International Journal of Educational Management

Autonomy, workload, work life balance and job performance teachers

Johanim Johari, Fee Yean Tan, Zati Iwani Tjik@Zulkarnain,
Article information:
To cite this document:
Johanim Johari, Fee Yean Tan, Zati Iwani Tjik@Zulkarnain, "Autonomy, workload, work life balance and job performance
teachers", International Journal of Educational Management , https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-10-2016-0226
Permanent link to this document:
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-10-2016-0226
Downloaded on: 15 November 2017, At: 13:09 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 23 times since 2017*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

(2013),"Life-work balance: Emotional intelligence as a crucial component of achieving both personal life and
work performance", Management Research Review, Vol. 36 Iss 7 pp. 700-719 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/
MRR-05-2012-0115">https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-05-2012-0115</a>
(2016),"Work-life balance and its relationship with organizational pride and job satisfaction", Journal of Managerial
Psychology, Vol. 31 Iss 2 pp. 586-602 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-09-2014-0272">https://doi.org/10.1108/
JMP-09-2014-0272</a>

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:327772 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please
visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

 Autonomy, workload, work life balance and job performance teachers

Abstract

Purpose- The primary objective of this study is to examine the influence of autonomy,
workload and work life balance on job performance among teachers. A survey was carried
out among teachers in public schools in the Northern Region of Peninsular Malaysia.

Design/Methodology- This study adopted a quantitative approach to address the research

objectives. A total of 302 teachers reported on their level of autonomy, workload, and work
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

life balance as well as job performance. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0 and Partial Least Square (Smart PLS) version 2.0.

Findings- Based on the statistical analyses conducted, the findings reported that autonomy
and work life balance had a significant impact on respondents’ job performance. Workload,
on the other hand, had no substantial bearing on job performance among school teachers in
this study.

Implications- In terms of practical ramifications, the management of schools need to focus

on measures to enhance autonomy and work life balance in improving job performance
among teachers. Finally, directions for future research and conclusion of the study are also
presented.

Originality- Discussions emphasized on the importance of work life balance and autonomy
in elevating job performance among teachers. This study also provided partial support to the
Border and Boundary Theory.

Keywords- autonomy, workload, work life balance, job performance, teachers, Malaysia

Introduction

Education sector nowadays is required to undertake greater challenges in fulfilling the global

demands and expectations of the 21st century. This is crucial to ensure the competitiveness and

sustainability of the nation in the long run. Similarly, in the context of Malaysia, the education

1
 sector of the country has gone through continuous transformation throughout the years. The

reformation carried out aims to improve teaching and learning standards in schools and higher

education institutions. As Malaysia aspires to be a developed country by the year 2020,

education is deemed important as it is one of the indicators to measure the success of a nation.

Hence, various measures have been taken by the government in an effort to improve the quality

of education in the country.

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

In 2011, the School-Based Assessment (SBA) was introduced by the Ministry of

Education. The main purpose of SBA is to improve the effectiveness of the system in measuring

students’ academic progress. It is believed that such system will provide more opportunities for

teachers to monitor students on an on-going basis by providing feedback to improve the learning

ability of students (Brown, 2001; Maxwell and Cumming, 2011). On top of that, the National

Education Blueprint, which was released in 2013, aims to place Malaysia in the top third in the

world in terms of performance in international assessments, as measured by outcomes in

the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Programme for

International Student Assessment (PISA) within 15 years. It also aspires to reduce the current

urban-rural, socio-economic and gender achievement gaps significantly by 2020.

To catapult the level of education standard in the country, the role of teachers should be

continuously enhanced as they are main the pillars in the sector. Generally, teachers assume

various duties, such as assisting schools in administrative tasks, handling student discipline,

engaging in extra-curricular activities, monitoring student attendance, and evaluating students’

homework. Teachers are also expected to act as sport teachers, to get involved in the Parents-

Teachers Association (PTA), and importantly to meet the requirements of their jobs. Teachers

2
 face pressure on a constant basis from schools inspectorate supervision and they are also required

to attend staff development programs. Teachers are also expected to work during holidays to

ensure that lesson plans from the education department went smoothly as planned (Adam, 2002).

In other words, teachers do not only serve as educators to disseminate knowledge, but also as a

manager, planner, facilitator, and exemplary to the community. Evidently, teachers, like any

other professionals, have a great amount of responsibilities in their job. Hence, in order to carry
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

out their duties diligently without any short comings, teachers need to be given more autonomy

in performing their work. This is crucial as they are required to make informed decisions about

the education of their students, especially in determining the teaching strategies, curriculum, and

academic support. In line with this, Pearson and Moomaw (2006) asserted that teaching should

be recognized as a professional career and teachers should be given more empowerment to

resolve problems related to motivation, satisfaction, and stress among those in this profession.

