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 International Journal of Educational Management
Autonomy, workload, work-life balance and job performance among teachers
Johanim Johari, Fee Yean Tan, Zati Iwani Tjik Zulkarnain,
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Johanim Johari, Fee Yean Tan, Zati Iwani Tjik Zulkarnain, (2018) "Autonomy, workload, work-life
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Vol. 32 Issue: 1, pp.107-120, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-10-2016-0226
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Job
Autonomy, workload, performance
work-life balance and job among
teachers
performance among teachers
Johanim Johari, Fee Yean Tan and Zati Iwani Tjik Zulkarnain 107
School of Business Management, College of Business,
Received 25 October 2016
Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Malaysia Accepted 4 May 2017

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of autonomy, workload, and work-life
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balance on job performance among teachers. A survey was carried out among teachers in public schools in
the Northern Region of Peninsular Malaysia.
Design/methodology/approach – This study adopted a quantitative approach to address the research
objectives. A total of 302 teachers reported on their level of autonomy, workload, and work-life balance as well
as job performance. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 17.0 and Partial
Least Square (Smart PLS) version 2.0.
Findings – Based on the statistical analyses conducted, the findings reported that autonomy and work-life
balance had a significant impact on respondents’ job performance. Workload, on the other hand, had no
substantial bearing on job performance among school teachers in this study.
Practical implications – In terms of practical ramifications, the management of schools need to focus on
measures to enhance autonomy and work-life balance in improving job performance among teachers.
Finally, directions for future research and conclusion of the study are also presented.
Originality/value – Discussions emphasized on the importance of work-life balance and autonomy in
elevating job performance among teachers. This study also provided partial support to the Border and
Boundary Theory.
Keywords Malaysia, Autonomy, Teachers, Job performance, Work-life balance, Workload
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Education sector nowadays is required to undertake greater challenges in fulfilling the
global demands and expectations of the twenty-first century. This is crucial to ensure the
competitiveness and sustainability of the nation in the long run. Similarly, in the context
of Malaysia, the education sector of the country has gone through continuous
transformation throughout the years. The reformation carried out aims to improve
teaching and learning standards in schools and higher education institutions.
As Malaysia aspires to be a developed country by the year 2020, education is deemed
important as it is one of the indicators to measure the success of a nation. Hence, various
measures have been taken by the government in an effort to improve the quality of
education in the country.
In 2011, the School-Based Assessment (SBA) was introduced by the Ministry of
Education. The main purpose of SBA is to improve the effectiveness of the system in
measuring students’ academic progress. It is believed that such system will provide more
opportunities for teachers to monitor students on an on-going basis by providing feedback
to improve the learning ability of students (Brown, 2001; Maxwell and Cumming, 2011).
On top of that, the National Education Blueprint, which was released in 2013, aims to place
Malaysia in the top third in the world in terms of performance in international
International Journal of
assessments, as measured by outcomes in the Trends in International Mathematics and Educational Management
Science Study and the Programme for International Student Assessment within 15 years. Vol. 32 No. 1, 2018
pp. 107-120
It also aspires to reduce the current urban-rural, socio-economic and gender achievement © Emerald Publishing Limited
0951-354X
gaps significantly by 2020. DOI 10.1108/IJEM-10-2016-0226
 IJEM To catapult the level of education standard in the country, the role of teachers should be
32,1 continuously enhanced as they are main the pillars in the sector. Generally, teachers assume
various duties, such as assisting schools in administrative tasks, handling student
discipline, engaging in extra-curricular activities, monitoring student attendance, and
evaluating students’ homework. Teachers are also expected to act as sport teachers, to get
involved in the Parents-Teachers Association, and importantly to meet the requirements of
108 their jobs. Teachers face pressure on a constant basis from schools’ inspectorate supervision
and they are also required to attend staff development programs. Teachers are also
expected to work during holidays to ensure that lesson plans from the education department
went smoothly as planned (Adam, 2002). In other words, teachers do not only serve as
educators to disseminate knowledge, but also as a manager, planner, facilitator, and
exemplary to the community. Evidently, teachers, like any other professionals, have a great
amount of responsibilities in their job. Hence, in order to carry out their duties diligently
without any short comings, teachers need to be given more autonomy in performing their
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work. This is crucial as they are required to make informed decisions about the education of
their students, especially in determining the teaching strategies, curriculum, and academic
support. In line with this, Pearson and Moomaw (2006) asserted that teaching should be
recognized as a professional career and teachers should be given more empowerment to
resolve problems related to motivation, satisfaction, and stress among those in this
profession. Nevertheless, highly regulated and complex job descriptions would stifle
teachers’ freedom and creativity and this may result in a number of undesirable outcomes
including lack of focus in teaching that ultimately result in low student achievement.
According to Goyal and Arora (2012), the failure to achieve the right balance in terms of
effort and reward is significantly correlated to the lack of control over workload and lack of
energy in meeting personal needs and commitment. The imbalance between these two will
lead to fatigue, poor performance, and deteriorated quality of life. The National Union of
Teachers revealed that 90 percent of teachers have considered to give up their career in
teaching within the last two years due to the high workload. In this vein, Azizi et al. (2010)
reported that one of the causes for workplace stress among teachers is the heavy workload.
This was supported by Bridges and Searle (2011) who concurred that heavy workload
would affect morale, quality of life, and job satisfaction of employees. In the context of
teachers, such adverse impact would inevitably affect the quality of teaching and the quality
of education at large.
Another issue worth noting is lack of work-life balance among teachers. According to
Goyal and Arora (2012), most employees around the globe are under pressure to balance the
priorities of family and work. Even though career growth is an important factor in achieving
the goal of life, in most instances it is distracted with day-to-day responsibilities. Punia and
Kamboj (2013) pointed out that teachers nowadays face greater challenges in achieving a
balance between professional and personal life due to the lack of boundary between life and
work. In the light of these issues, the objective of this study is to examine the influence of
autonomy, workload, and work-life balance on job performance among teachers.

