y
ejercicio de la sexualidad, de la belleza y su atracción, de las funciones del propio cuerpo y de la
sensación del tiempo, así como en la del lamento por la cadena trófica que obliga a la madre Eva, la
madre de la vida, a aprender a comer carne de muerte. Estimo que estamos ante un espléndido ejemplo de
relato parabíblico que desentraña a nivel prototípico las implicaciones descriptivas y antropológicas que
el original entraña. Aquí no se trata de una novela histórica, puesto que no hay una historia que
reconstruir, sino un reinvención o desvelamiento de las implicaciones existenciales que el elemental

relato bíblico insinúa o deja entrever. Eso sí, dentro de un encuadre descriptivo que respeta el que éste
supone. Estamos ante intertextualidad en estado puro.
3.2. Moisés y el Éxodo de Egipto

Por su parte la utilización de la épica del Éxodo de los hebreos de Egipto como arquetipo de
movimientos de liberación resulta una obviedad cultural. Para no hablar más que de nuestro inmediato
contexto, desde la emancipación de los esclavos y su redoblado eco en la música “blue” hasta la Teología
de la Liberación el Éxodo de Egipto es un referente constante y prototípico. El reflejo socio-político de tal
referencia salta a la vista. Estamos ante una intertextualidad que transciende la esfera del relato, de la
literatura en sí, para ser asumido y revivido éste como programa de acción reivindicativa, casi subversiva,
revolucionaria. Una caso prototípico en el que se combina la esfera literaria con la política de manera
total y eficaz, es decir, con efectos reales en el desarrollo posterior del destino del grupo que lo asumió, es
el del “Mito de los orígenes de la Nación (norte-)Americana” a la que nos referiremos con más detención
más abajo. El relato bíblico en sí ha alcanzado su expresión plástica más llamativa en el film de DeMille,
Los diez mandamientos, mientras la transfiguración literaria más poderosa, a mi modo de ver, es la de
Thomas Mann en su novela “Las tablas de la Ley”37.
El texto bíblico no es asumido por Th. Mann en su valor facial sino que es leído desde la
interpretación crítica que la exégesis y la historiografía oriental ya ofrecían en su momento. La
recreación, por tanto, no será repetitiva o decorativa, sino interpretativa, descubridora del sentido y
verosimilitud históricos. De todos modos, a su autor no le interesa sin más hacer un “comentario” al texto
para ponerlo en su lugar, ordenarlo, sino que trata de “componer” un relato coherente y global con las
“noticias” o retazos que el texto bíblico ofrece, lo cual implica la recomposición de todo el “virtual
implícito” histórico, antropológico y psicológico de las situaciones esbozadas; es decir, hacer de un
retablo más o menos colorista de escenas fijas una secuencia “cinematográfica” en el sentido etimológico
de la palabra: el movimiento continuo de una existencia humana de valor prototípico universal, una
situación histórica con sentido decisivo para el futuro del hombre, lo cual supone su reinterpretación a
fondo, bajar al “pozo del pasado” que según Mann es de una “profundidad” alucinante38.
Th. Mann nos ofrece un Moisés “mulato”, un ser desplazado en su entorno, condición que quedaría
plasmada en el “medio nombre” egipcio que le impusieron: Moisés, el “hijo”, sin que se supiera exacta-
mente de quién. Destruye así en el personaje central el mito de la raza y el posible orgullo que puede
desprenderse para su pueblo como generador del personaje con misión universal. En aquel contexto crece
la conciencia de su misión que llega a objetivarse en la visión alucinante: la de la zarza incombustible. El
impulso del reformador religioso y el del libertador político se entrelazan inextricablemente. Incluso sus
momentos de desfallecimiento se transforman en ocasión de afirmación de su voluntad de redención de su
pueblo: ésta “en nada se diferenciaba de la de Dios, pues era una misma y única”. Se esboza, pues, una
37. Cf. Th. Mann, Das Gesetz (1945/1972; Las Tablas de la Ley, Barcelona 1972). Para lo siguiente remitimos a G. del
Olmo Lete, “Representación y Arquetipo en Thomas Mann ‘Las tablas de la Ley’”: Anuari de Filologia 20/E/ (1997) 95-108.
Sobre el film The Ten Commandments y el despliegue en el mismo del mito americano de “Israel-América” véase el comentario
en la obra de M. Wright citada en n. 37, en particular pp. 104ss.
38. “Hondo es el pozo del pasado. Es más, podríamos llamarlo insondable. y esta afirmación también es válida, tal vez más
nunca, cuando nuestra atención se dirige única y exclusivamente al pasado del ser humano”, Th. Mann, José y sus hermanos I.
Historias de Jacob (Barcelona 2002), p. 15.

personalidad carismática que se construye desde un impulso interior en el que la objetivación religiosa da
forma a una convicción personal. Incluso su momentáneo derrotismo ante “la misión recibida” se juzga
como una excusa, un disimulo, ante lo que es propia pretensión, configurada e interiorizada como “celo
divino”, la categoría que mantendrá también en pie a un Jeremías.
Así, este capítulo de la historia del Dios de Israel como historia de liberación y revelación acaba
siendo el capítulo primero de la historia del hombre regenerado, de la humanidad posible aunque
enormemente lejana. El código de esa nueva humanidad lo extrae Moisés de su conciencia iluminada por
el “Invisible” y lo plasma en la lengua de su pueblo, como no podía ser menos, pues a él lo destina en
primer lugar, pero lo cincela en una escritura que sirve para consignar cualquier lengua. Moisés es el
autor de los dos: del decálogo y del alfabeto. La distorsión es intencionada. La palabra lleva no solo en su
sentido sino incluso en su soporte y “simbolización” gráfica su valor universal. Como la raza, tampoco la
lengua es motivo de orgullo étnico: la consignación, su eficacia cultural, le viene dada de fuera: el escriba
Moisés, educado en las técnicas escribales de los pueblos del Oriente, descubre el sistema gráfico y
consigna con él “Las Tablas de la Ley” a partir del contexto cultural no hebreo. La universalización del
mensaje y del mensajero (el texto) queda así asumida.
Con genial percepción del sentido religioso del relato bíblico, Th. Mann ha remodelado personajes,
configurado su psicología e integrado actitudes, hasta conseguir una narración viva y verosímil del pasado
histórico-religioso de Israel. Y lo que es más, ha desvelado con fuerza el pragmatismo de la formulación
canónica de aquel momento: el sentido universal y perenne de “Las Tablas de la Ley”: “Todo aquél que
infrinja las divinas leyes, desde ahora en adelante, sentirá que se le hiela el corazón, porque la ley está
escrita en su sangre y en su carne, y sabrá que Su Palabra tiene valor”. O lo que es lo mismo, como
apuntábamos más arriba: cualquiera que en nuestro contexto cultural “suba al Monte” en busca de la
organización de la existencia humana bajará con “Las Tablas de la Ley”.
Pero con esta novela de Thomas Mann no se agota la recreación literaria del personaje Moisés y su
épica del Éxodo. A lo largo del siglo XX decenas y decenas de poemas y relatos, de autores cristianos y
judíos, han vuelto sobre el tema. Vamos a limitarnos a un autor y a un aspecto específico del tema al que
nos referíamos más arriba, como representativo de la amplitud de su influjo histórico: el prototipo
Moisés-Éxodo como configurador del espíritu nacional de América y como tal así vivido por sus
protagonistas. A diferencia de las épicas nacionales europeas que son rememorativas e idealizadoras, el
mito americano es presente y encarnado, vivido como conciencia del momento39: Europa es Egipto, los
europeos / ingleses son el moderno Faraón con sus ejércitos, América es la tierra prometida, alcanzada
después de una nuevo Éxodo y paso del mar a bordo del “Mayflower”, los colonos que huyen de la
esclavitud de una sociedad y práctica religiosa opresivas son el nuevo Israel. La Biblia les describe a
ellos, es su profecía, ellos su cumplimiento. Quizá una de las formulaciones más sorprendentes de este
mito que resuena en toda la literatura religiosa americana de los siglos XVII-XIX (sobre todo en los
sermones y literatura conductivista) la encontramos en la novela de William Faulkner Go down Moses
(1940; “Desciende Moisés”), por lo que tiene incluso de superación del estricto mito mosaico y su
absolutización: América no es solo la tierra prometida, es el Paraíso, la tierra primordial…, mito peligroso
si los hay. De una obra literaria con el título “Desciende Moisés” se esperaría una manifiesta presencia en
39. M.J. Wright, Moses in America. The Cultural Uses of Biblical Narrative (Oxford 2003). El libro se centra en el análisis
de tres obras paradigmáticas a tal efecto: el manifiesto político de L. Steffen, Moses in Red (1926), la novela de Hurston, Moses,
Man of the Mountain (1939) y el film de C.B. DeMille, The Ten Commandaments (1956).

ella de la figura bíblica. El caso es que ni el personaje ni su épos aparecen a lo largo de las páginas de la
novela. El título (propiamente del penúltimo episodio) es en cambio suficientemente explícito como para
dejar en claro el sentido arquetípico que el autor otorga al texto bíblico sobre su relato centrado en la
época que vivió el final de la guerra de secesión americana y la abolición de la esclavitud con el derrotado
Sur. La obra se centra en un retrato de plano fijo de ese momento de transición. No hay apenas “trama”:
se nos ofrece una pura descripción, la saga si se quiere, de una familia de colonos blancos y esclavos
negros que comparten tareas de explotación de la tierra, la plantación de algodón, la caza del oso y
mezclan a la vez su sangre en ese empeño. Junto a ellos, es la tierra misma del valle del Mississipi,
condado de Yoknapatawpha, el otro protagonista de la obra. El armazón narrativo se estructura como un
fabuloso doble relato de caza: del esclavo huido y de un viejo oso; y en ese escenario se inserta toda la
vivencia de los personajes. Resulta así una novela profundamente histórica como descripción de una
situación y una época, pero es a la vez pura literatura: cualquier dato o momento se convierte en materia
literaria que adquiere un alto y tenso valor descriptivo y recuerda las mejores creaciones del género
(Proust, Cortázar). A lo largo de esa intensa y con frecuencia dura inmersión estática (con paréntesis
larguísimos que frenan el relato para dejar en carne viva una situación personal o un dato del entorno) en
el ser y sentir de sus personajes, Faulkner revive toda una época de América, de su sociedad y su tragedia.
A lo largo de todo ese buceo en profundidad, apenas resuenan leves alusiones a la Biblia o a la vivencia
religiosa en general. Pero de repente (al final de “El oso”, apartado 4), cuando el relato está ya llegando a
su agotamiento dramático, cuando la caza ya acaba, aparece “Él”, el Creador, y su obra, la “tierra”, según
la describe el capítulo primero del Génesis. El relato-saga de los McCaslin se funde con el relato bíblico
de la creación del hombre y de la tierra. El dios bíblico se integra en ese relato y aflora su intención y
responsabilidad por haber creado esos hombres y esa tierra que adquiere la dimensión de la tierra de la
primera creación sin más. Esta absolutización del ser y destino del Sur arrastra consigo la mención y
apropiación de episodios bíblicos como el de Abrahán-Isaac y su sacrificio, así como el de Noé y el nuevo
orden que sigue al diluvio. Se lleva a cabo aquí una especie de “Teología del Sur” y a través de él de la
Nación americana como tierra predestinada a suplantar a Europa en el plan divino: una sorprendente, casi
alucinante formulación del mito fundacional americano en el que se encuadra el destino del pueblo indio,
el de los esclavos negros emancipados, incluso el de los judíos, que se insertan también en el destino
americano. El breve episodio último recoge la inserción frustrada del esclavo negro liberado del trabajo
extenuante en la plantación de algodón en el contexto de la sociedad urbana, que le aboca al crimen y así
a su ajusticiamiento. La abuela del chico lo interpreta como su venta al Faraón de Egipto (la sociedad
blanca de Chicago) en cuyo ámbito encuentra la muerte; ella consigue recuperar su cadáver para
devolverlo a la tierra de su esclavitud de la que no debió salir. Pero ésta es ya la historia de José –ella dice
Benjamín–, no de Moisés. En todo caso es una variante de la esclavitud-liberación de la que éste fue el
adalid y que en Faulkner revela toda su ambigüedad.
No cabe duda de que estamos ante una creación mayor de la Literatura en la que la Biblia mantiene
una presencia dialéctica soterrada, que para nada interrumpe ni interviene en la percepción de la realidad
histórica que la novela nos revela, pero que al fin irrumpe como el arquetipo, casi como el mito que mejor
explica su sentido último. Así la intertextualidad bíblica, no la de la mitología clásica, alcanza su nivel
más explícito en la pluma de un moderno creador de nuestro mundo cultural. Esta absorción del arquetipo
bíblico ha sido vivida tan intensamente por la sociedad americana que llegó a generar por reacción ante la
situación histórica el anti-mito. Así en 1926 el ya citado Lincoln Steffen, uno de los más conspicuos
representantes del movimiento radical revolucionario americano de inicios del siglo XX, publicaba su

