Global System For Mobile Communication (GSM)

AMITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Global System for Mobile

Communication (GSM)
 Also known as: "Global System for Mobile Communications", "Groupe
Special Mobile" to describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital
cellular networks circuit-switched network optimized for full duplex voice
telephony. It is used by mobile phones and a replacement for first
generation (1G) analog cellular networks.
 GSM is a TDMA based wireless network technology developed in Europe
that is used throughout most of the world.
 GSM phones make use of a SIM card to identify the user's account. The
use of the SIM card allows GSM network users to quickly move their
phone number from one GSM phone to another by simply moving the
SIM card.
 Currently GSM networks operate on the 850MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz,
and 1900MHz frequency bands.
1
Global System for Mobile Communication

(GSM)
 Why GSM?
 The GSM study group aimed to provide the followings through
the GSM:
 Improved spectrum efficiency.
 International roaming.
 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs).
 High-quality speech.
 Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
and other telephone company services.
 Support for new service
2
GSM characteristics
 Previous standard in cellular communication were
restrictive
 GSM – global digital standard for cellular phones that
offered roaming facility
 First named Groupe Special Mobile and used in
Europe; then usage extended to other continents
 GSM operate in frequency bands: 900MHz, 1800 MHz,
1900 MHz
 GSM provides voice and data services
3
The GSM Architecture
 SIM Subscriber Identity Module

 HLR Home Location Register
 MS Mobile Station
VLR Visitor Location Register
 BTS Base Transceiver Station
EIR Equipment Identity Register
 BSC Base Station Controller
 AuC Authentication Centre
 MSC Mobile services Switching Centre
PSTN Public Switched Telecomm Network
 ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
 PLMN Public land mobile Network
4
The GSM Architecture
5
The GSM Architecture-Working

 The GSM network can be divided into three broad parts.
 The Mobile Station is carried by the subscriber.
 Base Station Subsystem controls the radio link with the Mobile
Station.
 The Network Subsystem, the main part of which is the Mobile
services Switching Center, performs the switching of calls
between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as
well as management of mobile services, such as authentication.
 The Mobile Station and the Base Station Subsystem communicate
across the Um interface, also known as the air interface or radio
link.
 The Base Station Subsystem communicates with the Mobile
service Switching Center across the A interface.
6
MS
BTS
BTS MS
BSC
BTS MS
BTS MS
BTS
MSC BSC
BTS
BTS
BSC BTS
BTS
7
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

card
 SIM – a memory card (integrated circuit) holding
identity information, phone book etc.
 GSM system support SIM cards
 other systems, like CDMA do not support SIM cards, but
have something similar called Re-Usable Identification
Module (RUIM)
8
International Mobile Equipment

Identity (IMEI) key
 IMEI – a unique 15 digit number identifying each phone,
is incorporated in the cellular phone by the
manufacturer
 IMEI ex.: 994456245689001
 when a phone tries to access a network, the service
provider verifies its IMEI with a database of stolen
phone numbers; if it is found in the database, the
service provider denies the connection
 The IMEI is located on a white sticker/label under the
battery, but it can also be displayed by typing *#06# on
the phone
9
International Mobile Subscriber

Identity (IMSI) key
 IMSI – a 15-digit unique number provided by the
service provider and incorporated in the SIM card
which identifies the subscriber
 IMSI enables a service provider to link a phone
number with a subscriber
 First 3 digits of the IMSI are the country code
10
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity

(TMSI) key
 TMSI – is a temporary number, shorter than the IMSI,
assigned by the service provider to the phone on a
temporary basis
 TMSI key identifies the phone and its owner in the cell
it is located; when the phone moves to a different cell
it gets a new TMSI key
 as TMSI keys are shorter than IMSI keys they are
more efficient to send
 TMSI key are used for securing GSM networks
11
HLR, VLR and EIR registers

 Home Location Register (HLR) - is a database maintained by the service
provider containing permanent data about each subscriber (i.e. location,
activity status, account status, call forwarding preference, caller
identification preference)
12

