nonliving environment constitute an
Ecology
 ecology is a broad , integrated discipline
of the study that involves the
relationship of organism to each other
and to their environment.
 the term ecology , which has become a
household word, was proposed by Ernst
Haeckel.
 Living organism or biotic , factors
include all of the other organism in the
habitat with which the organism
interacts.
 Non- Living organism or abiotic , factors
in the environment include the wind,
rain, sunlight, soil, and temperature to
which the maple tree is exposed during
it’s lifetime.
 The plant is adapted to it’s environment
 if the plant is were not adopted to it’s
environment , it’s seed might
germinated but the plants would die
before reproduction could occur.
 population vary in numbers , in density ,
in genetic diversity , snf in the total
mass of individuals,
 the organization may simply count the
number of individuals , although this
may not always be feasible.
 the organization may estimated
population density.
 communities are composed of
population of species of one type that
live together in the same place.
 vegetation maps are useful in land use
planning, forest and natural resources
management , biological conservation ,
landscape restoration, and even
military maneuvers.
 living organism interacting with one
another and with factors of the
ecosystem.
 Disturbances such as fire , strong
winds , and erosion are additional
abiotic factors,
 serpentine habitats are rich in species
and sustain many endemic species of
plants.
 studies vegetation have helped
developed methods to restore soild
polluted by heavy metals.
 plants of arid areas may also have
specialized forms of photosynthesis ,
such as Cam photosynthesis.
 plants grows in water( Hydrophtes) are
modified for aquatic environments.
 Ecosystem sustain energy flow through
food chains.
1. Producers (plant and algae)
2. Pimary producers (animals that
eat leaves)
3. Secondary producers (animals
and insects that eat meat)
4. Decomposer (fungi and
bacteria)
 producers and consumers interacts ,
forming food chain, or interlocking food
webs that determined the flow of the
energy levels.
 Trophic efficiency – the percentage of
available energy actually transferred
from one trophic level to the net varies
greately among systems and between
different trophic levels
 Cyclical in nature , the net result is
sustain self maintenance of the
ecosystem . This is the basis fo the so
called balance of nature.
 The negative effects of black walnut
hulls on understory plants were
 described in the late 19th century and
called allelopathy
 a careful experimental study of invasive
knapweed (centaurea) suggested that
the succes of this weed was due to
allelopathy
 Knapweeds do not appear allelopathic
in their native habitats , suggesting that
their associated that have evolved
adaptation to tolerate these chemicals .
 many other plants produce
phyltoalexins ( Chemicals that kills or
inhibit disease produce fungi or
bacteria)making them resistance to
various diseases
 Mycorrhizal Fungi are intimately
associated with the roots of most
woody and many other plants in such a
way both organism derived benefit
 Mutualism are a major part of life in
general.
 the fungi greatly increased the
absorptive surface of the root , usually
playing a major role in the absorption of
phosphorus and other nutrient , While
obtaining energy from the roots.
 Tomas Belt a naturalist who lived more
than 100 years ago , First called
attention to an association between
tropical ants and thorny , rapidly
growing species of acacia.
 The acacia has a large , hollow thorns at
the base of each leaf and is host to ants
that feed on sugars and etc.
 Experiemnt of Daniel have Janzen have
shown that when ants are removed
from these acacia species, the plant
grow very slowy and usually soon die
from insect attacks or from shading by
other plants.
LIFE HISTORY
 In order for a species to maintain
itself , it must be able to both
survive and reproduce.
 a speciecies of life history is
composed of the traits that control
it’s survival and reproduction.
 Plants reproductive strategies:
1. annuals - with reproductive
grow toward the end of the
season
2. biennials - production of
reproductive structure , the
plants dying after seed are
produced.
3. perennials- structures that
survive for many years.
 Competetive species- large , persistent
but often slow to reproduce.
 Stress tolerant – species are small , slow
growing have limited reproductive
ability and do not respond to nutrients.
 low stress- but substantial
disturbance , select fo weedy traits.
 The timing of crucial events in the life of
a plant , fo examples germination, bud
burst , flowering, and seed production
is called phenology.
Natural Cycle
 Natural cycle involves transformation
between organic and inorganic forms.
 nutierients constantly cycle and are
recycle in the life.
1. carbon
2. nitrogen
3. phosphorus
4. and other molecules
 are passing through cycle for eons.
Water cycle
 98% is composed of water cycle
 some water that reaches an area of
saturation known as the water
table.
 Below the water table porus rocks
collect water and when these
rocks , transmit water wells and
springs the are called aquifers.
 the water vapors rise into the
atmosphere, condenses and falls
back to earth in the form of rain ,
snow and hail in a constant cycle is
