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 Machining is characterized by the gradual material

removal in the form of chips
 The form of chip is an important index of machining
as it indicates .
Mechanics of Chip formation  Nature and behavior of the work material under
machining
 Specific energy requirement to machining
 Nature and degree of interaction at the work-
work-tool
interface

Knowledge of basic mechanism(s) of chip formation helps to During continuous machining

understand the characteristics of chips and to attain favorable chip  the uncut layer of the work material, just ahead of the cutting tool
forms. (edge), is subjected to almost all sided compression
 shear stress develops within that compressed region in different
The form of machined chips depend up on magnitude, in different directions and rapidly increases in magnitude
 Work material (brittle or ductile)  Whenever and wherever the value of the shear stress reaches or
 Material and geometry of cutting tool (orientation of salient features) exceeds the shear strength in the deformation region,
 yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in that
 Levels of the process parameters (cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut)
region and the plane of maximum shear stress
 Application of cutting fluid (coolant and lubricants) that affects
 The forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the chip
temperature and friction at the chip-
chip-tool and work-
work-tool interface. quickly diminishes and finally disappears

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 The deformation region moves along the tool rake surface towards
and then goes beyond the point of chip-
chip-tool engagement.


 As a result the slip or shear stops propagating long before total

separation takes place.
 In the mean time the succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing
compression followed by yielding and shear.
 This phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and
removal of chips in thin layer by layer.
 This phenomenon has been explained in a simple way by
Piispannen using a card analogy

Piispanen model of card analogy to explain chip formation in

machining ductile materials The pattern and extent of total deformation of the chips due
to the primary and the secondary shear deformations of the
chips ahead and along the tool face depend upon
 Work material

 Tool; material and geometry

 The machining speed (VC) and feed (so)

 In actual machining, such serrations are visible at their upper surface
 The lower surface becomes smooth because of further plastic  Cutting fluid application
deformation due to intensive rubbing with the tool at high pressure
and temperature

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Experimental study of chip formation  The basic two mechanisms involved in chip formation are
 Yielding – generally for ductile materials
Experimental methods
 Brittle fracture – generally for brittle materials
 Study of grid deformation
 Study of frozen chip  first a small crack develops at the tool tip as shown in Fig. 3.5 due
to wedging action
 Study of running chips by high speed camera
 At the sharp crack-
crack-tip stress concentration takes place
 Initiated crack quickly propagates, under stressing action because
of no yield, and total separation takes place from the parent
workpiece through the minimum resistance path

Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

There are 4 types of metal chips commonly observed in

practice (orthogonal metal cutting)

a) Continuous chip ( chips with narrow, straight, primary

shear zone or chip with secondary shear zone at the tool-

Development and propagation of crack chip interface

b) Built-up edge, BUE chip
c) Serrated or segmented or non-homogenous chip
d) Discontinuous chip

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Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Common characteristics of all Chips
 Chips has two surfaces:
 Surface in contact with rake face
 Shiny and polished
 Caused by rubbing of the chip on the tool surface
 Outer surface from the original surface of the workpiece
 Jagged, rough appearance
 Caused by shearing mechanism
 Note, this surface remains exposed to the environment, and
does not come into contact with any other surface
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Continuous Chip
More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone
rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from tool
tool--chip friction.
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 Formed with ductile materials machined at high
cutting speeds and/or high rake angles
 Deformation takes place along a narrow shear zone
called the (primary shear zone
zone))
 Continuous chips may develop a secondary shear zone
due to high friction at the tool–
tool–chip interface
 This zone becomes thicker as friction increases
 Continuous chips may also occur with wide primary
shear zone with curved boundaries
 Note, lower boundary of deformation zone drops below
machined surface ⇒ distortion in workpiece
workpiece,, poor finish
 Occurs: machining soft metals at low speeds, low rake angles
 Also called segmented or non-
non-homogeneous chips
 They are semicontinuous chips with
 large zones of low shear strain and
 small zones of high shear strain (shear localization)
localization)
 Example: metals with low thermal conductivity and
strength that decreases sharply with temperature,
i.e. thermal softening (e.g. titanium)
 Chips have a sawtooth-
sawtooth-like appearance
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 Consist of segments that are attached firmly or Chip formation in machining brittle materials; chips are
loosely to each other formed due to fracture.
 Form under the following conditions:
 Brittle workpiece materials
materials
Irregular shape chips are
 Materials with hard inclusions and impurities
 Very low or very high cutting speeds formed
 Large depths of cut
 Low rake angles
 Lack of an effective cutting fluid
 Low stiffness of the machine tool
(⇒ vibration, chatter)

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Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips

Irregular shape chips are formed
 BUE Consists of layers of material from the
workpiece that are deposited on the tool tip
 As it grows larger, the BUE becomes unstable and
eventually breaks apart
 BUE: partly removed by tool, partly deposited on workpiece

Note: BUE chip much harder than chip

Schematic view of chip formation in machining brittle

materials
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Hardness distribution with BUE chip

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Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips

Characteristics of BUE
Size, shape and bonding strength of BUE depending on
 Work--tool materials
Work  Stress and temperature

 Tool Geometry  Cutting fluid application

Causes of BUE formation

Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips

Effects of BUE  BUE can be reduced by:

 Unfavorable rake angle and clearance
 Fluctuation in cutting forces and consequences
 Poor surface finish
 May reduce tool life
 Increase the cutting speeds
 Decrease the depth of cut
 Increase the rake angle
 Use a sharp tool
 Use an effective cutting fluid
 Use cutting tool with lower
chemical affinity for workpiece
material

BUE: milling BUE: turning

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Chip Breakers Chip Breakers

 Long, continuous chips are undesirable since: action of chip breaker clamped chip
breaker
 become entangled and greatly interfere with machining
 potential safety hazard

 Chip-Breaker: breaks chips intermittently with cutting tools

 Traditionally are clamped to rake face: bend and break the chip
 Modern tools: built-
built-in chip breakers
 Ideal chip: “C” or “9” shape
Grooves in tools act as
chip breakers

Chip Breakers

 Chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry to  In idealized model, a cutting tool moves to the left
control chip flow along the workpiece at a constant velocity, V, and a
depth of cut, to
 Chip thickness, tc
Chips produced in turning

Tightly curled chip Chips hits workpiece Continuous chip Chip hits tool
and breaks moving radially shank (body) and
away from the breaks off Idealized model; Orthogonal; 2-2-D cutting with a well-
well-
workpiece
defined shear plane; also called M.E. Merchant model

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 Orthogonal cutting: It is two dimensional and the forces Cutting Ratio (r) or (Chip reduction/compression ratio (ϛ
(ϛ): is related
involved are perpendicular to each other to the two angles
 Cutting tool has a rake angle of α and a relief or clearance  shear angle,  t sin 
r 0 
angle  rake angle, γ t c cos    
 Shearing takes place in a shear zone at shear angle Φ

 Chip thickness tc is always > than the depth of cut,

cut, to
Velocity diagram ⇒ the value of r is always less than unity (i.e. <1)
showing angular
relationship
 Reciprocal of r (i.e. 1/r = ϛ) is known as the chip
chip--
among 3 speeds in compression ratio
ratio/coefficient
/coefficient or chip-
chip-compression
cutting zone:
V: cutting speed
factor
Basic mechanism  It’s a measure of how thick the chip has become
Vs: shearing speed
of chip formation
by shearing Vc: chip velocity  ϛ > 1 Always

Significance of the Chip reduction/compression ratio (ϛ

(ϛ) Making use of cutting ratio in evaluating cutting
ϛ determines the amount of energy invested for machining conditions:
Hence low value of ϛ is required to minimize the energy  Depth of cut,
cut, to: machine setting (i.e. Indep
Indep.. Variable)
required
 Chip thickness, tc can be measured using micrometer

 Cutting ratio, r can then easily be calculated

As μ increases ϛ increase and vice versa  Rake angle,  is also known for cutting operation

As γ increases ϛ decreases and vice versa  It is function of tool and workpiece geometry

Hence: decrease the value of μ and increase the value of γ Rake angle  Cutting ratio and rake angle can be used to find shear
angle, 

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Shear angle, Φ Average cutting strain, ɛ

r cos  cos 
tan   
1  r sin    sin r

Cutting Strain should be

Shear angle is angle of minimum to reduce
inclination of the shear plane investment in energy
from the velocity vector and
is on the orthogonal plane

 Average cutting strain, ɛ

 The shear strain (i.e. deformation relative to original size)
that the material undergoes can be expressed as
AB AO OB
      cot   tan    
OC OC OC
 Large shear strains (≥5) are associated with low shear angles or
with low or negative rake angles

 Based on the assumption that the shear angle adjusts itself to

minimize the cutting force,
force,
β = friction angle, related to μ :
  μ = tanβ  coefficient of friction
  45  
2 2
   45     (when   0.5 ~ 2) More general form