 Visitor Location Register (VLR) – database that stores temporary data
about a subscriber; it is kept in the MSC of the of the area the
subscriber is located in; when the subscriber moves to a new area the
new MSC requests this VLR from the HLR of the old MSC
13

 Equipment Identity Register (EIR) – database located near the MSC and
containing information identifying cell phones
 IMEI is marked as invalid in case of stolen of MS.
14
Authentication Center (AuC)
 1st level security mechanism for a GSM cellular network

 is a database that stores the list of authorized subscribers
of a GSM network
 it is linked to the MSC and checks the identity of each user
trying to connect
 also provides encryption parameters to secure a call made
in the network
15
Interfaces in GSM
RF , uses TDMA
UM Transmit & receive info/ traffic
MS Air
Transmit traffic/ info between BSC &BTS
Abis BSC BSS Mgt
Call handling
A
LAP(link Access Protocol) Mobility Mgt
MSC
2mbps
16
Mobile Station
 The mobile station (MS) consists of the physical equipment, such as the
radio transceiver.
 A smart card is called Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
 The SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can have access
to all subscribed services irrespective of both the location of the
terminal and the use of a specific terminal.
 By inserting the SIM card into another GSM cellular phone, the user is
able to receive calls at that phone, make calls from that phone, or
receive other subscribed services.
17
Mobile Station
 The mobile equipment is uniquely identified by the International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI).
 The SIM card contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI), identifying the subscriber, a secret key for authentication, and
other user information.
 The IMEI and the IMSI are independent, thereby providing personal
mobility. The SIM card may be protected against unauthorized use by
a password or personal identity number.
18
Base Station Subsystem
Allocates a channel to full duration of TRX

the call
Monitor quality Signal processing and control
Control the power equipment
transmitted by BTS or MS Antenna
BSC
Handle handover Abis
BSS
19
Base Station Subsystem
 The Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts, the Base

Transceiver Station (BTS) and the Base Station Controller (BSC). These
communicate across the specified bits interface, allowing (as in the rest
of the system) operation between components made by different
suppliers.
 The Base Transceiver Station houses the radio transceivers that define a
cell and handles the radio-link protocols with the Mobile Station.
 In a large urban area, there will potentially be a large number of BTSs
deployed. The requirements for a BTS are ruggedness, reliability,
portability, and minimum cost.
 The Base Station Controller manages the radio resources for one or more
BTSs. It handles radio-channel setup, frequency hopping, and handovers.
The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the Mobile service
Switching Centre (MSC).
20
Network Substation
 The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile

services Switching Centre (MSC).
 It acts like a normal switching node of the PSTN or ISDN, and in

addition provides all the functionality needed to handle a mobile
subscriber, such as registration, authentication, location
updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber.
21
Network Substation
 These services are provided in conjunction with several
functional entities, which together form the Network Subsystem.
 The MSC provides the connection to the public fixed network

(PSTN or ISDN), and signalling between functional entities.
22
Network Substation (Cont..)

 The Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location
Register (VLR), together with the MSC, provide the call
routing and (possibly international) roaming capabilities of
GSM.
 The HLR contains all the administrative information of each
subscriber registered in the corresponding GSM network,
along with the current location of the mobile.
23

 The current location of the mobile is in the form of a
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) which is a regular
ISDN number used to route a call to the MSC where the
mobile is currently located.
 There is logically one HLR per GSM network, although it
may be implemented as a distributed database.
24

 The Visitor Location Register contains selected
administrative information from the HLR, necessary for call
control and provision of the subscribed services, for each
mobile currently located in the geographical area controlled
by the VLR.
25
GSM Access Scheme and Channel