Literature review
Job performance
Job performance is one of the important constructs that has continuously been given serious
attention in the fields of both organizational psychology and human resources management.
Jamal (2007) defined job performance as an individual’s ability to successfully perform tasks
by using resources available at work. On the other hand, Borman and Motowidlo (1993)
proposed that job performance is a concept that includes both task performance and
contextual performance. The latter focuses on the importance of social skills as predictors of
job performance. Task performance is defined as the effectiveness of job incumbents in
 performing activities that contribute to the organization’s technical core (Borman and Job
Motowidlo, 1997). Contextual performance is defined as performance that is not formally performance
required as part of the job but helps to shape the social and psychological context of the among
organization (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993). Griffin (2005, in Inayatullah and
Jehangir, 2013) pointed out that performance of an individual is determined by three teachers
factors, namely environment at work, motivation, and the ability to do the job. This is
underpinned by Chandrasekar (2011), who purported that workplace environment strongly 109
impacts employee morale, productivity, and job performance. If the workplace environment
is not favored by employees, they will be demotivated and their performance level will
deteriorate. For instance, poorly designed work timings, unsuitable authorities or duties,
lack of appreciation, and lack of personal decision making opportunity would result in
dissatisfaction among employees. Such constraints would create pressure on employees,
which would have adverse impacts on employees’ job performance.
According to Obilade (1999), teacher’s performance can be interpreted as the tasks and
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responsibilities carried out by teachers in a certain period of time in line with the school
system in achieving organizational goals. Peretemode (1996) added that job performance is
determined by the level of employees’ day-to-day participation in various activities at their
respective institution. Apart from that, teachers are also burdened with administrative work
that should not be included in their job descriptions. Numerous tasks at work with
ambiguous roles and responsibilities at the workplace would jeopardize the quality of
work-life balance among teachers.