Nevertheless, highly regulated and complex job descriptions would stifle teachers’ freedom and

creativity and this may result in a number of undesirable outcomes including lack of focus in

teaching that ultimately result in low student achievement.

According to Goyal and Arora (2012), the failure to achieve the right balance in terms of

effort and reward is significantly correlated to the lack of control over workload and lack of

energy in meeting personal needs and commitment. The imbalance between these too will lead to

fatigue, poor performance, and deteriorated quality of life. National Union of Teachers (NUT)

revealed that 90 percent of teachers have considered to give up their career in teaching within the

last two years due to the high workload. In this vein, Azizi, Jamaludin, and Mazeni (2010)

reported that one of the causes for workplace stress among teachers is the heavy workload. This

was supported by Bridges and Searle (2011) who concurred that heavy workload would affect

3
 morale, quality of life, and job satisfaction of employees. In the context of teacher, such adverse

impact would inevitably affect the quality of teaching and the quality of education at large.

Another issue worth noting is lack of work-life balance among teachers. According to

Goyal and Arora (2012), most employees around the globe are under pressure to balance the

priorities of family and work. Even though career growth is an important factor in achieving the

goal of life, in most instances it is distracted with day-to-day responsibilities. Punia and Kamboj
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

(2013) pointed out that teachers nowadays face greater challenges in achieving a balance

between professional and personal life due to the lack of boundary between life and work. In the

light of these issues, the objective of this study is to examine the influence of autonomy,

workload, and work-life balance on job performance among teachers.

Literature Review

Job Performance

Job performance is one of the important constructs that has continuously been given serious

attention in the fields of both organizational psychology and human resources management.

Jamal (2007) defined job performance as an individual’s ability to successfully perform tasks by

using resources available at work. On the other hand, Borman and Motowidlo (1993) proposed

that job performance is a concept that includes both task performance and contextual

performance. The latter focuses on the importance of social skills as predictors of job

performance. Task performance is defined as the effectiveness of job incumbents in performing

activities that contribute to the organization’s technical core (Borman and Motowidlo, 1997).

Contextual performance is defined as performance that is not formally required as part of the job

4
 but helps to shape the social and psychological context of the organization (Borman and

Motowidlo, 1993). Griffin (2005) pointed out that performance of an individual is determined by

three factors, namely environment at work, motivation, and the ability to do the job. This is

underpinned by Chandrasekar (2011), who purported that workplace environment strongly

impacts employee morale, productivity, and job performance. If the work place environment is

not favored by employees, they will be demotivated and their performance level will deteriorate.
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

For instance, poorly designed work timings, unsuitable authorities or duties, lack of appreciation,

and lack of personal decision making opportunity would result in dissatisfaction among

employees. Such constraints would create pressure on employees, which would have adverse

impacts on employees’ job performance.

According to Obilade (1999), teacher’s performance can be interpreted as the tasks and

responsibilities carried out by teachers in a certain period of time in line with the school system

in achieving organizational goals. Peretemode (1996) added that job performance is determined

by the level of employees’ day-to-day participation in various activities at their respective

institution. Apart from that, teachers are also burdened with administrative work that should not

be included in their job descriptions. Numerous tasks at work with ambiguous roles and

responsibilities at the workplace would jeopardize the quality of work-life balance among

teachers.

Autonomy

5
 Job autonomy is defined as the extent to which work can provide great freedom, independence

and discretion of the individual in work scheduling and determine the procedures to be used in

implementing them. According to Pearson and Hall (1993), this concept has been defined as

teacher's perception on the level of control that they have over their work environment and also

themselves. Additionally, Diab et al. (2011) in Gavriliuk (2010) defined teacher autonomy as

“the capacity to take control of one’s own teaching”. Based on the seminal work of Hackman
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

and Oldham (1975), autonomy is one of five job characteristics that determine the level of

motivation of a job incumbent. Hackman and Oldham (1975) asserted that autonomy leads to a

critical psychological state whereby “experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work”,

which in turn leads to results, such as better work efficiency and higher level of internal job

motivation. In other words, this factor is posited to result in increased motivation and

effectiveness of a job.

Literature have documented consistent findings on the impact of autonomy on various

outcomes among employees. Davis and Wilson (2000) reported that motivation and autonomy

are the crucial elements in escalating job satisfaction and alleviating job stress among teachers.

Similarly, Bacharach (1986) found that constraints, such as lack of autonomy and sense of

helplessness are highly associated with stress, frustration and anxiety among teachers. Bandura

(1997) shared the same notion that confidence in executing tasks will highly influence the quality

of job performance. In parallel fashion, Wang and Netemeyer (2002) reported that job autonomy

has a positive relationship with job performance.