Structure
 GSM uses FDMA and TDMA to transmit voice and data
 The uplink channel between the cell phone and the BTS
uses FDMA and a specific frequency band
 The downlink channel between the BTS and the cell phone
uses a different frequency band and the TDMA technique
 There is sufficient frequency separation between the uplink
freq. band and the downlink freq. band to avoid interference
 Each uplink and downlink frequency bands is further split up
as Control Channel (used to set up and manage calls) and
Traffic Channel (used to carry voice)
27
GSM uplink/downlink frequency

bands used
GSM Frequency Uplink/BTS Transmit Downlink/BTS Receive

band
900 MHz 935-960 MHz 890-915 MHz
1800 MHz 1805-1880 MHz 1710-1785 MHz
1900 MHz 1930-1990 MHz 1850-1910 MHz
28
GSM uplink/downlink frequency

bands
 Uplink and downlink take place in different time slots
using TDMA
 Uplink and downlink channels have a bandwidth of 25
MHz
 These channels are further split up in a 124 carrier
frequencies (1 control channels and the rest as traffic
channels); each carrier frequency is spaced 200 KHz
apart to avoid interference
 These carrier frequencies are further divided by time
using TDMA and each time slot lasts for 0.577 ms.
29
GSM Control Channel

 is used to communicate management data (setting up
calls, location) between BTS and the cell phone within a
GSM cell
 only data is exchanged through the control channel (no
voice)
 a specific frequency from the frequency band allocated to
a cell and a specific time slot are allocated for the control
channel ; a single control channel for a cell
 GSM control channels can have the following types:
 broadcast channel
 common control channel
 dedicated control channel
30
Broadcast Channel
 Type of control channel used for the initial synchronization
between the cell phone and the BTS
 is composed from:
 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) – is composed from a
sequence of 148 zeros transmitted by the BTS
 Synchronization Channel (SCH) – follows the FCCH and contains
BTS identification and location information
 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) – contains the frequency
allocation information used by cell phones to adjust their
frequency to that of the network; is continuously broadcasted by
the BTS
31
Common Control Channels

 type of control chan. used for call initiation
 is composed of:
 Paging Channel (PCH) – the BTS uses this channel to inform
the cell phone about an incoming call; the cell phone
periodically monitors this channel
 Random Access Channel (RACH) – is an uplink channel used by
the cell phone to initiate a call; the cell phone uses this channel
only when required; if 2 phones try to access the RACH at the
same time, they cause interference and will wait a random time
before they try again; once a cell phone correctly accesses the
RACH, BTS send an acknowledgement
 Access Grant Channel (AGCH) – channel used to set up a call;
once the cell phone has used PCH or RACH to receive or
initiate a call, it uses AGCH to communicate to the BTS
32
Making a call
33
Initializing a call
1. When the cell phone is turned on it scans all the available frequencies for
the control channel
2. All the BTS in the area transmit the FCCH, SCH and BCCH that contain the
BTS identification and location
3. Out of available frequencies from the neighboring BTSs, the cell phone
chooses the strongest signal
4. Based on the FCCH of the strongest signal, the cell phone tunes itself to the
frequency of the network
5. The phone send a registration request to the BTS
6. The BTS sends this registration request to the MSC via the BSC
7. The MSC queries the AUC and EIR databases and based on the reply it
authenticates the cell phone
8. The MSC also queries the HLR and VLR databases to check whether the cell
is in its home area or outside
9. If the cell phone is in its home area the MSC gets all the necessary
information from the HLR if it is not in its home area, the VLR gets the
information from the corresponding HLR via MSCs
10. Then the cell phone is ready to receive or make calls. 34
Making a call
1. when the phone needs to make a call it sends an access request
(containing phone identification, number) using REACH to the BTS;
if another cell phone tries to send an access request at the same
time the messages might get corrupted, in this case both cell
phones wait a random time interval before trying to send again
2. Then the BTS authenticates the cell phone and sends an
acknowledgement to the cell phone
3. The BTS assigns a specific voice channel and time slot to the cell
phone and transmits the cell phone request to the MSC via BSC
4. The MSC queries HLR and VLR and based on the information
obtained it routes the call to the receiver’s BSC and BTS
5. The cell phone uses the voice channel and time slot assigned to it by
the BTS to communicate with the receiver
35
Receiving a call
1. when a request to deliver a call is made in the network, the MSC or
the receiver’s home area queries the HLR; if the cell phone is
located in its home area the call is transferred to the receiver; if the
cell phone is located outside its home area, the HLR maintains a
record of the VLR attached to the cell phone
2. based on this record, the MSC notes the location of the VLR and
indicated the corresponding BSC about the incoming call
3. the BSC routes the call to the particular BTS which uses the paging
channel to alert the phone
4. the receiver cell phone monitors the paging channel periodically and
once it receives the call alert from the BTS it responds to the BTS
5. the BTS communicates a channel and a time slot for the cell phone
to communicate
6. now the call is established
36
The Air-Interface of GSM

 The Air-interface is the central interface of every mobile system and
typically the only one to which a customer is exposed. The physical
characteristics of the Air-interface are particularly important for the
quality and success of a new mobile standard. For some mobile systems,
only the Air-interface was specified in the beginning, like IS-95, the
standard for CDMA. Although different for GSM, the Air-interface still has
received special attention. Considering the small niches of available
frequency spectrum for new services, the efficiency of frequency usage
plays a crucial part. Such effi-ciency can be expressed as the quotient of
transmission rate (kilobits per second) over bandwidth (kilohertz). In
other words, how much traffic data can be squeezed into a given
frequency spectrum at what cost?
37
The Structure of the Air-

Interface in GSM
 1.The FDMA/TDMA Scheme
38
1.The FDMA/TDMA Scheme

 GSM utilizes a combination of frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
and time division multiple access (TDMA) on the Air-interface. That
results in a two-dimensional channel structure, which is presented in
Figure . Older standards of mobile systems use only FDMA (an example
for such a network is the C-Netz in Germany in the 450 MHz range). In
such a pure FDMA system, one specific frequency is allocated for every
user during a call. That quickly leads to overload situations in cases of
high demand. GSM took into account the overload problem, which
caused most mobile communications systems to fail sooner or later, by
defining a two-dimensional access scheme. In full rate configuration,
eight time slots (TSs) are mapped on every frequency; in a hal-frate
configuration there are 16 TSs per frequency.
39
2. Frame Hierarchy and Frame Numbers

 In GSM, every impulse on frequency 1, as shown in Figure, is called a burst.
Therefore, every burst shown in Figure corresponds to a TS. Eight bursts or
TSs, numbered from 0 through 7, form a TDMA frame.
Transmitted
Power
Time
40
2. Frame Hierarchy and Frame Numbers
 In a GSM system, every TDMA frame is assigned a fixed

number, which repeats itself in a time period of 3 hours, 28
minutes, 53 seconds, and 760 milliseconds. This time
period is referred to as hyper frame. Multiform and super
frame are layers of hierarchy that lie between the basic
TDMA frame and the hyper frame. Figure 7.3 presents the
various frame types, their periods, and other details, down
to the level of a single burst as the smallest unit.
41
3. Synchronization Between Uplink and

Downlink
 For technical reasons, it is necessary that the MS and the BTS do not
transmit simultaneously. Therefore, the MS is transmitting three
timeslots after the BTS. The time between sending and receiving data
is used by the MS to perform various measurements on the signal
quality of the receivable neighbor cells.
42
GSM - Protocol Stack

 The layered model of the GSM architecture integrates and links the peer-to-peer
communications between two different systems. The underlying layers satisfy the
services of the upper-layer protocols
43
GSM - Protocol Stack

 The signalling protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers,
depending on the interface.
 Layer 1: The physical layer, which uses the channel structures over the
air interface.
 Layer 2: The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer
is a modified version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-
D) protocol used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the Dm channel
(LAP-Dm). Across the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP),
Layer 2 of SS7 is used.
 Layer 3: The third layer of the GSM signaling protocol is divided into
three sublayers:
 Radio Resource management (RR)
 Mobility Management (MM) and
 Connection Management (CM).
44
The MS to BTS Protocol

 The RR layer oversees the establishment of a link, both radio and
fixed, between the MS and the MSC. The main functional components
involved are the MS, the BSS, and the MSC. The RR layer is concerned
with the management of an RR-session.
 The MM layer is built on top of the RR layer and handles the functions
that arise from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the
authentication and security aspects.
 The CM layer is responsible for CC, supplementary service
management, and Short Message Service (SMS) management. Each of
these may be considered as a separate sublayer within the CM layer.
45
BSC Protocols
 After the information is passed from the BTS to the BSC, a different set of
interfaces is used. The Abis interface is used between the BTS and BSC.
At this level, the radio resources at the lower portion of Layer 3 are
changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station Management
(BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay function at the BTS to the
BSC.
 The BSC still has some radio resource management in place
for the frequency coordination, frequency allocation, and the
management of the overall network layer for the Layer 2
interfaces.
46
MSC Protocols
 At the MSC, the information is mapped across the A
interface to the MTP Layers 1 through 3 from the BSC.
Here, the equivalent set of radio resources is called the
BSS MAP. The BSS MAP/DTAP and the MM and CM are at
the upper layers of Layer 3 protocols.
 Each user of a GSM MS is assigned a HLR that is used to
contain the user's location and subscribed services. A
separate register, the VLR, is used to track the location of a
user. As the users roam out of the area covered by the
HLR, the MS notifies a new VLR of its whereabouts.
47
Basic Mobility Management Requirements

 Support all forms of mobility
 Support mobility for all types of applications
 real-time and non-real-time data, voice, and multimedia
applications
 Support mobility across heterogeneous radio systems in the same
or different administrative domains
 Support session (service) continuity
 continue without significant interruptions as the user moves
about
 Global roaming
 the ability for a user to move into and use different operators’
networks
48
Basic Functional Components

 Location management
 a process that enables the network to determine a
mobile’s current location
 i.e., the mobile’s current network attachment point
where the mobile can receive traffic from the network
 Packet delivery to mobiles
 a process whereby a network node, mobile terminal,
or end-user application uses location information to
deliver packets to a mobile terminal
49
Basic Functional Components (cont..)

 Handoff and roaming
 handoff (or handover)
 a process in which a mobile terminal changes its
network attachment point

 example: a mobile may be handed off from one wireless
base station (or access point) to another, or from one

router or switch to another
 roaming
 the ability for a user to move into and use different
operators’ networks
50
Network Signals
 Network access control
 a process used by a network provider to determine whether a
user is permitted to use a network and/or a specific service

provided by the network
 main steps
 authentication: verify the identity of user
 authorization: determine whether a user should be
permitted to use a network or a network service

 accounting: collect information on the resources used by a
user
51
Impact of Naming and Addressing on

Mobility Management
 A name identifies a network entity, such as a user, a user
terminal, a network node, or a service
 An address is a special identifier used by the network to
determine where traffic should be routed
 A terminal’s address typically identifies a network
attachment point
 a telephone number in a PSTN network
 identifies a port on a PSTN switch rather than the telephone set
itself
 an IP terminal’s IP address
 identifies an attachment point to an IP network
52

Mobility Management(cont..)
 Today’s networks, the name of a terminal is often tied with
the terminal’s address, example,
 an IP terminal has traditionally been named by the Internet
Domain Name associated with the terminal’s IP address
 mobile terminals that use multiple network addresses are
becoming increasingly popular, example,
 a mobile terminal may have multiple radio interfaces
 each radio interface may use a different type of radio
technology
 each radio interface may need to have its own IP address
53

 which domain name should be used as the terminal’s
name in this case?
 solutions
 make the IP terminal names independent of the
terminal’s addresses
 e.g., IETF has defined Network Access Identifier
(NAI) that allows a terminal to be identified by a single

globally unique NAI regardless of how many IP
addresses this terminal may have
54

 Traditional circuit-switched networks, such as the PSTN,
typically do not support user names
 they assume a static mapping between a terminal and the user
responsible to pay for the services used by the terminal
 Static mapping of users to terminals could lead to a range
of problems in a mobile network
 mobile users often have to, or like to, use different types of
terminals in different locations depending on what types of
terminals are available or best fit their needs
 this suggests that a mobile user’s name should not be statically
tied to a mobile terminal
55
Impact of Naming and Addressing
on Mobility Management(cont..)
 Terminal-independent user names have become increasingly
common in mobile networks, example,
 GSM
 each subscriber is identified by a globally unique
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) that is

independent of the terminal used by the user
 a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) carries a mobile’s
IMSI and can be ported from one mobile terminal to

another to allow a user to use different terminals and still
be recognized by the network as the same user
56
Impact of Naming and Addressing
on Mobility Management(cont..)
 Today’s IP Networks, applications provide their own naming
schemes for users, example
 e-mail users are identified by their e-mail addresses
 SIP users are identified by their SIP URIs
 the NAI may serve as a user’s globally unique and
terminal-independent user name
57
Location Management
Location update strategies
Location discovery (paging)
Interactions between location update and
paging
58
Location Update Strategies