Autonomy
Job autonomy is defined as the extent to which a certain work can provide great freedom,
independence, and discretion of the individual in work scheduling and determine the
procedures to be used in implementing them. According to Pearson and Hall (1993), this
concept has been defined as teachers’ perception on the level of control that they have over
their work environment and also themselves. Additionally, Diab et al. (2011) in Gavriliuk
(2010) defined teacher autonomy as “the capacity to take control of one’s own teaching”.
Based on the seminal work of Hackman and Oldham (1975), autonomy is one of five job
characteristics that determine the level of motivation of a job incumbent. Hackman and
Oldham (1975) asserted that autonomy leads to a critical psychological state whereby
“experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work”, which in turn leads to results, such as
better work efficiency and higher level of internal job motivation. In other words, this factor
is posited to result in increased motivation and effectiveness of a job.
Literature has documented consistent findings on the impact of autonomy on various
outcomes among employees. Davis and Wilson (2000) reported that motivation and autonomy
are the crucial elements in escalating job satisfaction and alleviating job stress among
teachers. Similarly, Bacharach et al. (1986) found that constraints, such as lack of autonomy
and sense of helplessness, are highly associated with stress, frustration and anxiety among
teachers. Bandura (1997) shared the same notion that confidence in executing tasks will highly
influence the quality of job performance. In parallel fashion, Wang and Netemeyer (2002)
reported that job autonomy has a positive relationship with job performance.
A study by Saragih (2011) substantiated the empirical link between autonomy and job
performance. This is because higher job autonomy leads to greater confidence in the
performance of a certain task. In the context of teachers, Lamb and Reinders (2008) pointed
out that teaching profession should be granted sufficient freedom in determining the best
solution or methods in ensuring students’ engagement in learning is in place. Importantly,
teachers are in the best position to understand students’ needs and to overcome their
learning problems. As such, it is purported that:
H1. Autonomy exerts a positive and significant impact on job performance.
 IJEM Workload
32,1 Workload refers to all activities involving employees’ time spent in performing professional
duties, responsibilities and interests at work, either directly or indirectly. In the teaching
context, similar definition of workload are put forward by various scholars in coining
this concept among teachers (Harold, 1984). Shukri (1998) defined workload as the
responsibilities given to teachers, either in the classroom or outside the classroom.
110 Azita (2012) opined that workload is the amount of time spent by teachers in performing
various tasks ranging from teaching and learning, co-curricular activities, meetings, etc. that
are related to official duties as a teacher during or after school hours. Sharifah et al. (2014)
and Punia and Kamboj (2013) also provided a much alike definition on this concept in which
workload is defined as the amount of time taken by teachers to set up their official duties
inside or outside school hours. Hence, teachers’ workload not only requires their time in
schools but teachers also have to spend extra hours after work in order to be more effective
and productive in their teaching profession.
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According to Easthope and Easthope (2000), intensified teaching workload includes the
development of the teacher-student ratio. This is due to the fact that teachers are
continuously burdened with new tasks added to their job descriptions. This situation
deteriorates job satisfaction and organizational commitment among teachers, which
ultimately affects the quality of their job performance. This notion is corroborated by the
empirical findings by Hassam et al. (2011) study, which reported that long working hours
due to extra workload may have an inverse impact on job satisfaction as this circumstance
interferes with one’s well-being at work and home. Similar results are echoed in the studies
by Nachreiner (1995), Oron-Gilad et al. (2008) and Yeh and Wickens (1988). Drawing on these
empirical result, it is posited that:
H2. Workload exerts a negative and significant impact on job performance.

Work-life balance
According to Abendroth and Dulk (2011), work-life balance refers to the harmonious
interface between the different domains of life. Daipuria and Kakar (2013) defined work-life
balance as seeking for a balance between work from life and feeling comfortable with both
work and family commitments. Work-life balance concept is built on the idea that work life
and personal life are complementary of each other in bringing perfection to one’s life.
In similar vein, Saikia (2011) defined this concept as the extent to which a person is involved
and equally satisfied with their work and personal roles. Byrne (2005) asserted that the
success in achieving a balance between work and life can bring multiple benefits to
employers since employees are more motivated, productive, and less stressful. This is
because they feel valued by their respective employer. Work-life balance also may result in
improved productivity and reduced absenteeism and turnover rate. Organizations that
embrace the work-life balance concept are most preferred by potential employees and they
will also gain the reputation as an employer of choice.
On the other side of the continuum, work-family conflict is the concept that explains on
the need of individuals to perform multiple roles, for instance as husband and wife, parents,
and friends in their social life. In the context of this study, work-life balance is deemed
important to ensure the effectiveness of teachers in all institutions they are attached to
(Duxbury, 2003; Punia and Kamboj, 2013). This is attributed to the fact that over the course
of their career, teachers will stumble into problems and challenges in achieving a balance
between professional and personal life due to the lack of boundaries between work and
personal life (Punia and Kamboj, 2013). A study by Beehr and Newman (1978) revealed that
the stronger desire for achievement may lead a person to try harder to improve their efforts
in working life, at the expense of their personal life. Unfortunately, this will reduce the level
 of satisfaction and increase the level of stress experienced by employees. It is also worthy to Job
note that only a handful of studies have looked into the work-life balance aspects among performance
teaching professionals (Bell et al., 2012). Morris and Madsen (2007) asserted that studies in among
this field is crucial in contributing to strategic development policies, practices, programs,
and interventions that integrate the aspects of work-life balance, particularly among teachers
those who are involved in teaching profession. By having adequate empirical support on
this, human resources professional can acquire a thorough understanding on the 111
work-life balance concept and identify measure how to ensure work-life balance among
teachers are in place.
The role of work-life balance in predicting job performance has received much attention
in the literature. Rego and Pina e Cunha (2009) and Harrington and Ladge (2009) reported
that employees, who successfully fulfill the role and commitment of families, demonstrate
more excellent job performance. Bloom and Van Reenen (2006) stated that work-life balance
has proven to be the significant predictors of various organizational outcomes, including
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employee retention and productivity. Hence, it is proposed that:

H3. Work-life balance exerts a positive and significant impact on job performance.

