Newton`s Three Laws of Motion

Inertial Reference Frames

To understand motion, we have to know that an object in motion changes

position in relation to some fixed object during a given time. For example, a car
is observed to have moved when it changes position in relation to a fixed
object such as a kilometer post or a tree on the road. Any fixed object can be
used to determine motion. We call these fixed objects reference points.

Motion depends on a frame of reference. A frame of reference is the

viewpoint of the observer of motion. It is a system of specifying precisely the
location of the objects. In the study of mechanics, it is assumed that
acceleration is measured in a frame of reference which is at rest with respect
to the earth. There are equations in mechanics which are true in a so- called
inertial frame of reference. How do we define inertial frame of reference? This
so-called inertial frame of reference is one that is at rest or is moving with a
constant velocity in relation to the fixed stars. The Earth can be considered as
an inertial frame of reference although it is rotating in relation to the fixed
stars. However, the effect of the rotation of the Earth, in most cases, is
negligible, so it can be regarded as an inertial frame of reference for such
cases.

Philosophers and scientists view that a frame of reference moving at a

constant velocity in relation to the fixed stars is not enough to define motion,
for we know that the fixed stars are not really fixed and are in motion. So it is
important to find a frame of reference by which Newton`s laws of motion are
precisely valid.

Newton`s First Law of Motion

Newton`s first law of motion is stated as follows.

“A body at rest continues to remain at rest and a body with constant velocity
continues to be in constant uniform motion, unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.

“A body at rest remains at rest, and a body already in motion remains in

motion with a constant velocity (constant speed and direction), in the absence
of an unbalanced force.

This is similar to Galileo`s idea of inertia except that Newton gives meaning to
the idea of force.

“Force is something which changes the state of rest or uniform motion of an

object.
 

The law of inertia, as Newton`s first law is often called, explains the principle
behind the use of seat belts and headrests in cars. This is a safety measure
installed in cars so that passengers will be safe when the driver suddenly
started moving or stepped on the brakes to stop. If the car suddenly stops, the
driver and the passenger inside the car are thrown forward. This is because of
the inertia that keeps them moving forward. If the car starts from rest, they
tend to move backward because they have the tendency to remain at rest.
Seat belts and headrests are used to protect the driver and the passenger from
injuries. By law, the driver and the passenger at the front seat must wear seat
belts.

When a vehicle is bumped into at the back by another vehicle, the passenger is
pushed forward by the seat, but his or her head tends to remain at rest. This
situation may lead to serious head injuries which is why cars are all equipped
with headrests.

Newton`s Second Law of Motion

Newton`s second law of motion is also called the law of mass and
acceleration. Newton`s second law of motion can be expressed as follows:

“The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force exerted on the

body and is in the same direction as this force.”

“The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting

on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object”.

In symbols, this statement can be written as F a

In equation form, Newton`s second law of motion is F = ka where k is a

constant of proportionality that depends on the mass of the body being
accelerated. The heavier the body, the greater the corresponding value of k.
Hence k is proportional to mass m. Now we can replace k with m. Thus, this
law of motion can be rewritten as F=ma.

The above equation is probably the most useful fundamental equation in

mechanics as it is the governing principle in most phenomena. In the presence
of many forces acting on a body, F represents the net force or the combined
effect of these forces on the body. The equation tells us that the net force on
a body is equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration of the body.

Another useful insight can be obtained by rearranging the equation.

a= F/m

This relation states that the acceleration produced is proportional to the net
force and inversely proportional to the mass.
The SI unit of force is newton, written as N. It is defined as the force that
produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg. Thus, if m=1 kg, and a =
1 m/s2, then F= 1N. Thus, 1N= 1kg. m/s2.

Newton`s Third Law of Motion

We experience forces everyday. If there are no forces acting on us, we will be

forever floating in space. From experience, we know that whenever we exert a
force on something, that something exerts a force on us. A law governs this
important property of force. This is called the law of interaction or the action-
reaction law, more popularly known as Newton`s third law of motion.

Newton`s third law of motion can be stated as follows:

“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”

This law shows that forces always occur in pairs. When we push against the
wall, the wall pushes against us. Likewise, when the tires of a car push against
the pavement, the pavement pushes back on the tires.

It is easy to see that the action and reaction forces are equal when the bodies
are at rest. How about for bodies in motion? Let us the case of firing a rifle.
When the rifle is fired, the force exerted on the bullet is exactly equal to the
reaction force exerted on the rifle. Hence the rifle kicks. Since the forces are
equal, one might expect the kick to be considerably more than it is. But we
must remember that the law of acceleration states that acceleration is
inversely proportional to mass or a. If we let F to represent both the action and
reaction forces, m the mass of the bullet, and M the mass of the more massive
rifle, the acceleration of the bullet and the rifle can now be found by taking the
ratio of the force to the mass. The acceleration of the bullet is given by

= aB

On the other hand, the acceleration of the rifle is given by

= aR

So we can see that these two quantities are just equal. Thus,

aB=aR

It can be observed that the action force and reaction force are exerted on
different bodies. When an action force is exerted on a body, a reaction force is
exerted by that body. These forces, action and reaction forces, never cancel