 When a mobile should perform location updates
and what location-related information the
mobile should send to the network?
 update the mobile’s precise location every time the
mobile changes its network attachment points,
example, Mobile IP
 knowing a mobile’s precise location allows the
network to deliver traffic to the mobile via unicast
59
Location Update
Strategies(cont..)
 when mobiles change their network attachment points frequently,
maintaining precise locations of all mobiles could lead to heavy
location update traffic, which wastes limited radio bandwidth
 to save scarce resources on the mobile and in the wireless network,
a network can group network attachment points into location areas
 only keeps track of which location area each mobile is likely in
when the user and the network have no traffic to send to each other
 the network tries to determine a mobile’s precise location only
when it needs to deliver user traffic to the mobile
60
Location Update
 Time-based update
 update periodically at a constant interval (called update
interval)
 Movement-based update
 update whenever it traverses a predefined number of
location areas, called movement threshold

 most existing wireless networks (e.g., GSM, GPRS, 3GPP,
3GPP2) use movement-based location update strategy in

which the movement threshold is one
61
Distance-based update
 Distance-based update
 update whenever it has traveled a predefined distance
threshold from the location area in which it performed

its last location update
 distance may be measured in many different ways, such
as physical distance, or cell distance (i.e., distance

measured in number of radio cells or location areas)
 the physical distance-based strategy is used, for
example, as an option in 3GPP2
62

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AMITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Global System for Mobile

Global System for Mobile Communication

The GSM Architecture

 SIM Subscriber Identity Module

The GSM Architecture

The GSM Architecture-Working

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

International Mobile Equipment

International Mobile Subscriber

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity

HLR, VLR and EIR registers

HLR, VLR and EIR registers

HLR, VLR and EIR registers

Authentication Center (AuC)

 1st level security mechanism for a GSM cellular network

Abis BSC BSS Mgt

Allocates a channel to full duration of TRX

Handle handover Abis

 The Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts, the Base

 The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile

 It acts like a normal switching node of the PSTN or ISDN, and in

 The MSC provides the connection to the public fixed network

Network Substation (Cont..)

Network Substation (Cont..)

Network Substation (Cont..)

GSM Access Scheme and Channel

GSM uplink/downlink frequency

GSM Frequency Uplink/BTS Transmit Downlink/BTS Receive

900 MHz 935-960 MHz 890-915 MHz

1800 MHz 1805-1880 MHz 1710-1785 MHz

1900 MHz 1930-1990 MHz 1850-1910 MHz

GSM uplink/downlink frequency

GSM Control Channel

Common Control Channels

The Air-Interface of GSM

The Structure of the Air-

1.The FDMA/TDMA Scheme

2. Frame Hierarchy and Frame Numbers

2. Frame Hierarchy and Frame Numbers

 In a GSM system, every TDMA frame is assigned a fixed

3. Synchronization Between Uplink and

GSM - Protocol Stack

GSM - Protocol Stack

The MS to BTS Protocol

Basic Mobility Management Requirements

Basic Functional Components

Basic Functional Components (cont..)

 a process in which a mobile terminal changes its

network attachment point

base station (or access point) to another, or from one

 the ability for a user to move into and use different

user is permitted to use a network and/or a specific service

 authentication: verify the identity of user

 authorization: determine whether a user should be

permitted to use a network or a network service

Impact of Naming and Addressing on

Impact of Naming and Addressing on

 each radio interface may use a different type of radio

Impact of Naming and Addressing on

(NAI) that allows a terminal to be identified by a single

Impact of Naming and Addressing on

 each subscriber is identified by a globally unique