A study by Saragih (2011) substantiated the empirical link between autonomy and job

performance. This is because higher job autonomy leads to greater confidence in the

performance of a certain task. In the context of teachers, Lamb (2008) pointed out that teaching

6
 profession should be granted sufficient freedom in determining the best solution or methods in

ensuring students’ engagement in learning is in place. Importantly, teachers are in the best

position to understand students’ need and to overcome their learning problems. As such, it is

purported that:

H1: Autonomy exerts a positive and significant impact on job performance.

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Workload

Workload refers to all activities involving employees’ time spent in performing professional

duties, responsibilities and interests at work, either directly or indirectly. In the teaching context,

similar definition of workload are put forward by various scholars in coining this concept among

teachers (Harold, 1984). Shukri (1998) defined workload as the responsibilities given to teachers,

either in the classroom or outside the classroom. Azita (2012) opined that workload is the

amount of time spent by teachers in performing various tasks ranging from teaching and

learning, co-curricular activities, meetings, etc. that are related to official duties as a teacher

during or after school hours. Sharifah, Suhaida and Soaib (2014) and Punia and Kamboj (2013)

also provided a much alike definition on this concept in which workload is defined as the

amount of time taken by teachers to set up their official duties inside or outside school hours.

Hence, teachers’ workload not only requires their time in schools but teachers also have to spend

extra hours after work in order to be more effective and productive in their teaching profession.

According to Easthope and Easthope (2000), intensified teaching workload includes the

development of the teacher-student ratio. This is due to the fact that teachers are continuously

burdened with new tasks added to their job descriptions. This situation deteriorates job

7
 satisfaction and organizational commitment among teachers, which ultimately affects the quality

of their job performance. This notion is corroborated by the empirical findings by Hassam, Tahir

and Muhammad Aslam’s (2011) study, which reported that long working hours due to extra

workload may have an inverse impact on job satisfaction as this circumstance interferes with

one’s wellbeing at work and home. Similar results are echoed in the studies by Nachreiner

(1995), Oron-Gilad et al. (2008) and Yeh and Wickens (1988). Drawing on these empirical
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

result, it is posited that:

H2: Workload exerts a negative and significant impact on job performance.

Work Life Balance

According to Abendroth and Dulk (2011), work-life balance refers to the harmonious interface

between the different domains of life. Dipura and Kakar (2013) defined worklife balance as

seeking for a balance between work from life and feeling comfortable with both work and family

commitments. Work-life balance concept is built on the idea that work life and personal life are

complementary of each other in bringing perfection to one's life. In similar vein, Saikia (2011)

defined this concept as the extent to which a person is involved and equally satisfied with their

work and personal roles. Byrne (2005) asserted that the success in achieving a balance between

work and life can bring multiple benefits to employers since employees are more motivated,

productive, and less stressful. This is because they feel valued by their respective employer.

Work life balance also may result in improved productivity and reduced absenteeism and

turnover rate. Organizations that embrace the work life balance concept are most preferred by

potential employees and they will also gain the reputation as an employer of choice.

8
 On the other side of the continuum, work-family conflict is the concept that explains on

the need of individuals to perform multiple roles, for instance as husband and wife, parents, and

friends in their social life. In the context of this study, work-life balance is deemed important to

ensure the effectiveness of teachers in all institutions they are attached to (Duxbury, 2003; Punia

and Kamboj, 2013). This is attributed to the fact that over the course of their career, teachers will
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

stumble into problems and challenges in achieving a balance between professional and personal

life due to the lack of boundaries between work and personal life (Punia and Kamboj, 2013). A

study by Beehr and Newman (1978) revealed that the stronger desire for achievement may lead a

person to try harder to improve their efforts in working life, at the expense of their personal life.

Unfortunately, this will reduce the level of satisfaction and increase the level of stress

experienced by employees. It is also worthy to note that only a handful of studies have looked

into the work life balance aspects among teaching professionals (Bell, Rajendran, and Theiler,

2012). Morris and Madsen (2007) asserted that studies in this field is crucial in contributing to

strategic development policies, practices, programs and interventions that integrate the aspects of

work life balance, particularly among those who are involved in teaching profession. By having

adequate empirical support on this, human resources professional can acquire a thorough

understanding on the work-life balance concept and identify measure how to ensure work life

balance among teachers are in place.

The role of work life balance in predicting job performance has received much attention

in the literature. Rego and Chunka (2009) and Harrington and Ladge (2009) reported that

employees, who successfully fulfill the role and commitment of families, demonstrate more

excellent job performance. Bloom and Van Reenen (2006) stated that work-life balance has

9
 proven to be the significant predictors of various organizational outcomes, including employee

retention and productivity. Hence, it is proposed that:

H3: Work-life balance exerts a positive and significant impact on job performance.

Research Framework

Past studies (e.g. Doherty 2010; Bhatnagar 2007; Saks 2006; Shuck et al. 2011; & Tomlinson
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

2010) have documented that workload, autonomy, and work life balance are the significant

predictors of job performance. This assertion aligns with the assumptions of Border and

Boundary Theories. Boundary theory is a general cognitive theory of social classification that

focuses on methods that people develop, maintain, or alter in an effort to manage the world

around them. In essence, this theory revolves around the different meanings that people assign to

home and work and the ease and frequency of transitioning between roles (Zerubavel, 1996).

This theory concerns the cognitive, physical, and other behavioral boundaries that exist between

individual’s work and family domain, which are distinct domains (Allen, Cho, and Meier, 2014).

The boundaries vary across individuals. If individuals keep their work and family separately, the

boundary is considered thick, and vice versa. Border theory focuses on the boundaries that divide

the times, places, and people associated with work versus family roles (Allen, Cho, and Meier,

2014). The integral part of this theory is work-family balance, which also refers to the

"satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home, with a minimum of role conflict" (Clark,

2000). Clark (2000) posited that work life balance can be achieved through various ways

depending on two important elements namely similarity of the work and family domains as well

as the strength of the boundaries between the aforesaid domains.

10
 Underpinned by Border and Boundary Theories, this research attempts to examine the

influence of autonomy, workload, and work life balance on teachers’ job performance in schools

in the Northern Region of Peninsular Malaysia. Figure 1 shows the theoretical framework of this

research. The independent variables are autonomy, workload, and work life balance while the

dependent variable is job performance.

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Figure 1: Research Framework

Autonomy

Workload Job Performance

Work-life Balance

Methodology

Research Design, Sampling, Instrumentation and Sample Items

This study used a quantitative approach to measure the relationship between workload, work life

balance, autonomy, and job performance. This study focused on public schools in the Northern

Region of Peninsular Malaysia. Questionnaires were distributed to 350 teachers in various

secondary schools. Out of 350 questionnaires distributed, 302 questionnaires, which constitute of

83.6 per cent response rate, were returned and usable for further analysis.

Self-administered questionnaire were used to gather data on autonomy, workload, work

life balance, and job performance among teachers. In this study the questionnaire adopted from

original sources and some modifications were made to suit the context of the study.

11
 A total of 59 items with the five-point Likert scale were used to measure all variables

understudy. 18 items adapted from QPS Nordic by Dallner et al. (2000) and Jackson, Wall,

Martin and Davids (1993) to measure autonomy. Sample items for this construct are “I can set

my own work pace” and “I can decide myself when I am going to take a break”. Items on work-

life balance, which consist of 15 items, were adopted from Work Inteference with Personal Life

(WIPL) scale developed by Fisher-McAuley et al. (2003). Sample items for this measure are
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

“My personal life suffers because of work” and “I neglected my personal needs because of

work”.

Five questions adopted from Quantitative Workload Inventory developed by Spector and

Jex (1998) were used to gauge the workload factor. Sample items for this construct are “My job

requires me to work very fast” and “My job leaves me with little time to get things done”.

Finally, a total of 21 items, which were adapted from Williams and Anderson (1991) were used

to assess job performance. Sample items for this measure includes “I fulfill responsibilities

specified in my job descriptions” and “I conserve and protect organizational properties”.

Data Analysis Technique

Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Software version 17.0 and Partial Least Square

(Smart PLS) version 2.0 were used for data analysis. A reliability test was done by observing the

Cronbach’s Alpha value with the cut-off point of 0.60. A regression analysis was conducted to

examine the influence of workload, autonomy, and work-life balance on job performance among

teachers.

12
 Findings

Respondent’s Demographic Profile

Out of 302 respondents, a total of 243 or 80.5 percent of the teachers are female, while the rest

are male. In terms of age, 29.1 percent of the respondents are in the age group of 46 -50 years old

while only 1.7 percent are below than 25. The vast majority of respondents or 90.1 percent in this
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

study are married. A total of 242 or 82.1 percent of the respondents have Bachelor Degree, 24 or

7.9 percent of the respondents have Master Degree, while the rest have secondary-school

certificate and Diploma qualifications. A total of 197 or 65.2 percent respondents have worked

as teachers for more than 16 years or more. As for positions, a total of 115 respondent or 38.1

percent are senior teachers, 31.1 percent are middle level teachers while 44 or 14.6 percent are

junior teachers.

To test the research hypotheses, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-

SEM) technique was used through Smart PLS 2.0. This technique of analysis was performed to test

the theoretically supported relationships that exist among variables of interest (Chin, 2010). As

proposed by Chin and Newsted (1999), PLS-SEM also is a useful technique to analyse a complex

research model as depicted in this study, which includes three independent variables (i.e. with

more than five indicators) and one dependent variable. Prior to using this technique of analysis,

data were screened for the accuracy of the data input and outlier detection. This was done through

a procedure suggested by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007). Besides that, common method bias

(CMV) was also examined to assess whether it would pose a threat in this study. This test is

necessary to ensure the results of data analysis are not affected by a single source of data method

employed in this study. According to Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, Podsakoff (2003), un-rotated

13
 exploratory factor analysis can be used to detect for possible existence of common method

variance. They contended that if the first factor extracted from the un-rotated exploratory factor

analysis accounts less than 50% threshold, then such bias is not a threat. The result indicated that

the extraction of the first factor accounted 16.07% out of the total 70.75% variance, suggesting that

common method variance issue is not established in the present study.

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Assessing the Measurement Model

Once the data screening was completed, the reflective measurement model was assessed. This

process began with the test of indicator’s loading and reliability. From the analysis performed, one

item from autonomy (QA5) and workload (QWL2), seven items (QWLB7, QWLB8, QWLB9,

QWLB12, QWLB13, QWLB14, and QWLB15) from work-life balance, and five items of

independent variable (i.e., job performance) were deleted from further analysis due to its low

reliability value that is less than cut-off values 0.40 for exploratory research (Hulland, 1999). Table

1 show the summarized results.

Table I. Results of Reflective Measurement Model

Model Measurement Item Loading Item CR AVE R2

Construct Items Reliability

14
 Autonomy QA1 0.736 0.542 0.922 0.629 -
QA2 0.820 0.672
QA3 0.825 0.681
QA4 0.769 0.591
QA6 0.863 0.745
QA7 0.766 0.587
QA8 0.766 0.587

Workload QWL1 0.652 0.425 0.853 0.596 -

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

QWL3 0.696 0.484

QWL4 0.803 0.645
QWL5 0.911 0.830

Work-life QWLB1 0.716 0.513 0.925 0.606 -

balance
QWLB2 0.785 0.616
QWLB3 0.727 0.529
QWLB4 0.838 0.702
QWLB5 0.849 0.721
QWLB6 0.764 0.584
QWLB10 0.759 0.576
QWLB11 0.782 0.612

Job QJP6 0.844 0.712 0.869 0.769 0.281

performance
QJP7 0.909 0.826
Note: CR = Composite reliability; AVE = Average variance extracted; R2 = R square.

Next, the internal consistency reliability was established by checking the composite reliability

coefficients of each construct (Henseler et al., 2009). All composite reliability (CR) coefficients

were above 0.70, suggesting that the internal consistency reliability for each construct were

acceptable (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). In addition, the values of average variance extracted (AVE)

15
 were also observed to determine the convergent validity of autonomy, workload, work-life balance,

and job performance. The results indicated that the value of AVE for all constructs were laid well

above the threshold value of 0.50. (Barclay et al., 1995; Bagozzi and Yi, 1988), lending the

evidence of convergent validity for each dimensions.

To ascertain discriminant validity, Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) criterion was employed. They
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

suggested that the square root of AVE should be greater than the correlation coefficient of the

respective construct. Table 2 depicts that each square root of AVE value was greater than the

correlation coefficients of the respective constructs, suggesting adequate discriminant validity. To

further check on this validity, cross-loadings of each indicators were also observed (Hair et al.,

2014). It was found that none of an indicator has significantly cross-loaded. Thus, this further

confirms the establishment of discriminant validity of the constructs.

Table II. Discriminant validity of reflective constructs

Constructs 1 2 3 4

1. Autonomy 0.793

2. Workload 0.196 0.772

3. Work-life balance -0.078 0.338 0.778

4. Job performance -0.316 -0.248 -0.397 0.877

Note: Diagonals (in bold) represent the square root of AVE while the other entries represent the correlation coefficients

Figure 2: Measurement Model

16
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Assessment of Structural Model

After the measurement model was assessed for its reliability and validity, the structural model

was tested. Three criteria namely R2 of endogenous latent variables, prediction relevance (Q2),

and estimates for path coefficients for model fit assessment, were used. The results of the study

indicated that 28.1% of the variance in job performance was explained by autonomy, workload,

and work-life balance. The effect size (f2) of constructs is also calculated to determine if these

exogenous variables have a substantial impact on the endogenous construct, which is job

performance. Cohen (1988) proposed the values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 represent small, medium,

and large effects, respectively. Hence, the effect size of work-life balance on job performance is

medium, while the effect size of autonomy and workload on job performance is small. Table 3

illustrates the result of the effect size.

This study also used prediction relevance (Q2) as an additional test for model fit. To

evaluate the predictive validity of a model using PLS, Q2 was calculated via blindfolding

procedure. As suggested by Hair et al. (2014), if the Q2 is greater than 0 then the model can be

viewed as having predictive relevance. Q2 only applies to endogenous construct (i.e., job

performance). Using an omission distance of six with the sample size of 302, the result showed

17
 that the model has adequate predictive relevance as the Q2 values are 0.213, that is above 0.

Table 3 depicts the result on analysis of effect size.

Table III. Analysis of effect size (f2)

Exogenous variables R2 excluded f2

Autonomy 0.180 0.141

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Workload 0.279 0.003

Work-life balance 0.136 0.202

Note: R2 included = 0.281; R2 excluded = coefficient of determination of focal predictor that excluded from the model; f2 = (R2
included - R2 excluded) / (1 - R2 included).

Besides that, the path coefficients of the three independent variables (i.e., autonomy, workload,

and work-life balance) on job performance were gathers via analysis of PLS bootstrapping (5000

resamples). The results showed that only workload had no significant influence on job

performance. Hence, only H1 and H3 posited earlier in this study were supported. Table 4

presents the results on path coefficients and hypotheses testing.

Figure 3: Structural Model

18
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Table 4. Path coefficients and hypotheses testing

Hypotheses Relationship Coefficient t value Supported

H1 Autonomy → job performance -0.340 7.547* Yes

H2 Workload → job performance -0.043 0.937 No

H3 Work-life balance → job performance -0.409 9.112* Yes

Note: t-value > 2.33 = significant at **p<0.01

Discussions

To recapitulate, the result showed that autonomy has positively impacted job performance

among teachers. This indicated that teachers who have higher level of autonomy are more likely

to demonstrate excellent job performance. According to Spector (1986) and Saragih (2011),

work autonomy allows employees to determine the order and pacing of their task assignment, as

well as procedures required to complete their tasks. Further, Abbbott (2014) asserted that

teachers are in the best position to make decisions on how to effectively conduct teaching and

19
 learning for their students. They should be given as much autonomy as possible when it comes to

choosing teaching strategies, lesson design, and also in providing academic support to students.

To put it differently, by having greater autonomy, job performance of teachers can be enhanced.

The results also reported that workload had no significant impact on job performance

among teachers. This finding is inconsistent to previous studies by Nachreiner (1995), Oron-

Gilad et al. (2008) and Yeh and Wickens (1988). A plausible explanation to this is that most
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

teachers in the study have more than 16 years of experience in the teaching field. They may have

the expertise required in performing their work because they have adequate experience in

executing their tasks and responsibilities related to teaching. Hence, heavy workload has no

bearing on job performance among teachers in this study.

Based on the results, it is evident that work life balance has a significant relationship with job

performance. The finding is in line with the results reported by Rego and Chunka (2009),

Harrington and Ladge (2009), Parkes and Langford (2008), and Bloom and Van Reenen (2006).

This suggests that teachers, who are able to juggle work and life and control and manage

problems by themselves, are able to perform at their best at work. This is because by having a

better personal life, teachers tend to have better mood at workplace. The good psychological

well-being and harmony in life help teachers to concentrate on their work and catapult their

performance level.

Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusion

Taken together, the findings of this research have provided theoretical and practical implications

in the domain of all variables understudy. Specifically, this study has provided additional

empirical evidence to the body of knowledge with regard to the linkage between workload, work

20
 life balance, autonomy, and job performance. As for practical ramification, the research results

validated the notion that autonomy and work life balance are of utmost importance in boosting

job performance among teachers. Practically put, in reviewing the existing policies and

procedures with regard to performance management, the aforesaid factors deserve a higher level

of scrutiny in any educational setting. This is attributed to the fact that teachers would engage in

high performance behavior if the management of schools provide adequate autonomy and work
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

life balance for them to perform at their best.

This study has highlighted several directions for further research endeavors. Future

research should replicate the framework of this study in other settings, such as private schools or

higher education institutions. Importantly, studies on these aspects in other perspectives would

perhaps yield interesting perspective and understanding with regard to job performance across

different settings. Finally, a comparative study between various contexts would be very useful in

understanding factors related to job performance in different nature of organizations.

References

Abendroth, A. K. and Dulk, L. (2011), “Support for the work-life balance in Europe: the

impact of state, workplace and family support on work-life balance satisfaction”,

Journal Work, Employment and Society, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 234-256.

Abott, S. (2014), “Teacher autonomy definition - The Glossary of Education Retrieved from

http://edglossary.org/teacher-autonomy/

Adam, B. (2002). Primary School Teacher's Workload of Malay Language Stream in Sibu

Division, Sarawak. Master's Thesis, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang.

21
 Azita, A. R. (2012). Secondary School Teachers' Workload in Batu Pahat, Johor Darul Takzim.

Master's Thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai Johor.

Azizi, Y., Jamaludin, R., and Mazeni, I. (2010), “Factors that contributed stress among

secondary school teachers in four states in Malaysia”, Asia Pacific Journal of

Educators and Education, Vol. 25, pp. 103–136.

Bacharach, S. B., Bauer, S. C., and Conley, S. (1986), “Organizational analysis of stress: the case
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

of elementary and secondary schools”, Work and Occupations, Vol. 13, pp. 7-32.

Bandura, A. (1997), “Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. W.H. Freemand and company.

Beehr, T. A., and Newman, J. E. (1978), “Job stress, employee health, and organizational

effectiveness: a facet analysis, model, and literature review”, Journal of Personnel

Psychology, Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 665-699.

Bell, A. S., Rajendran, D. and Theiler, S. (2012), “Job stress, wellbeing, work-life balance and

work- life conflict among Australian academics”, Electronic Journal of Applied

Psychology, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 25-37.

Borman, W. C. and Motowidlo, S. J. (1993), “Expanding the Criterion Domain to Include

Elements of Contextual Performance in Personnel Selection in Organizations. (N.

Schmitt and W. C. Borman, eds), pp. 71-98. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Borman, W. C. and Motowidlo, S. J. (1997), “Task Performance and Contextual Performance:

The Meaning for Personnel Selection Research”, Journal of Human Performance, Vol.

10 No. 2, pp. 99-109.

22
 Bloom, N., and Van Reenen, J. (2006), “Management practices, work–life balance, and

productivity: a review of some recent evidence”, Oxford Review of Economic Policy,

Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 457–482.

Bridges, S., and Searle, A. (2011), “Changing workloads of primary school teachers: I seem to

live on the edge of chaos”, School Leadership and Management, Vol. 31 No. 5, pp.

413–433.
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Brown, G. T. L. (2001), “School-based assessment methods: development and implementation”,

Journal of Assessment Paradigm, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 30-32.

Byrne, U. (2005). Work-life balance: Why are we talking about it at all. Business Information

Review, 22, 53-59.

Chandrasekar, K. (2011), “Workplace environment and its impact on organisational performance

in public sector organizations”, International Journal of Enterprise Computing and

Business Systems, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 1-19.

Chin, W. W., and Newsted, P. R. (1999), “Structural equation modelling analysis with small

samples using partial least squares” in R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Statistical strategies for small

samples research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 307-341

Clark, S. C. (2000), “Work/family Border Theory: a new theory of work/family balance”,

Human Relations, Vol. 53 No. 6, pp. 747-770.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral science, Lawrence Erlbaum

Mahwah, NJ.

23
 Davis, J., and Wilson, S. M. (2000), “Principles' efforts to empower teachers: effects on teacher

motivation and job satisfaction and stress”, The Clearing House, Vol. 73 No. 6, pp. 349-

357.

Diab, N. Y., Monnier, N., and Lavinal, F. (2011), “Pilot study on university English teachers’

professional autonomy in France”, International Journal of Organizational Analysis,

Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 20-29.

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Daipuria, P. and Kakar, D. (2013), “Work-life balance for working parents: perspectives and

strategies”, Journal of Strategic Human Resource Management, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 45-52.

Duxbury L (2003), “Work-life conflict in Canada in the new millennium: a status report”, Sydney

Papers, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp.78.

Easthope, C. and Easthope, G. (2000), “Intensification, extension and complexity of teachers’

Workload”, British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 43-58.

Fisher-McCauley, G., Stanton, J., Jolton, J., and Gavin, J. (2003), “Modelling the relationship

between work-life balance and organisational outcomes. Paper Presented at the Annual

Conference of the Society for Industrial- Organisational Psychology, Orlando.

Fornell, C., and Larcker, D. F. (1981), “Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable

variables and measurement error”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vo. 18 No. 1, pp. 39-

50.

Goyal, M., and Arora, S. (2012), “Harnessing work: family life balance among teachers in

educational institutions”, International Journal of Applied Services Marketing

Perspectives, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 170-176.

24
 Griffin (2005) in Inayatullah, A. and Jehangir, P. (2013), “Teacher’s job performance: the role of

motivation”, Abasyn Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 5 No. 2, 78-99.

Hackman, J. R., and Oldham, G. R. (1975), “Motivation through the design of work: test of a

theory”, Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, Vol. 16, pp. 250–279.

Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., and Sarstedt, M. (2014), “A primer on partial least

squares structural equation modelling” (PLS-SEM), Sage Publications, Incorporated.

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Hair, J. F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., and Mena, J. A. (2012), “An assessment of the use of

partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM)”, Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Harrington, B. and Ladge, J. (2009), “Present Dynamics and Future Directions for Organizations.

Organizational Dynamics”, Vol. 38 No. 2, pp. 148-157.

Hassam, I., Tahir, M. Q. and Muhammad Aslam, K. (2011), “The retrenchment effect on job

performance with mediating effect of work life balance”, African Journal of Business

Management, Vol. 5 No. 21, pp. 8642-8648.

Henseler, J., Ringle, C., and Sinkovics, R. (2009), “The use of partial least squares path

modelling in international marketing,” Advances in International Marketing, Vol. 20, pp.

277-320.

Jackson, P. R., Wall, T. D., Martin, R., and Davids, K. (1993), “New measures of job control,

cognitive demand and production responsibility”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol.

78, pp. 753-762.

Jamal, M. (2007), “Type-A behaviour in a multinational organization: a study of two countries”,

Stress and Health, Vol. 23, pp. 101-109.

25
 Lamb, T. and Reinders, H. (2008), “Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities and

Response,” John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam.

Nachreiner, F. (1995), “Standards for ergonomics principles relating to the design of work

systems and to mental workload”, Applied Ergonomics Journal, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 259-

263.

Maxwell, G. S., and Cumming, J. J. (2011), “Managing Without Public Examinations:

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Successful And Sustained Curriculum And Assessment Reform In Queensland” In

Yates, L. Collins, C and O’Connor, K. (Eds.), Australia’s Curriculum Dilemmas.

Australia: Melbourne University Press.

Morris, M. L., and Madsen, S. R. (2007), “Advancing work-life integration in individuals,

organizations, and communities,” Advances in Developing Human Resources, Vol. 9,

pp. 439-454.

Obilade, S. O. (1999), “Leadership Qualities and Styles As They Relate to Instructional

Productivity. The Manager Ibadan: Department of Educational Management, University

of Ibadan, pp. 25-32.

Oron-Gilad, T., Szalma, J., Stafford, S., and Hancock, P. (2008), “The workload and

performance relationship in the real world: a Study of police officers in a field shooting

exercise”, International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, Vol. 14 No. 2,

pp. 119-131.

Parkes, L. P., and Langford, P. H. (2008), “Work-life balance or work-life alignment? a test of

the importance of work-life balance for employee engagement and intention to stay in

organizations”, Journal of Management and Organization, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 267-284.

26
 Pearson, L. C., and Moomaw, W. (2006), “The relationship between teacher autonomy and

stress, work satisfaction, empowerment, and professionalism”, Educational Research

Quarterly, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 38-54.

Peretemode, V. F. (1996), “Education administrations applied concepts and theoretical

perspective”, Lagos, Joja Educational Research, pp. 36-50.

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., and Podsakoff, N. P. (2003), “Common method
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended

remedies”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No. 5, 879-903.

Punia, V., and Kamboj, M. (2013), “Quality of work-life balance among teachers in higher

education institutions”, Learning Community, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 197-208.

Rego, A., and Pina e Cunha, M. (2009), “Do the opportunities for learning and personal

development lead to happiness? It depends on work-family conciliation”, Journal of

Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 334-348.

Saikia, J. N. (2011). A study of the work life balance among the academics of higher education

institutions: A case study of Golaghat District.

Saragih, S. (2011), “The effects of job autonomy on work outcomes: self-efficacy as an

intervening variable,” International Research Journal of Business Studies, Vol. 6 No. 3,

pp. 203-215.

Sharifah, S., Suhaida, A. K., and Soaib, A. (2014), “Workload of technical secondary school

teachers: management and administration perceptions,” Malaysian Online Journal of

Education Management, Vol. 2 No. 4, pp. 21-35.

27
 Spector, P. E., and Jex, S. M. (1998), “Development of four self-report measures of job stressors

and strain: interpersonal conflict at work scale, organizational constraints scale,

quantitative workload inventory and physical symptoms inventory”, Journal of

Occupational Health Psychology, Vol. 3, pp. 356-367.

Tabachnick, B. G., and Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston:

Pearson Education.
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW At 13:09 15 November 2017 (PT)

Wang, G., and Netemeyer, R. (2002), “The effects of job autonomy, customer demandingness,

and trait competitiveness on salesperson learning, self-efficacy and performance”,

Journal of Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 30 No. 3, pp.217-228.

Williams, L. J., and Anderson, S. E. (1991). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as

predictors of organizational citizenship behaviour and in-role behaviours. Journal of

Management, Vol. 17 No. 1, 601-617.

Yeh, Y. Y., and Wickens, C. (1988), “Disassociation of Performance and Subjective Measures of

Workload. Human Factors”, Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society,

Vol. 30 No. 1, pp. 111-120.

28