Moses in red (1926) en el que analiza el relato del Éxodo como arquetipo de toda “revolú- ción” y, “a
contrapelo de la retórica popular que identificaba América con el Nuevo Israel (como tierra prometida y
como pueblo elegido para ser testigo de la voluntad divina en el mundo), se designa como tal al recién
establecido estado Bolchevique en Rusia”40. Ni que decir tiene que el libro fue atacado sin compasión ni
comprensión y acabó relegado al olvido. No fue capaz de producir un modelo que compitiera
adecuadamente con la visión socio-política vigente. La Biblia, no obstante, continuaba siendo el referente
hermenéutico de la realidad histórica. Y los americanos en su subconsciente (o quizá algo más arriba)
continúan “creyéndose” el pueblo elegido.
3.3. El Cantar de los Cantares

Por último vamos a referirnos someramente a la presencia arquetípica, a la intertextualidad que el
sorprendente “relato” bíblico que es el “Cantar” ha generado en nuestra literatura, en este caso en la
expresión poética mística. El mismo podría ser considerado como una dramatización de Gn. 2:18, que
asegura “que no es bueno que el hombre esté solo”; y de Gn. 2:23, que hace exclamar a Adán en su
encuentro con Eva: “ahora sí que ésta es hueso de mis huesos y carne de mi carne”; percepciones
primordiales de la realidad del amor humano, de la inocencia de la carne y del exaltado regodeo que el
encuentro y la complementariedad del hombre y la mujer suponían en el orden original de la creación.
Esto es lo que el “Cantar” dramatiza. Aquí radica su valor religioso: en el descubrimiento de un elemento
básico del gran orden de la creación como válido por sí mismo y, como tal, querido por Dios, en la más
pura línea de la reflexión sapiencial sobre la naturaleza e “inspirada” por ella, la sólida palabra divina a la
que hay que escuchar. Cabría incluso advertir en el “Cantar” una profunda intención teológica de liberar
esta realidad creada de toda connotación mítico-idolátrica en una percepción espontánea y directa de su
valor. Un caso más de ese ininterrumpido proceso desmitologizador que atraviesa toda la Biblia Hebrea, a
propósito de una realidad vivida en todo aquel universo religioso-cultural de manera sacralizada y con
frecuencia depravada. Es la secularidad de la sabiduría de Israel que se encuentra en otros casos, sobre
todo en su polo opuesto, el Libro del Qohelet. El hecho de haber sido asumido en el Canon de los Libros
Santos es el mejor reconocimiento de su valor religioso. Naturalmente que esta realidad humana, por ser
genuina y haber sido adecuadamente percibida, adquiere una capacidad significativa que va más allá de sí
misma, máxime cuando ya de hecho la antigua tradición bíblica la había usado en tal sentido, como
señalábamos más arriba a propósito del teologúmenon: “Yahweh, esposo de Israel”, que en el NT será el
de “la esposa y el Cordero” (Ap. 19:5-9). Por consiguiente, la aceptación de este material lírico en el
Canon ortodoxo estuvo sin duda precedido de una “relectura” que lo elevaba a la categoría de símbolo
religioso de la relación de Yahweh con su pueblo. Y en esta perspectiva lo leyeron la Iglesia cristiana y
sus místicos, los fieles de la experiencia religiosa radical, personalizando tal relación como la del alma
con su Dios en la unión mística: el matrimonio espiritual. De la pasión al éxtasis.
El místico incuba en su experiencia una tensión espiritual que cuando busca expresarse encuentra su
cauce más homogéneo en el lenguaje poético; se halla inmerso en una esfera de vivencias inefables que
sólo simbólicamente pueden decirse. Y el símbolo más adecuado es el que proporciona la vivencia del
amor humano, en gran manera ella misma inefable en su propio plano, con su isomórfica pretensión de
fusión y entrega, similar a la que configura la experiencia mística. Y es precisamente aquí, en el “Cantar”,
donde el místico cristiano encuentra justificado y legitimado tal lenguaje. No es pues de extrañar que los
40. Cf. M.J. Wright, Moses in America, p. 39.

más altos poetas místicos lo evoquen en sus creaciones literarias, que ahora pueden sin más definirse
como tales. Aparte, naturalmente, de los numerosos “comentarios” que del mismo se han hecho en tal
clave en la literatura mística cristiana, sin duda el caso por excelencia más significativo del uso
arquetípico del “Cantar” en un texto de creación es el Cántico espiritual de san Juan de la Cruz. No se
trata evidentemente de una traducción, ni siquiera de una “representación” de aquél al modo de los
“misterios” medievales (aunque a ello se prestaría, dado su carácter “dramático-dialogal”). Su autor hace
del mismo una utilización “prototípica” en el sentido más estricto. Asume su situación base: la relación
amorosa, como búsqueda tensa y encuentro venturoso, y muchas de sus imágenes y términos; incluso, en
casos en que su interpretación es absolutamente críptica en el texto hebreo, como en el caso de la mención
de “Aminadab” de la estrofa 40, como para dejar fuera de toda duda la fuente de su inspiración. Así
mismo, le es común con éste una cierta técnica de composición, que alterna las estrofas “personales” con
una voz en “off”, a modo del coro del “Cantar”, que comenta la situación. Como en el caso de las
unidades de éste, también en el Cántico se advierte falta de relación lógico-dramática entre las estrofas
(sólo raramente un par de ellas manifiestan secuencia argumental o sintáctica): cada una es suficiente en
sí misma, expresión de una vivencia concreta. Se crea así la impresión poética de una composición
múltiple y yuxtapuesta, paralela, a modo de las pinturas del Renacimiento flamenco (Del Bosco),
compuestas de escenas múltiples y autónomas en un contexto o paisaje que les da unidad. El Cántico
asume así del “Cantar” el clima y paisaje en que se juega el lance místico: amantes que proclaman su
amor (deseo y posesión) en un contexto de naturaleza embelesada. Será el propio autor, en su glosa en
prosa, el que deje bien clara la fuente de su inspiración literaria, como no podía ser menos en un creyente
y teólogo cristiano, que tiene en la Biblia la “Palabra de Dios”. Pero san Juan de la Cruz41 toma del
“Cantar” solamente aquello que concuerda con el sistema literario del Renacimiento –lengua e
imaginería– y rechaza o modifica todo lo demás. Es típica en todo el proceso de la intertextualidad esta
remodelación del arquetipo.
4. Intertextualidad subversiva
Acabamos así con la referencia a la literatura mística este breve escorzo de la intertextualidad de la
Biblia, sobre todo del Antiguo Testamento, tal y como se constata en obras de nuestra creatividad literaria
que encuentra en ella arquetipos sobre los que construir la expresión e interpretación de la propia
experiencia / vivencia en los campos de la antropología, la socio-política y la religión a la segunda
potencia. Pero antes de acabar, permítaseme añadir una nota final. A parte de los dos mencionados tipos
básicos de intertextualidad, ascendente y descendente de la Biblia en la Literatura, cabe señalar un tercer
tipo que definiríamos como intertextualidad subversiva, en el sentido etimológico del calificativo: “que da
la vuelta, pone del revés” el modelo. Me refiero a la de aquellas obras que toman el relato bíblico no para
“re-presentarlo” o “proto-tipificarlo”, sino para deshacerlo, cambiar su valor prototípico y darle un
significado opuesto. En este sentido la figura de Caín (y su relato), desde George Gordon Lord Byron
(1812)42 a José Saramago (2009)43, pasando por el Abel Sánchez de Miguel de Unamuno (1940)44 o The
41. Juan de Yepes – San Juan de la Cruz, El Cántico espiritual (clásicos españoles; Madrid 1995).
42. Cf. G.G. Lord Byron, Cain. A Mystery (London 1812; versión catalana, Caín. Un misteri, Barcelona 1997)
43. Cf. J. Saramago, Caim (Lisboa 2009; versión española, Caín, Madrid 2009)
44. Cf. M. de Unamuno, Abel Sánchez. Una historia de pasión (Colección Austral 102; Madrid 1990).

Very Model of a Man de Howard Jacobson (1992)45, ha sido presentada insistentemente como la figura
del auténtico hombre valiente y rebelde que no acepta su discriminación y cuestiona la justicia divina,
frente a su dócil y mimado hermano Abel al que nada le cuesta la existencia: todo lo tiene por gracia y
regalo. Curiosamente a Caín le presenta la misma Biblia como el padre de la ambigua creatividad
cultural: ciudades, riqueza, armas. Ella misma da pie a su “tergiversación”. Este tercer tipo de
intertextualidad muestra hasta qué punto los relatos bíblicos resultan prototípicos, paradigmáticos como
percepciones geniales, clásicas, y por tanto ineludibles, de las experiencias humanas primordiales.
Creo que ha llegado el momento de que el estudio y difusión de esta significación cultural y
antropológica del texto bíblico sea asumida como parte esencial de su comprensión, que los alumnos de
estudios bíblicos junto al manejo de gramáticas y diccionarios de lenguas bíblicas se empeñen en el
estudio de la literatura comparada y su metodología que les permita apreciar y proclamar la riqueza
cultural de los textos que manejan46. Hubo un tiempo en el que las Iglesias hicieron lengua y literatura de
la Biblia, traduciéndola y representándola. Hoy desde fuera de ellas se “literaturiza” la Biblia, que se hace
presente con sus tipos y arquetipos en el ámbito de la creación literaria. Este es un hecho que se debe
recoger como expresión moderna de la vigencia de lo religioso en la historia y sociedad humanas, cuando
otras manifestaciones del mismo están en crisis. La Biblia hecha literatura ayuda todavía al hombre a
comprenderse a sí mismo por que la comprensión que de él contiene no ha perdido vigencia.
45. Cf. H. Jacobson, The Very Model of a Man (Viking/Penguin1992)

46. Quizá sea este el momento en el que la ABE debería elaborar y elevar a instancias responsables un memorandum en ese
sentido.

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Bibliografiía

%REHV1DYHV0DUtDGHO&DUPHQTeoría del teatro, 0DGULG$UFR/LEURV
'H 0RRU -RKDQQHV &RUQHOLXV New Year with Canaanites and Israelites. Part One: Description.
Part Two: 7KHCanaanite Sources, .DPSHQ8LWJHYHUVPDDWVFKDSSLM-+.RN
'HO 2OPR /HWH *UHJRULR La vocación del líder en el antiguo Israel. Morfología de los relatos
bíblicos de vocación, 6DODPDQFD8QLYHUVLGDG3RQWLILFLD

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9HU - =H\HU Sulamit 3 +H\VH La sabiduría de Salomón $ &DSGHYLOD La sulamita -
*LUDXGRX[El Cantar de los Cantares

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'HO2OPR/HWH*UHJRULRLa Biblia Hebrea en la literatura moderna. Guía temática y bibliográfica,
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'XEDUOH$QGUp0DULH³/¶DPRXUKXPDLQGDQVOHCantique des Cantiques´ RB, SS

'XNRUH %HPDUG )UDQN Dramatic Theory and Criticism. Greeks to Grotowski, $XVWLQ 7( +ROW
5LQHKDUW :LQVWRQ
Encyclopaedia Judaica, -HUXVDOHP.HWHU
+DOSHP %DUXFK David’s Secret Demons Messiah, Murderer, Traitor; King, *UDQG 5DSLGV 0,
(HUGPDQV
+RRNH 6DPXHO +HQU\ HG Myth, Ritual, and Kingship: Essays on the Theory and Practice of
Kingship in the Ancient Near East and LQIsrael, 2[IRUG&ODUHQGRQ3UHVV
-HIIUH\ 'DYLG /\OH HG A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition LQ English Literature, *UDQG 5DSLGV
0,(HUGPDQV
.RZDO]LJ%DUEDUDSinging for the Gods. Performance of Myth and Ritnal in Archaic and Classical
Greece, 2[IRUG283
/DQGVEHUJHU)UDQ]³3RHWLF8QLWVZLWKLQWKHSong of Songs´ JBL, SS
/HY\6KLPRQThe Bible as Theatre, %ULJKWRQ6XVVH[$FDGHPLF3UHVV
6LGQHOO 0LFKHO - Sources of Dramatic Theory, YROV &DPEULGJH &DPEULGJH 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV

9DOEXHQD 3UDW ÈQJHO Don Pedro Calderón de la Barca. Obras Completas , Comedias, 0DGULG
$JXLODU
:LQDQG\-DFTXHVLe Cantique des Cantiques. Poeme d’amour mué en écrit de sagesse, 0DUHGVRXV
&DVWHPDQ

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gôlƗh hm lࢯ
gan, gal haqqedešîm
genîzƗh V hƝqîm cƗl / ࢯƝl
gôy hǌqam cƗl
gƟwî hesîreka
db‫ ۊ‬V hatterƗpîm
dƗbaq ࢯa‫´ۊ‬ hôy
dƗbƗr hayyiddecǀnîm
debar yhwh hƗyƗh ࢯa‫´ۊ‬
dibbƝr VV ‫ۊ‬eder / ‫ۊ‬adrƗh
GDG ‫ۊ‬lm V
dôd ‫ۊ‬erem
GJO ‫ۊ‬okmƗh
dƗmô berǀࢯšô ‫ۊ‬allǀn sap
daq halanû ’attƗh
derek VV ‫ۊ‬immƝd
dƗsƗࢯ hammaksƝlôt
dešeࢯ hamma‫܈܈‬Ɲbôt
dešeࢯ mƝࢯƗre‫ ܈‬ hinnƗzƝr mƝࢯa‫ ´ۊ‬
dƗwƯd hitqabbƝs a‫´ۊ‬
gǀ’Ɲl ‫ۊ‬Ɲpe‫ ܈‬
gan / gal ‫ۊ‬Ɲq‫ۊ‬ôq
geber ‫ۊ‬ôqƟkem môs
gibbǀr-îm V har hammaš‫ۊ‬ît
gizzƗh ‫ۊ‬ôr
gôlƗh ‫ۊ‬ǀreb
gewî তUৢV
gôy ‫ۊ‬arûzîm
h-YRF ‫ۊ‬ayƟtô-gôy
ha’ašƝrîm তৢE
ha’ǀbôt ‫ۊ‬ƗĞap
hobnîm তWW
hƗbû ‫ۊ‬at merǀdƗk
hadrat qǀdeš ‫ۊ‬a‫ܒܒ‬Ɨࢯt
haggillulîm he‫ۊ‬ziq ࢯa‫´ۊ‬
hizhartô ke, NHQIFRPS
KNO kî HQI
hakkemƗrîm kî lǀࢯ V
hikrattî kî lǀࢯkƝn
hƗlak ࢯa‫¶¶ۊ‬V kƗbôd
hƗlak ࢯim / ࢯet kǀhanîm

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kullƗham mƗmǀkƗh = mimmƝk
kǀh ࢯƗmar mimmƗ‫ܒ‬Ɨr
kol makkƝh min VV
koper mimmƗ‫ܒ‬Ɨr PP৬UV
kepƗrîm mǌnƗd
kƝn minnǀgah (= PQJK V
kƗrat mƗqôm
kesep NDVS môr cǀbƝr
kesep cǀbƝr lassǀhƝr ࢯîš mera‫ۊ‬epet
kissƝࢯ merkƗbƗh
O le mƝrƯ’šô
labbacal, laššemeš marzƝa‫ۊ‬
lî môs
lǀࢯ mƗ‫܈‬Ɨࢯ ‫ۊ‬Ɲn ࢯa‫´ۊ‬
lǀࢯ cƗbôt lࢯ cbwt masǀrƗh
lôࢯ«kî Ҍim mƗšîa‫ۊ‬Pãত
lƝb mƗšƗl
leb-yƗm mǀšƝl
le‫ۊ‬ayyǀtô mǀšel ‫܈‬addîq V
OQ VV mešǀl
lipnê mƝࢯa‫ۊ‬arê mišmƗn
lƗqa‫ࢯ ۊ‬a‫´ۊ‬V mišpƗ‫ۊ‬Ɨh
liqraࢯt mišpƗ‫ܒ‬aik
P HQFOHQI V mešƗrîm
PDmah mišteh
mî mƗ‫ܒ‬Ɨr
mƝcim mƝࢯƝt mi‫ܒܒ‬Ɲ’
mabbûl V mayim rabbîm
midbƗr nƗࢯweh
midbar qƗdƝš neࢯǌm
*midbƗr ³ERFD´ nƗरîm
migdelƗh V *QGK
megƗdîm nefilîm
me‫ۊ‬uspƗs nûgê
maksƝlƗh nǀgah
POஉ QJF
millƝஉ ࢯa‫´ۊ‬ nƗgîd
malࢯƗkîm nidgƗlôt
melek nehƗrôt
melƗkôt QĞࢯ
molek nƗĞîࢯ
milah nƗšaq
millƗh VV nišbƗcim