called water cycle.
Carbon Cycle
 Feeding ( Aquiring the energy
they need to maintain
themselves and grow)
 bacteria “Eat” Organic matter
( carbohydrates) , obtaining the
energy present in the
molecules.
 as a result activity ( Respiration)
they convert to carbon dioxide.
 Carbon moves through the
ecosystem via Photosynthesis,
respiration, and burning of
rapid rate.
 Soil erosion released organic
matter.
Nitrogen Cycle
 78% of the atmosphere
 some nitrogen in the air is
fixed that is converted into
smmonis or other nitrogen
compounds by various
nitrogen fixing bacteria.
 The application of inorganic
fertilizer , combined with the
annual burning of stubble ,
may eventually result in the
creation of hardpan soil
 hardpan developes through
the gradual accumulation of
salt residue , which dissolve
humus and disrupt the
structure of soil, causing the
clay particles to clump and
producing colloids that are
impervious to moisture.
 The nitrogen cycle is
vulnerable to human
disruption because most of it
depends on the activities of
microorganism that are
sensitive to changes of Ph and
pollution.
Succesion
 Sequence of events known
as succesion.
 It occurs whenever and
whereever there is a
disturbance of natural
areas in land or in water.
2 types of Succession
 primary succesion –
involves the formation of
soil in the beginning stages
 Secondary succesion –
takes place in an areas
that had previously
develeped vegetation and
had experience a drastic
environment mental
changes such as volcanic
 eruption or conversion of
land.
Primary succession
Global warming
 Stable plant communities may
be reffered to as climax
communities.
 Alternative stable states
developed in reponse to the
available species and chance
events.
 Volcano produces ash called
tephra
 The gradual to relatively rapid
enrichment called
eutrophication, facilitates the
growth of algea and other
organism that add their debris
to the bottom of the lake.
Secondary Succession
 make take place is a soil is
already present and they are
surviving species in the
vacinity.
Fire Ecology
 started primarily by lightning
and the activities of prehistoric
humans, have occured for a
thousand of years in North
America and other continents.
 Cynobacteria , which are
capable of fixing nitrogen form
the air , increase in numbers
after a fire and there is
decrease in fungi that cause
plant diseases.
Impacts of plant on human
communities
1. climate change
2. stratospheric ozone depletion
3. and loss of biodiversity
 Greenhous effect is the accumulation in
the atmosphere of gases that permit
radiation from the sun to reach the
earth surface but prevent that heat
from escaping back into the space, thus
adding to the global rise in the
temperature .
Carbon Dioxide
 D.L Lindstrom of the university of
Illinois at chicago and D.R MacAyeal of
the university of chicago examined
records of cores of ancient ice in
seberia, scandinavia and the arctic
ocean.
Methane
 Swamps and wetlands have long been
known to be sources of methane
produced by anaerobis bacteria
 Anaerobic bacteria in rice paddies
produced significant quantites of
methane.
 Mathane is a greenhouse gas 23 times
as potent as carbon dioxide.
 Methane is produced by decomposition
under anaerobic conditio.
Ozone Depletion
 Methane gas and chloroflourocarbons
(CFC’s) , the inert chemicals used for
refrigeration and other industrial
purposes, are broken down into active
compounds by sunlight at high
altitudes.
 The break down products destroy by
ozone , form of oxygen that in the
stratosphere provides a natural shield
for livig organism against ultra violet.
 Increased in ultravioledt radiation can
caused skin cancer.
 Bromine compounds called halons.
Which are commonly found un
electronic equiptment , such as
computer protection system are
reported to be as much 10 x more
destructive ozone that CFC’s.
 Powders and other inert gas are being
substitute for halons in fire
distinguisher.
Erosion
 Soil erosion is a direct result of over
gazing , clearing land for urbanzing and
roads, and plowing and is the leading
cause of water pollution.
Aquifer Depletion
 The overpumping of aquifers is
probably the most underestiminated
ecological problem worldwide.
combined with moisture droplets and
become a liquid acid deposistion ( acid
rain)
 Mychorrhizal fungi are beneficially
associated with the roots of many trees
and are susceptable to acidifiersoil.
 Higher acidty of soil water also reduces
the capacity of plant roots to obtain
needed mineral nutrients
 Acid deposistion also alter soil fertility
because large amounts of nitrogen
accumulate ( Eutropihication)
Water contamination
 Dumping of toxic industrial wastes from
runoff over polluted land.
 Blu baby syndrome , or cynosis in
newborns is the example of of the
effects of high nitrates levels in drinking
water.
 genetic engineering and bacteria also
wil play a major role in the future it is to
enhance their capacities for breaking
down other divices.

Loss of Biodiversity

 The loss of biodiversity in an ecosystem

has been shown to reduce the
efficiency of production and nutrient
use and to make the ecosystem less
resistance to disturbance.
 Mitigation (Alliviation of the problem)

Acid Deposition

 acid deposistion occurs after fossils

fuels are burned.
 Burning may result in the conversion of
sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid these