Pressure Monitoring using Hydraulic Cells
Suggested Methods for Pressure Monitoring
using Hydraulic Cells
SCOPE
1. (a) The hydraulic pressure cell consists of a flatjack
(fluid filled pressure pad) connected to a hydraulic or
pneumatic diaphragm transducer which in turn is con-
nected by flexible tubing to a read-out unit. Pressure
transferred from the surrounding soil, rock or concrete
to the flatjack is measured by balancing the fluid pres-
sure in the cell by a pressure applied to the reverse side
of the transducer diaphragm.
(b) The cell is intended as a means of measuring total
pressure changes in soil, earth or rockfill, concrete, or
at the interface between any of these materials. It may
also be used to measure pressure changes in rock when
installed in a machined slot. Typical applications are in
earth or fill embankments, dams and dam foundations,
retaining walls, and behind or within tunnel linings.
(c) Total pressure at a given location is defined as the
sum of effective soil or rock pressure and groundwater
or air pressure. If effective earth or rock pressure is to
be distinguished from water pressure, a piezometer
should be installed alongside the pressure cell. Pressure
change is defined as the difference between total pres-
sure at any given time and the total pressure value at
the time of cell installation. Measurements of absolute
pressure, the ground pressure before cell installation,
can not be made using this cell. Such measurements
require, for example, use of one of the ISRM Suggested
Methods for Stress Determination.
(d) The hydraulic transducer that forms a component
of the total pressure cell may be used in other appli-
cations, for example to measure groundwater pressures
or settlements. These alternative applications fall out-
side the scope of this Suggested Method.
APPARATUS
2. The hydraulic pressure cell (for example Fig. 1),
should meet the following requirements:.
(a) The pressure sensor consists of a flatjack which is
fluid filled and connected by a steel tube to the pressure
measuring transducer and compensating tube if fitted.
The flatjack is typically manufactured from two flat
sheets of steel, welding around the periphery to form a
leak-free container for the cell fluid. In some cell
designs, a groove with a depth of about 1/3 of the plate
thickness is cut along the edges of the flatjack to mini-
mize the edge effects during and after welding.
* Superscript numbers refer to Notes at the end of the text.
119
(b) Cells are typically either circular or rectangular in
plan with dimensions from 6-40 cm. The largest size
compatible with the size and configuration of the
measuring location should be selected to avoid errors
due to edge effects1.. The flatjack may be fitted with
wires to assist in fixing it in position.
(c) The stiffness (flexibility) of the flatjack should be
similar to that of the material in which it is embedded,
to ensure that stress is transferred to the jack without
arching effects, so that the measured pressure is closely
similar to that in the surrounding material. Thus, cells
for installation in soil should be more flexible than
those for use in rock or concrete. For satisfactory per-
formance the gap between plates, controlling the
volume of fluid and therefore the stiffness of the cell,
should not exceed 1 mm; also, the ratio of cell diameter
(side length) to cell thickness should be greater than
20:1.
(d) The materials of the flatjack, transducer and all
ancillary components should be selected to resist cor-
rosion from the surrounding materials and ground-
water, also these materials should be compatible with
the cell fluid and measuring fluid 2.
(e) The fluid filling the cell ('the cell fluid') should, to
ensure a suitable stiffness, be mercury if the cell is to be
installed in rock or concrete, but should be a less dense
fluid such as oil if the cell is to be installed in soil. The
cell, connecting and compensating tubes and trans-
ducer, should be completely filled with fluid, free from
air bubbles. The cell is usually filled under controlled
factory conditions by the manufacturer.
(f) The connecting tube from the flatjack to the trans-
ducer may be either welded to the face of the cell or
welded to its flange. Connections to the cell and trans-
ducer must be strong enough to avoid damage resulting
in pinching or leakage during installation and oper-
ation. The connecting tube, typically of length 20-60
mm, should be bent as required in the factory to ensure
no damage or kinking.
(g) The hydraulic or pneumatic transducer (for
example Fig. 2) is a hydraulic valve consisting of a
flexible steel, plastic or rubber diaphragm incorporated
in a metal housing. The diaphragm must completely
separate the cell fluid from the measuring fluid under
all operating conditions. One side of the diaphragm is
connected to the cell fluid and the other to the measur-
ing fluid delivery and return tubes. The transducer
design should be such that pressure in the cell fluid is
slightly greater than that in the measuring fluid in order
to prevent return flow of the measuring fluid. When
the applied measuring pressure exceeds the cell fluid
120 International Society for Rock Mechanics

Cor~crele stress cell

Eorfh pressure celt

Fig. 1, Examples of alternative hydraulic pressure cell designs (Photos: Gloetzl, W. Germany).

pressure by more than an amount corresponding to
diaphragm inertia the diaphragm will displace allowing
flow along the measuring fluid return line.
(h) The design and materials of the transducer should
be such as to ensure minimum diaphragm inertia so
that the pressure in the measuring fluid corresponds
closely with that in the cell fluid at the time of measure-
ment. This low inertia value should be maintained
throughout the working life of the cell. Corrosion or
components, changes in shape or flexibility of the dia-
phragm during use will adversely affect the operating
characteristics of the transducer. The diaphragm inertia
being the difference between the cell fluid pressure and
the maximum measuring pressure required to open the
diaphragm, should not exceed 3", of the minimum
pressure that the cell is required to measure.
 Pressure Monitoring using Hydraulic Cells
CONNECTION TO FLATJACK
¥ PRESSURE PAD
J TUBE
COMPENSATING
CELLFLUID ,,,,,
Y and if in doubt, trials should be carried out. The burst
I pressure of the tubing and fittings should usually be at
I
FLEXIBLE
t j DIAPHRAGM
I
I (d) When several cells are to be installed these may
I •
I
I The terminal should be designed to ensure positive leak
I
MEASURING FLUID
DELIVERY FROM
y- L RETURNTO
READOUT PUMP
READOUT PUMP
Fig. 2. Schematic drawing: hydraulic (pneumatic) diaphragm
transducer.
(i) The transducer is generally embedded along with
the flatjack in the surrounding soil or concrete and
should be protected from malfunction due to pressure
transmitted from these materials, either by robust
design or by an applied coating of rubber or similar
protective material. The transducer should be pos-
itioned with respect to the flatjack at a location that
will not result in an unrepresentative or non-uniform
transfer of pressure to the flatjack from the surrounding
material.
(j) When the cell is to be installed in or adjacent to
concrete where shrinkage may create a gap between the
flatjack and the surroundings, it should be fitted with a
'compensating tube' or similar means of augmenting
the cell fluid volume. The compensating tube may, for
example, consist of a metal tube filled with cell fluid
and connected to either the flatjack or transducer. This
tube may be crimped to inject further fluid into the cell
as described in Para. 13(e).
3. Hydraulic connecting tubes, valves, couplings,
terminal panels etc. to connect the readout pump unit
to one or more cells, (for example Fig. 3). This equip-
ment should meet the following requirements:
(a) One tube is required per cell for delivery of the
measuring fluid directly from the pump. There may be
one fluid return tube or the return tubes from several
cells may be coupled and connected by not less than 2
tubes to the readout location.
(b) The tubes should be flexible to allow them to
travel along a convenient route to the readout. They
may, for example, be manufactured from plastic, steel
or copper provided that they meet requirements listed
elsewhere in this Suggested Method.
(c) The length, inside and outside diameters and
material of the tubing should be selected to ensure that
no blockages or leaks develop during installation or
121
use, and that the rate of flow and pressure drop along
the tubing are such that measurements can be made
within the required accuracy limits. Lengths of tubing
may typically be from 10 to 500 m. The required inside
diameter of the tube is typically 2-5 mm depending on
the viscosity of the fluid that is used. Manufacturers
advice should be sought in selecting appropriate tubing,
least 100~ above the maximum to be applied in use.
conveniently be connected to a valve-manifold terminal
unit fixed to the structure or in an instrument house.
free connection of the readout pump to each cell in
turn, and to prevent entry of air into the measuring
fuid delivery line. Quick connect couplings may be
used.
4. Installation equipment to facilitate placing, labelling
and filling of the ceils, tubing and terminals, including:
(a) Equipment for preparing the cell location, embed-
ding the cell and fixing the cell as described under
'installation' Paras 9-12.
(b) Equipment for connecting and securing the
measuring fluid tubes and terminal units and for label-
ling each tube with the cell designation.
(c) Equipment to fill the delivery tubes with measur-
ing fluid and to check for leaks in the hydraulic circuits.
In some cases the readout equipment may be used for
this purpose 3.
5. Readout equipment including a fluid reservoir; a
pump with pressure gauge to measure the applied pres-
sure; and a detector to indicate the fluid return from
the cell. The equipment is usually contained in a port-
able unit and may deliver air, nitrogen or oil pressure.
The readout equipment should meet the following re-
quirements:
(a) The choice between cell fluids should be made to
suit project requirements. Gas pressure is convenient
and clean but is generally only used at pressures below
3 MPa. Liquid (generally a low viscosity liquid such as
a mixture of 90~o kerosene and 10% non-detergent oil)
is usually employed for higher pressures and also for
long delivery lines in order to avoid time lags due to
compressibility. Gas pressure is delivered from a com-
pressed gas bottle with regulator valve. Liquid pressure
is delivered by either manual or electric pump.
(b) The pump or gas pressure system should be cap-
able of applying a pressure at least 20~o in excess of the
maximum to be measured. It should be able to gradu-
ally increase or decrease the applied pressure through-
out the measuring range and to hold this pressure
steady for periods of at least several minutes.
(c) The retrun flow indicator system, whether visual
(liquid system) or mechanical (gas system) should be
capable of detecting a return flow of less than 10~,,, of
the maximum flow possible through the cell transducer
and tubing.
122 International Society for Rock Mechanics

Pressure cells
for contact and
circumferential stress

Shotcrete lining

nil

j Terminal panel

able hydraulic

INSTALLATION IN A TUNNEL LINING

I II I

/ /
Excavation 8m x 3m x lm deep ..=~/ " JSoil
/-- or rock fill

Pockets for pressure cells

INSTALLATION IN FILL

Fig. 3. Examplesof terminal connectionsfor hydraulicpressure ceils.

(d) The pressure gauge should have a range of
110-150~o of the maximum to be measured, and a
measuring accuracy better than +27o of the measured
pressure throughout this range.
6. Calibration equipment should be available to ensure
that accuracy requirements are maintained throughout
the project, for example:
(a) The flatjack design should be checked, for
example in a compression testing machine, to
determine edge effects and to evaluate the appropriate
correction factor 1.
(b) Calibration may be required to allow compensa-
tion for temparature effects at the cell location 4.
(c) Before installation, the complete assembly should
be checked to determine diaphragm inertia and the
effects of delay between pumping and fluid return.
(d) The readout pressure gauge should be calibrated
at least before and after the project, for example using a
deadweight pressure tester.
7. The overall accuracy requirements are to be speci-
fied in accordance with requirements for the project.
Generally, the overall accuracy of measurement should
be better than _+5% of the pressure to be measured,
this specification including the combined effects of inac-
curacies due to lag, temperatures, tube pressure losses
and gauge calibration errors 5.
 Pressure Monitoring using Hydraulic Cells
PROCEDURE
8. Selection of locations
(a) Cells are generally installed in pairs or clusters to
measure pressure in different directions at the same
location. Adjacent cells should be separated by a dis-
tance of at least 1 cell diameter in such a way as to
prevent the presence of a cell affecting readings on adja-
cent cells. Typical layouts are shown in Fig. 3.
(b) The location for the cell or cell cluster is
determined depending on the specific objectives of the
measurements, however each cell should be located in
ground that is undisturbed (for example by blasting)
and that is typical of the surrounding materials.
(c) The cell must be in uniform and complete contact
with the surrounding material. Soil or rock adjacent to
the cell should be free from protrusions or unrepresen-
tative material that would result in stress irregularities
on the flatjack.
(d) Cells should preferably not be located where they
will be exposed to appreciable temperature changes, for
example by the action of direct sunlight or cold winds
on exposed surfaces. Insulation may be required in such
cases.
9. Installation in soils
(a) When installing cells in a natural soil or fill
embankment, an excavation is made to accommodate a
cell cluster, then individual pockets for each cell are
hand dug at the correct locations with flat faces at the
required inclinations. The excavation as a whole should
be stable with side slopes as necessary, and of dimen-
sions not less than 4 x 4 x 2 metres deep. The cell
pockets should be excavated with extreme care to avoid
disturbance to the soil, each being of size approxi-
mately twice that of the cell.
(b) Rock fragments of size greater than 1/10 the cell
diameter, except in cases where the embankment is of
rock fill, should be removed and replaced by fine grained
material, generally hand compacted into the voids. A
bed of fine grained material is placed and compacted to
separate the cell from any irregularities in the pocket
walls. The cell is then fixed in position taking care that
it is fully in contact with the underlying material, and
checking to make sure it is functioning correctly.
(c) Each pocket is then backfilled with fine grained
material, hand compacted to a density similar to that of
the surrounding soil.
(d) When the embankment is of coarse grained
material such as rock fill, the pockets should be larger
and the pocket backfill should be graded with coarse
material adjacent to the embankment and finer mater-
ial adjacent to the cell.
(e) The measuring fluid tubing is carefully identified
and labelled, and carried to the readout location in a
trench. The tubing should be snaked along the trench
to allow for embankment movements and should be
protected above and below with fine grained material
in order to prevent damage by compaction equipment.
123
Where tubes must necessarily cross each other they
should be separated by a minimum of 150mm of
granular material. The trench alignment and backfill
will, in the case of water retaining structures, require
designing to prevent leakage and internal erosion.
(f) The cluster excavation is then backfilled and
compacted with natural embankment material having
removed rocks larger than the cell dimensions. Three
lifts of 10-20 cm each should first be placed and com-
pacted by hand operated equipment before completing
the backfill with light mechanical equipment. No heavy
vibratory rollers should be used until at least 2 m of fill
has been so placed.
10. Installation at the interface between soil and concrete
or rock
(a) When placing cells adjacent to piers, piles, retain-
ing walls, culverts and other structures, the cells may
either be attached to the formwork and placed in the
structure or fastened to the structure prior to backfill-
ing, or embedded in the backfill a short distance away
from the structure. The contact between the cell and the
backfill material should be effected by means of a layer
of fine grained material as previously described.
(b) The interface between the cell and the structure
should consist of a cement mortar or epoxy resin pad,
installed as described in Para. ll(c). The cell should be
fixed securely to the structure ensuring that there are
no air spaces or hard particles or protrusions in contact
with the cell.
11. Installation at the interface between concrete (or
shotcrete) and rock
(a) The area of rock or concrete over which the cell is
to be placed should be prepared fiat +_ 10 mm. Loose
material should be removed. The area should be pre-
coated with a 15 mm thick layer of cement mortar. The
cell should be cleaned of grease and any aluminium
paint and dipped in cement mortar 6.
(b) The positions of the transducer and compensating
tube should be checked ensuring that the compensating
tube, which is essential when installing in or adjacent to
concrete, is accessible after placing of the shotcrete or
concrete.
(c) A pad of cement mortar (for example 1:2
cement:sand, 4 second flow cone reading) is trowelled
onto the rock or concrete surface and the cell is placed
against the pad squeezing out mortar until a layer no
more than 5-10 mm thick remains beneath the flatjack.
Entrapment of air bubbles must be avoided. The cell is
secured in position either by tying to pins in the rock or
concrete, or by securing it to nearby reinforcement. The
fixings must be such that the cell remains in place dur-
ing concreting or shotcreting operations.
(d) The tubing is led along the wall of the structure or
excavation to the terminal unit, is labelled, and is fixed
securely to the reinforcement or to pins in the rock or
concrete. If the tubing is to be embedded in concrete or
shotcrete it must be secured at intervals not exceeding
3 m along its length. Kinks and constrictions in the
124 International Society for Rock Mechanics
tubing must be avoided. Tubing that is not to be
protected by embedment in concrete must be protected
by other means, for example by metal conduit.
(e) The correct functioning of each cell is to be
checked and any leaks repaired before concrete or shot-
crete is placed.
12. Installation in concrete
(a) The cell is fixed to the reinforcement or the struc-
ture. Its positioning should be such as to ensure an all
round cover of concrete, Entrapment of air must be
avoided.
(b) Cell alignment should be within _+ 10° of that
specified by the client. Cells must be fixed securely to
ensure that alignment is maintained during pouring of
concrete.
(c) For measurement in concrete containing large size
aggregate (for example > 30 mm) it is advisable where
possible to surround the cell in a special concrete mix
from which the coarser aggregate particles have been
removed.
(d) All other aspects of installation should follow the
specifications in Para. 11 above 6.
13. Connecting,.filling and checking the cells
(a) The terminal equipment is fixed securely in place,
either near to the cells for example as a wall fixture, or
remote from them for example in an instrument house.
Terminal panels should be prechecked to ensure that
the valves function correctly and that the system is free
from leakage. The cell designations should be clearly
and permanently labelled.
(b) The labelled tubing is connected to the appro-
priate terminals and is secured in place. A test should
be made on each cell while still accessible for repair and
replacement, to ensure that the completed hydraulic
circuit is functioning correctly.
(c) The cells, where liquid is to be used as a measur-
ing fluid, may be filled by the readout unit pump but
usually it is more convenient to arrange for gravity
feeding from a fluid reservoir. The method of filling
should be such as to ensure that the delivery tubes are
completely filled. Bleed points should be provided at
positions where air entrapment is likely.
(d) A check should be made along the complete tube
length for leaks, and to ensure that all tubing and cells
are adequately supported, free from damage, and pro-
tected, Each tube should be temporarily disconnected
from the cell and the complete system tested to a pres-
sure of at least 120~o the maximum anticipated in use.
(e) After completion of the installation and backfill-
ing, the pressure in the cells should again be measured
and recorded. Cells in concrete are then backpressured,
after a period usually of two to three days to allow for
concrete shrinkage and dissipation of initial heat of set-
ting, to ensure that a small positive reading is obtained.
This may be achieved for example, by crimping the
tube or by an injection pump. The pressure after com-
pensation is taken as a reference level for all subsequent
readings. This pressure should not exceed 5°,; of the
maximum anticipated at the location of measurement.
14. Procedure for taking readings
(a) The readout equipment should be calibrated at
least before and after the project and should be checked
before and after each set of readings. Any malfunctions
should be corrected at once.
(b) The readout unit is connected to the cell delivery
and return tubes, taking care to avoid entrapment of air
in the delivery tube.
(c) The supply pressure is increased gradually until a
return flow is recorded. The return flow should be
maintained for a period of at least 4min to ensure
removal of air bubbles (liquid system) and to establish
steady conditions. An approximate reading of the deli-
very pressure is then noted.
(d) The pressure is released and again increased at a
very slow and constant rate (usually 3 4 cm3/min) until
return flow is observed. The 'bypass pressure' is noted,
being the minimum pressure at which, under conditions
of minimum flow, a steady return flow is achieved.
There is usually a characteristic peak in the pressure-
flow curve, due to inertia of the diaphragm valve. This
should be ignored, and the steady pressure taken as the
reading (Fig. 4).
(e) Further readings are taken and recorded until a
consistent reading Pr is established. At any one measur-
ing time there should be a minimum of three readings.
(f) Special procedures may be used to obtain an ap-
proximate reading when leakage or partial blockage
develops in the tubing 7. The requirement for such pro-
cedures should be noted in the report.
(g) Delivery line pressures should preferably be main-
tained between readings, at a level that will avoid entry
of air, yet well below the long term burst pressure of the
tubing.
(h) The reading procedure is then repeated for all
other cells at which readings are required.
(i) The frequency of readings should be specified
depending on requirements for the project, and
should preferably be adjusted from time to time
depending for example on the recorded rate of pressure
change.
(j) The field results should be recorded on a data
sheet similar to that shown in Fig. 5, designed to facili-
tate comparison of one set of readings with preceeding
sets.
CALCULATIONS
15. (a) The cell pressure P is obtained from the reading
Pr by making corrections as follows:
P=(Pr- Pi- Ph- Pf) x E
where
Pr is the pressure reading
Pi is the initial cell pressure applied during manu-
facture and (in concrete) subsequently adjusted by
compensation for shrinkage.
 Pressure Monitoring using Hydraulic Cells 125
II
Return
Flow
L
3i 4 cm3/min

'__ P:el:minjeFYOIP,r/~b~lre:arian Second pressurizationto take readings

Pressure

t oro
°0 4 mm
Time
Fig. 4. Pumping sequence for readings (See Para. 14).

FIELD DATA: HYDRAULIC PRESSURE CELLS

SITE LOCATION VILLESTE MARIE TUNNEL STATION # 14

DATE INSTALLED 28 Dec 1977 STATION LOCATION 6+42

DATE TIME TEMP :ell # READINGS CkPa) REMARKS

1978 °C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3Jan 2210 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pressure compensation
10 Jan 1750 13 6 35 75 84 I l l 84 1 2 2
5 Jan 1730 9 II 72 198 136 191 293 9 3
l Feb 0835 15 15 91 253 193 235 354 16 4
5 Feb 0915 17 17 los 316 215 zsz 402 21 5 4
l Mar 2350 19 20 128 335 235 273 460 28 5 6 Supplementary bolts
15 Mar 2100 19 23 151 342 240 281 481 35 8
3 Apr 1230 21 25 164 353 246 289 502 45 II lO
l May 2100 19 27 175 362 251 294 520 53 15 I15 Inner l i n e r placed
0 Jun 1835 23 29 184 368 255 298 541 58 18 19
30 Jul 2200 21 30 190 370 260 300 560 60 20 20
Pressure
(kPo)
6OO I I I 1 I ,, I

Cell ~ 6
500
o / ~ o ~ ' ~ •

400

/ Cell #: 5
300
/ .j._ . . . . . . . --e

200- #~,/~....~,~o-- Cell#= 4

I00-

i • , |

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul

1978
Fig. 5. Example, presentation of pressure cell results.
126 International Society for Rock Mechanics
Ph is the static head correction for the pressure
due to difference in elevation between the cell and
readout (liquid only; for gas, Ph = 0).
Pf is a correction for friction losses in the fluid
delivery line
E is a multiplicatiOn factor (less than 1.0) to com-
pensate for cell edge effects.
(b) In most applications only changes in pressure are
of interest. In these cases an initial reading Pi is taken
after completion of installation and includes the effects
Ph and Pf which remain constant throughout the pro-
ject. In these cases:
P=(Pr-Pi) x E
It should be noted however, that the minimum pressure
change that can be recorded using this cell is
(Pi + Ph + Pf), so that if small pressure values are to
be measured a gas is preferred as the measuring fluid.
(c) The elevation correction Ph may be calculated as
follows:
Ph = 7(hl - hz)
where
= unit weight of measuring fluid, g/cm z (for gas
this unit weight is zero)
h i - h2 = difference in elevation (cm) between
readout and cell (positive when the cell is below
the readout)
Ph is then obtained in g/cm 2 and should be con-
verted to kPa by multiplying by 0.0981.
(d) The tube friction correction Pf should be
measured during installation, before connecting the cell,
being the pressure required to maintain a steady flow
through the tubing at a flow rate similar to that
obtained during measurement. Under normal condi-
tions, with unobstructed and correctly selected tubing,
this correction should be small.
(e) The edge effect correction E should be established
by the manufacturer on the basis of control tests in a
compression machine. For this purpose, a representa-
tive cell should be cast in a concrete block of at least 3
times the cell dimensions. The correction is usually only
significant for cells of small size.
(f) In addition, a temperature correction may be
required in some specialized applications such as for
cells in mass concrete 4. The correction Pt to be sub-
tracted from the reading may be expressed as:
Pt = Kt(tr - ti)
where
(tr-ti) is the temperature increase (°C) from the
time of the initial reading Pi; and Kt is a coeffi-
cient expressing the response of the system (cell,
fluid and surrounding material) to temperature.
Experimentally, Kt has been found to lie in the range
2(~50 kPa/< C for cells installed in concrete. The actual
value will depend on the size of cell.
(g) The magnitude and importance of the above cor-
rections, which in many cases will prove negligible,
should be investigated at the start of the project and
reported, whether or not they are found to be signifi-
cant.
(h) The corrected values of cell pressure P should be
tabulated and plotted graphically to show fluctuations
of pressure as a function of time after installation.
REPORTING OF RESULTS
16. Results should, unless otherwise specified, be pre-
sented in two forms of report: an Installation Report
giving basic data on the instrumentation system at the
time of installation; followed by Monitoring Reports
presenting periodically the results of routine obser-
vations. The Monitoring Reports will generally be
required at frequent intervals to minimise delay
between the detection of adverse behaviour and the
implementation of any remedial measures that may be
necessary.
17. The Installation Report should include the follow-
ing:
(a) A description and diagrams of the monitoring
equipment used including detailed performance specifi-
cations and manufacturers literature.
(b) Details of methods used for installation, calibra-
ting and monitoring; reference may be made to this
ISRM Suggested Method stating only the departures
from the recommended procedures.
(c) A location plan showing details of the pressure
cell locations with respect to the structural configur-
ation and the surrounding soil, rock or concrete condi-
tions.
(d) For each cell, a report giving the initial installa-
tion pressure and, if applicable, the pressure after com-
pensation for shrinkage. Details of calibrations and
determinations of correction factors should be included,
along with any pertinent comments on the peculiarities
or problems encountered during installation of each
cell.
18. The Monitoring Reports should include the follow-
ing:
(a) An updated field data sheet and results graphs
similar to those shown in Fig. 5.
(b) A brief commentary drawing attention to signifi-
cant pressure changes and to all instrument malfunc-
tions occurring since the preceding report.
(c) The results of any calibrations or instrument
checks carried out since the preceding report.
NOTES
1. Edge effects occur due to the presence of the weld
around the circumference of the flatjack. They are
greatest when the jack is small and rigidly constructed.
The thickness of flange around the cell circumference is
also critical, since this flange may partially prevent
transfer of stresses to the cell from the surrounding
material. Edge effects are difficult to determine but may
be estimated experimentally by embedding the cell in a
 Pressure Monitoring using Hydraulic Cells
large concrete block which is then subjected to uniaxial
compressive stress under controlled laboratory condi-
tions.
2. Mercury that is used to fill cells for use in rock or
in concrete can corrode metals. Cells containing mer-
cury are general)y constructed from stainless steel,
whereas oil-filled cells may be constructed from mild
steel, copper or similar materials.
3. The cells may be filled by hand pump when the
length of delivery tube and the volume of the cell are
comparatively small. Otherwise, it is more convenient
to fill the cell by gravity feed using a reservoir and
manifold system designed for the purpose.
4. Probably the most reliable method for temperature
correction is to incorporate in the structure to be moni-
tored a special additional cell that is subjected to the
ambient temperatures at that location but not to the
pressure. An apparent pressure increase in this control
cell, due to temperature increase, may then be sub-
tracted from the pressure reading in adjacent cells that
have been installed so as to be subjected to pressure
from the surrounding structure. This precaution will
rarely be necessary since in most circumstances the
temperature correction may be shown as insignificant.
5. Various additional and largely unknown sources of
error may exist, for example due to inadequate match-
ing of the cell and surrounding material stiffnesses; due
to placing of the cell at an unrepresentative location in
the structure; or due to use of an inappropriate size of
flatjack for the application. These sources of error can
only by avoided by careful planning of the instrumenta-
tion program before the start of the project.
6. Aluminium reacts with portland cement to form a
gas, so that pressure cells to be installed in concrete
should not include aluminium components. In some
cases, the cells supplied by the manufacturer are pro-
tected against corrosion by aluminium paint which
should be removed before installation in concrete to
avoid accumulation of gas in the vicinity of the cell
which could seriously affect the pressure measurements.
7. Pressure cell fluid delivery tubes may develop leak-
age or partial blockage in the course of the project, due
to excessive ground movements. A leakage will be de-
tectable at the readout unit, generally as a failure to
maintain a steady pressure after opening of the dia-
phragm valve. A blockage will be detected at the pump
as a decrease in return flow rate. Generally, readings
127
can continue to be taken provided that these problems
are not too serious, by careful control of the applied
flow rate and provided that the results are carefully
examined and interpreted. If such problems develop,
the pump unit itself should first be checked. The possi-
bility of blockage or leakage is the principal reason why
this specification calls for individual delivery lines to
each cell, so that if one tube is affected others are not.
REFERENCES
Agarwal S. L. and Venkatesan S. An instrument to measure skin
friction and normal earth pressure on deep foundations. Am. Soc.
Test. Mats., STP392, (1965).
Arthur J. R. F. and Roscoe K. H. An earth pressure cell for the
measurement of normal and shear stresses. Cir. Engng pub. Wks
Rev. No. 659 (1961).
Brown S. F. The performance of earth pressure cells for use in road
research. Cir. Engng publ. Wks Rev. 66, 160-165 (1971).
Escario V. and Sagaseta C. Lateral forces on an experimental section
of the Madrid subway. Proc. 5th European Conf. Soil Mech.
Found. Engng. Vol. 1, Madrid (1972).
Franz G. Umnittelbare Spannungsmessung in Beton und Baugrund,
Der Bauingenieur, Heft 5 (1958).
Habib P. and Marchand R. Mesures des pressions de terrains par
l'essai de verin plat. Ann, I.T.B.T.P., No. 58, Paris (1952).
Hamilton J. J. Earth pressure cells, design, calibration and perform-
ance. NRC., Div. of Bldg. Res. Tech. P. No. 109, Ottawa (1960).
Kallstenius T. and Bergau W. Investigations of soil pressure measur-
ing by means of cells. Royal Swedish Geotechnical Inst., Proc.
No. 12, Stockholm (1956).
Kruse G. H. Measurement of embankment stresses on a hundred-
foot-high retaining wall. Instruments and apparatus for soil and
rock mechanics. A.S.T.M. Stand. 392, 131-142 (1965).
Levillain J. P. Mesure des pressions derribre et sous un tour de soute-
nement, Rapport de recherche No. 22, Lab. Cent. Ponts et
Chaussees, Paris (1973).
Massarsch R. New method for measurement of lateral earth pressure
in cohesive soils. Can. Geotech. J. 12, (1975).
Panek L. A. Measurement of rock pressure with an hydraulic cell.
Proc. A.I.M.E. Meeting St. Louis, TP61 (1961).
Peattie. K. R. and Sparrow R. W. The fundamental action of earth
pressure cells, Conj. on Earth Pressure Problems (1958).
Sauer G. and Jonuscheit P. Kdifteumlagerungen in der Zwischen-
wand eines DoppelrShrentunnels im Zuge eines Synchronovor-
triebes. Rock Mech. H.7/3 (1975).
Sauer G. and Sharma B. A system for stress measurement in con-
structions in rock. Field Measurements--Rock Mechanics; Proc.
Int. Syrup. 1, 317 329.
Schober W. Large scale application of Gl6tzl type hydraulic stress
cells at the Gepatsch rockfill dam Austria. Baumess Technick,
Bericht 1, (1965).
Thomas H. S. H. and Ward W. H. The design, construction and
performance of a vibrating wire earth pressure cell. Geotechnique
19, 39-51 (1969).
Trollope D. H. and Currie D. T. Small embedded earth pressure
cells--their design and calibration. Third Australia-New Zealand
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineerin 9 (1959).