Ë1',&(6

ni‫܈‬caq ࢯa‫´ۊ‬ rûa‫’ ۊ‬elǀhîmVV
nƗtƗh a‫“ې‬ rûa‫ۊ ۊ‬ayyîm
QWQ rƗpƗࢯrƗpiࢯu
nƗ‫ܒ‬ar repƗࢯîmUHIDLP
niz‘aq ’a‫´ۊ‬ U\T
pƝஉƗh qodqǀd UTG
poҷal rƗqqƗh
pƗqad ࢯa‫´ۊ‬ rƗšƗc
pardes rûa‫ ۊ‬
peleࢯ VV rûa‫ ۊ‬Ҷelǀhîm
pîlagšîm VEE
pû‫ ܈‬ sûb
pƗrƗš sukkôtVV
hitqabbƝ‫ࢯ ܈‬a‫´ۊ‬ semƗdƗr FIDUDP semƗdrƗࢯ
qƝdƗr *VSࢯ
qdšm sûg mƝࢯa‫ ´ۊ‬
qodeš sûr
qƗhƗl sûr mƝࢯa‫ “ۊ‬
qôl ĞƗdeh
qôl ‫܈‬ƟcƗqƗh ĞƗpƗh
qôl Yhwh V siyyƗh
*TOO ‫܈‬ebî
qƗpƗࢯ ‫܈‬almƗwet ৢDOP{W
qƗrƗࢯ ‫܈‬innôr
TU\/ TUࢯ ‫܈‬bࢯ
q‫܈‬r npš ‫܈‬ebƗࢯ haššƗmayim
meqa‫ܒܒ‬erîm ‫܈‬edeq
qô‫܈‬V ‫܈‬addîq
*Tãã ৢPত VV
qšt ‫܈‬ema‫ ۊ‬
qi‫ܒܒ‬Ɲr ‫܈‬ûr
*TZU šôd
UஉK qôl hattôr
rƗࢯƗh ࢯa‫´ۊ‬ qôl ‫܈‬ƟcƗqƗh
rǀࢯš qôl yƟlîlƗh
rǀࢯš haššƗnƗh qôl Yhwh
riࢯsôn / ’aharôn ‫܈‬awwƗd / ‫܈‬ayyƗd
rôb ‫܈‬iyyôn
rebîb ĞƗdeh
rƗdap ࢯa‫´ۊ‬ Ğar VV
rêa‫ ۊ‬ ĞUS
rûa‫ ۊ‬VVV Ğiryôn V
rûa‫ ۊ‬hayyôm šeࢯôl

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šcr terûcƗh
šûb ࢯa‫´ۊ‬ tûraq
šƗbac tišrî
ãEU ‫ܒ‬al
*ãDG Z VV
šǀd ZHQIV
še‫ۊ‬ǀrôt weࢯìš
ãNE VV weࢯattƗh
*
šƗla‫ࢯ ۊ‬a‫´ۊ‬ ZUT
šelƗ‫ۊ‬îm -y, VXILMRGHDSVI
šillû‫ۊ‬îm V yƗm
šallƗmƗ yôcƝ‫܈‬VV
šƗlôm VV yƗd
šalmƗhqƝdƗr yƗlad
šelǀmǀh yacaqǀb
šƗlîš ya‫ۊ‬ad
šƗm yƟlîlƗh
šƝm V yôm hakkippǌrîmV
sƟmƗmƗh yimmale‘
šemƗmît yammîm
šemen V yônîm
šemeš yirࢯat
šƗpƗn yirࢯat ࢯelǀhîm
šôp:fƗr yƗrad ࢯa‫ ”ۊ‬
šƗqƗh yƗsap
šôr yiĞĞarepû V
*ãU yiĞrƗࢯƝl
šôrƝr yƗ‫܈‬Ɨࢯ ࢯa‫ ”ۊ‬
šƗtƗh ࢯa‫´ۊ‬ yƗ‫܈‬Ɨࢯ be
*ãZU ãU yeš leࢯƝl yƗd
šyt cyn yešac
tacalûmƗh yƗšab
tappû‫ۊ‬îm \ãQ
‫ܒ‬ǀciyyƗh yizra‫ ۊ‬šemeš
tǀhû-wƗbǀhû yayin
tehôm *]E V
ta‫ۊ‬at zebûl
*WDOtallîm zôb dƗm
telî zƗhar
WO\ / tƗlƗh FIDUDP tly V zemƯrôt / zimrôt
taltallîm zimrat
top:fet zƗmîr
tôrîm zimrî

Ë1',&(6

zamzumnîm RƗpiࢯu rpu
zôࢯt Rapaࢯǌma rpum)
zeh sînay rpum qdmym
zƗnƗh ࢯa‫ ”ۊ‬ Rašpu ršp
zîz šbm / mdnt
šbcm bn a‫ܔ‬rt
%Ugaritico 6DIyQ‫܈‬apƗnu
‫܇‬apƗnu
D7HRQLPLD 6KDSDVKšpš
ܑallayu‫ܒ‬ly)
$GDG +DGDG Tunnanu tnn
$QDWcAnatu <DPymyammuVV
V
$VKHUD A‫ܔ‬iratu a‫ܔ‬rtV <DP%DDO
$VKWDUWHcA‫ܔ‬tartu, c‫ܔ‬trt VV Yar‫ې‬u yr‫ ې‬
A‫ܔ‬iratu ymnhr
F
$WKWDU cA‫ܔ‬taru c‫ܔ‬tr
%DDO Baclu bclpassim E/p[LFR
%DDO$QDW$VKWDUWH
%DDO<DP ib
%DDO0RW abyn V
bclt bhtm a‫ ې‬
bclt gbl a‫ې‬r V
bn il-m a‫ې‬r špšm
DidƗnu DitƗnu dtdn akl
'DJiQ DagƗnu dgn 49, V il, ul
dr il ilm
(O il, ilu passim alp ࢯalpu
‫ۏ‬azzi ¶PU
+HEDW an‫ې‬V
ilib ap
ilm šmym kbkbm ’arbc’arbc m‫ܔ‬bt ’azmr bh
,ãপDUD arbdd
.DWKLUDW Ka‫ܔ‬irƗtu ar‫ ܈‬
.RWKDU঩DVLVKô‫ܔ‬aru-‫ۏ‬asƯsu ar‫ ܈‬ml‫ۊ‬mt
c
V ly
MƗlikǌma mlkm c
l riš
Milku c
n V
Milk-cA‫ܔ‬tartu c
ny
0RWMôtu0XHUWHpassim c
rm
c
nhr šr cašru
1LNNDO b
p‫ې‬r bҷl bgg

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bky V mdgl
bn il(m) mgy
brr mlk m‫ۊ‬ll-m
bt mlk m‫ې‬lpt
bu m‫ ܈ې‬
*GFৢৢFG mk špšm hn špšm
db‫ ۊ‬VV mlakm
ddym mlk clm
dm c‫܈‬m V mlk rpu
dmc mlk y‫ܔ‬b brr wm‫ۊ‬y
dr il mrkbt
‫ڴ‬d m‫܈‬b
*GJO m‫ ܈܈‬
‫ڴ‬mr Pãত
G঎]UF m‫ܔ‬bt
gcr ncm
gl ng
grgr FIKEgƗrôn QGG
ƥlm , *QG\
ƥlmt ntn
*ƥOS QWU
ƥzr nyr rbh
-h ILQDO pdm riš
‫ۊ‬dr p‫ې‬r bcl
hdrcy pit
hm pr‫ܔ‬, prš
‫ۊ‬lm V qb‫ ܈‬
‫ۊ‬sp qdšm
‫ې‬mn ql
‫܈ې‬b ql‫ ۊ‬
‫ۊ‬r‫ ܈‬V qrb V
ib qry
ilm qšt
klb ilnm *TZU
kpr UEE\
ks-m riš
la šmm riš yn
lim /lࢯm/ rb (/rbb/)
l‫ۊ‬m rbm
l‫ۊ‬m šqy V rpu-m US¶
ln V rpum qdmym
mat krt smd
mizrt ss
mdd il ‫܈‬bu

Ë1',&(6

šal VVV F3DUHVOLQJtVWLFRVXJDUtWLFRKHEUHRV
šcr FISSV
šbcm bn a‫ܔ‬rt
škb VV a) Lexemáticos
šdm
šl‫ ۊ‬ ࢯƝl ࢯelǀhîm
šqy V ab bny
šrd ibr ql
š šrp alp wš šlmm pamt šbF a‫ې‬d yd ymn 310s.
št ,,, a‫ۊ‬d yd cms
šty akl‫ܒۊ‬t
tdmmt amht il / bcl
tdn ilib cm
tlm almnt ytm
tr‫ ې‬ amr ‫ۊ‬kmt
‫ܒ‬b‫ ې‬V ap grgr
‫ܔ‬ar ‫ܔ‬ir šir " ap yd grgr
‫ܔ‬igt ࢯapƯqê yƗm mǀsedôt tƝbƝl
c
৮E rb lq‫ ۊ‬
‫ܔ‬d ar‫ ܈‬m‫ܒ‬r
‫ܔ‬l‫ܔ‬,,, ar‫ ܈‬q‫ܒ‬r
‫ܔ‬nn asr pdm rišh m‫ې‬lpt
‫ܔ‬n ‫ܔ‬n a‫ܔ‬t ypt
tr a‫ܔ‬t lq‫ ۊ‬
c
*WUU d... šr
c
*৮ZE lg lšn
c
‫ܔ‬d ‫ڴ‬d zd lyriš
c
‫ܔ‬l‫ ܔ‬ ny cd
c
‫ܔ‬r ny ilm
c
ul ny cd
c
uzr p ‫ܒې‬a
c
yd rb ba
c
\UG >šrd rb lq‫ۊ‬
ym l mt bcl ymlk c
rš škb
c
ynq ‫܈‬r / dg 318,
c
yšnV ‫ܒ‬r riš
c
ytn ‫ܔ‬trt hdrcy
c
y‫ܔ‬b ǀz bƗrƝk
c
zb V zm qdš
zbl cwr ba qdm
ܲlmt bcl il
bky ytn g
bn sp‫ ۊ‬

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bn >‫ܔ‬a@r lq‫ ۊ‬Ğm
brk mr(r lq‫ ۊ‬št
bt m‫ܔ‬b minš ahl
bt šp‫ ۊ‬yr‫ ܔ‬ mbk nhrm apq thmtm
bt šp‫ ۊ‬ mlk / y‫ܔ‬b V
bt yr‫ ܔ‬ mlkm
ddym šd(m) m‫ ܈ې‬št
dgn l‫ۊ‬m yn mknt ‫ܔ‬bt
dnt tdmmt mr‫ ۊ‬grgr ,
/d-r-c/ mr‫ ۊ‬pn
gdm qrnt Pãত
grn ‫ې‬rb m‫ܔ‬bt zbl
gzr ib nša cms
ƥlm ym nša yrd
ƥlm ƥlmt n‫ ܈‬csy
ƥlp šd npš ap
ƥnbm nša yd yrd
hr gbc ƥr gbc p špt
‫ۊ‬nt / abyn V pdm rišm‫ې‬lpt
‫ۊ‬m ‫ܒ‬l pn npš
‫ۊ‬m qz prd prt
‫ ܲۊ‬cr ptriš ,
‫ې‬mr yn msk qdqd dqn
‫ې‬np lb qll qwl
il bcl qra l‫ۊ‬m
irtnpš qrb r‫ۊ‬q
NO\NO\ qry cly
NO\FQ qry db‫ ۊ‬
kly cn dmc qryt ‫ې‬br
knp // qrnm q‫ ܈‬r‫ۊ‬q
ksu mlk qšt tlm
ksu ‫ܔ‬bthksu mlk raš brkt
ksp ‫ې‬r‫ ܈‬ riš qdqd
NVSQ৮N rum // qrn
ksm mnt rumm yclm trm
OEãQSã rbt ‫ܔ‬nn
lbš št rbt ‫ܔ‬rrt
lbt išt rabbƗh ĞƗrƗh
l‫ۊ‬m akl rgm t‫ۊ‬m hwt
l‫ۊ‬m ‫ۊ‬mt rekeb šin’Ɨn XJ‫ܔ‬nn
l‫ۊ‬m mƥd rqh
l‫ۊ‬mynšmn ‫܈‬ba y‫܈‬a
lq‫ ۊ‬crb sbb bqš

Ë1',&(6

sbb šmr ymn klatnm
sbb rࢯh ynq m‫ܔ ܈܈‬d
sbb crb y‫܈‬a nsb
ss(wm) rkb mrkbt y‫܈‬a ‫܈‬bu
Ğiptê-šeqer mǀ‫܈‬Ɲ’ dibbƗh y‫ܔ‬b / n‫ ې‬
‫܈‬d cpt yayin mƗsak V
‫܈‬d ƥr gbc
‫܈‬ƥr bkr E sintagmáticos
‫܈‬r‫܈‬dyn
šir akl išt
šbb cn ar‫ ܈‬ml‫ۊ‬mt
c
škb ‫ۊ‬lm bd clm
šmc cdb c
ly knp
c
šl‫ ې‬ytn pr pl‫ܔ‬t
c
šlm ar‫ ܈‬ rb špš
c
šlm arbdd rš mdw
šlm czz c
‫ܒ‬r ptm (FISDUpt riš
šlm n‫ ې‬ b-crgzm
šƗmayim mayim dm c‫܈‬m
šmm ym dn almnt
šnt // p gbl šnt
šp‫ ۊ‬ƥlm gm ‫ ۊ܈‬
špš (‫܈‬ba) ngh ‫ې‬mr yn
šqy ks bd ymn ‫ۊ‬r‫܈‬klb
šqyškb hry + yld
šqyšty ‫ۊ‬dr mškb
šr cny ‫ۊ‬sp + ‫ܒ‬l
šrš riš ‫ۊ‬y npš
štirt ilt ‫܈‬dynm
št Ğym i‫ ܔ‬ly / ln
t‫ۊ‬m hwt KEdƗbƗr (l)kbd ar‫ ܈‬
‫ܔ‬b n‫ ې‬ ks + msk
‫ܒ‬l rbb ksp cbr
‫ܒ‬l rd l‫ۊ‬m ‫ۊ‬mt
‫ܔ‬br bqc lq‫ ۊ‬cbd clm
‫ܔ‬igt ql lq‫ ۊ‬ks bd
‫ܔ‬gr adr minš šdm
‫ܔ‬km yd mdd il
‫ܔ‬l‫ ܔ‬kl mt cz
‫ܔ‬qlm ‫ې‬mšt mt...‫ې‬t
‫ܔ‬ar, ‫ܔ‬ir my...udmct
yd / ymnV ncm a‫ې‬t,
yldynq >n@šatlm V

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nša yd yd ytr
nšr r‫ې‬p yrd ... db‫ ۊ‬
nšu riš y‫܈‬a + špt
nyr rbt zb zt dm
p y‫܈‬a NP ‫ې‬t
ql bcl
ql + yd & Acadio (Sumerio, Hitita)
qry ml‫ۊ‬mt V
qry + ntb 7HRQLPLD
q‫܈‬r npš VV
ql šnt, +$GDG Addu
qny ‫ڴ‬d $GDSD
q‫ܒ‬r ap Allu‫ې‬i
rum qrn ‫ސ‬OS! alpu
sbbar‫ ܈‬ Amurru
spr + yr‫ ې‬ $QãDU.LãDUVV
ss + mrkbt AnuAntum VVV
‫܈‬atnpšh Anunakui
‫܈‬ba špš 319, $SVX7LDPDWVV
‫܈‬bu ‫܈‬bi AššurV
šib y‫܈‬at Aya
‫܈‬d hlk ‫ޑ‬ãU! ašru
š‫ۊ‬r yld Baba
šqy yn BƝlet ekallim
šnth + ‫ۊ‬r‫ ܈‬klb BƝltu ša Gubla
šlm arbdd BƝlet Qatna
šlm ar‫ ܈‬ Bêl-Marduch
šlmmlk V 'DJDQ
šlm šdm DidƗnu
šnt mla 'XPX]L
šnt + tm (DV
šyt cyn (DQQD
tlm + c‫ܒ‬r‫ܒ‬rt (QNLV
‫ܔ‬brqšt (QOLOV
‫ܒ‬l\rd (UUD
‫ܒ‬ly bt rb V (WDQD
‫ܒ‬lrb *DOOD
‫ܔ‬l‫ܔ‬t + šmc GibilGirru
yd m‫ܔ‬kt *XODV
yd ntr ,JLJLX
yd šl‫ ۊ‬ ,ODED
yld šbc ilu / ilƗnu VV
yšq yn ,VKWDU IštaruIltuV
y‫ܔ‬b lar‫ ܈‬

Ë1',&(6

Iškur Ɨsipu / Ɨsû
Itûr-Mêr ba-a-lum , ba-la-lum
.L bƝlum
Kingu Bit ‫ۏ‬umri
/DপPX/DপDPX da-mu
Lim *GJO
0DUGXNV HQ
0DUWX er‫܈‬etu
Mislamta‘ea ilum
1DEX O‫ސ‬P! lim
Nammu lišan kalbi FIDUlisanu-l-kalbi)
1DQQD OXJDO
Nanše PDUWXamurru
1HUJDO mašࢯartu
Ninazu midgaltu
1LQHJDO pašƗsu
1LQপXUVDJ pƗsis, pašeš V
1LQXUWDGašaru pu‫ې‬ru/Òši-bǌ-tu
1LVDED qadištu
1XPXãGD šakkanakkûV
Nusku samƗdiru
âDOD šarrum
âDPDã878V sebettu
Šara sibutušibǌtu
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© Publicacions i Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona

COVER ILLUSTRATION: Collection ivory King of Megiddo.

This document is under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non

La intertextualidad hebreo-bíblicala Biblia Hebrea en la Literatura

Se había convertido la plata en láminas,

Así, pues, poned cara

En el sueño del Benigno, El, el entrañable,

Bendice, alma mía, al Señor:

 :)DXONQHU, Desciende, Moisés

'HXQDREUD OLWHUDULDTXHOOHYDSRUWtWXOR Desciende, Moisés :LOOLDP)DXONQHUGo down, Moses

+:RXN The Lawgiver

Elementos Campo semántico 

D Reacción positiva a información experimental visión

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sorprendentemente antinómicos pre-bíblicos, como el de condicionar por una parte la vida a la

2.2. El relato del diluvio

2.3. La novela de José y el relato del Éxodo

2.4. Profecía y lírica

2.5. Literatura sapiencial

Judit, esencialmente literarios, no sería descabellado presuponer igualmente arquetipos antiguo-orientales,

2.6. Literatura escatológica

nuevo remodelado y cambiado en un arquetipo de sentido diferente: de la fertilidad recurrente a la inmor-

Es hora ya de que pasemos al segundo sentido de la intertextualidad bíblica, la que llamábamos

3.1. Adán y Eva

3.2. Moisés y el Éxodo de Egipto

3.3. El Cantar de los Cantares

40. Cf. M.J. Wright, Moses in America, p. 39.

45. Cf. H. Jacobson, The Very Model of a Man (Viking/Penguin1992)

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La intertextualidad hebreo-bíblicala Biblia Hebrea en la Literatura

:)DXONQHU, Desciende, Moisés

'HXQDREUD OLWHUDULDTXHOOHYDSRUWtWXOR Desciende, Moisés:LOOLDP)DXONQHUGo down, Moses

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