Research framework
Past studies (e.g. Doherty, 2010; Bhatnagar, 2007; Saks, 2006; Shuck, 2011) have documented
that workload, autonomy, and work-life balance are the significant predictors of job
performance. This assertion aligns with the assumptions of the Border and Boundary
Theories. Boundary theory is a general cognitive theory of social classification that focuses
on methods that people develop, maintain, or alter in an effort to manage the world around
them. In essence, this theory revolves around the different meanings that people assign to
home and work and the ease and frequency of transitioning between roles (Zerubavel, 1996).
This theory concerns the cognitive, physical, and other behavioral boundaries that exist
between individual’s work and family domain, which are distinct domains
(Allen et al., 2014). The boundaries vary across individuals. If individuals keep their work
and family separately, the boundary is considered thick, and vice versa. Border theory
focuses on the boundaries that divide the times, places, and people associated with work vs
family roles (Allen et al., 2014). The integral part of this theory is work-family balance,
which also refers to the “satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home, with a
minimum of role conflict” (Clark, 2000). Clark (2000) posited that work-life balance can be
achieved through various ways depending on two important elements, namely similarities
of the work and family domains as well as the strength of the boundaries between the
aforesaid domains.
Underpinned by the Border and Boundary Theories, this research attempts to examine
the influence of autonomy, workload, and work-life balance on teachers’ job performance in
schools in the Northern Region of Peninsular Malaysia. Figure 1 shows the theoretical
framework of this research. The independent variables are autonomy, workload, and
work-life balance while the dependent variable is job performance.

Autonomy

Workload Job performance

Figure 1.
Work-life balance Research framework
 IJEM Methodology
32,1 Research design, sampling, instrumentation, and sample items
This study used a quantitative approach to measure the relationship between workload,
work-life balance, autonomy, and job performance. This study focused on public schools in
the Northern Region of Peninsular Malaysia. Questionnaires were distributed to
350 teachers in various secondary schools. Out of 350 questionnaires distributed,
112 302 questionnaires, which constitute of 83.6 percent response rate, were returned and usable
for further analysis.
Self-administered questionnaire were used to gather data on autonomy, workload, work-life
balance, and job performance among teachers. In this study, the questionnaire adopted from
original sources and some modifications were made to suit the context of the study.
A total of 59 items with the five-point Likert scale were used to measure all variables
understudy. In all, 18 items adapted from QPS Nordic by Dallner et al. (2000) and Jackson et al.
(1993) to measure autonomy. Sample items for this construct are “I can set my own work pace”
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and “I can decide myself when I am going to take a break.” Items on work-life balance, which
consist of 15 items, were adopted from Work Interference with Personal Life scale developed
by Fisher-McCauley et al. (2003). Sample items for this measure are “My personal life suffers
because of work” and “I neglected my personal needs because of work.”
Five questions adopted from Quantitative Workload Inventory developed by Spector and
Jex (1998) were used to gauge the workload factor. Sample items for this construct are “My job
requires me to work very fast” and “My job leaves me with little time to get things done.”
Finally, a total of 21 items, which were adapted from Williams and Anderson (1991), were used
to assess job performance. Sample items for this measure include “I fulfill responsibilities
specified in my job descriptions” and “I conserve and protect organizational properties.”

Data analysis technique

Statistical Package for Social Science Software version 17.0 and Partial Least Square (Smart PLS)
version 2.0 were used for data analysis. A reliability test was done by observing the Cronbach’s α
value with the cut-off point of 0.60. A regression analysis was conducted to examine the influence
of workload, autonomy, and work-life balance on job performance among teachers.

Findings
Respondent’s demographic profile
Out of 302 respondents, a total of 243 or 80.5 percent of the teachers are female, while
the rest are male. In terms of age, 29.1 percent of the respondents are in the age group of
46-50 years old while only 1.7 percent are below than 25. The vast majority of respondents
or 90.1 percent in this study are married. A total of 242 or 82.1 percent of the respondents
have bachelor’s degree, 24 or 7.9 percent of the respondents have master’s degree, while the
rest have secondary-school certificate and diploma qualifications. A total of 197 or
65.2 percent respondents have worked as teachers for more than 16 years. As for positions, a
total of 115 respondent or 38.1 percent are senior teachers, 31.1 percent are middle level
teachers while 44 or 14.6 percent are junior teachers.
To test the research hypotheses, partial least squares structural equation modeling
(PLS-SEM) technique was used through Smart PLS 2.0. This technique of analysis was
performed to test the theoretically supported relationships that exist among variables of
interest (Chin, 2010). As proposed by Chin and Newsted (1999), PLS-SEM also is a useful
technique to analyze a complex research model as depicted in this study, which includes
three independent variables (i.e. with more than five indicators) and one dependent variable.
Prior to using this technique of analysis, data were screened for the accuracy of the data
input and outlier detection. This was done through a procedure suggested by Tabachnick
 and Fidell (2007). Besides that, common method bias was also examined to assess whether it Job
would pose a threat in this study. This test is necessary to ensure that the results of data performance
analysis are not affected by a single source of data method employed in this study. among
According to Podsakoff et al. (2003), un-rotated exploratory factor analysis can be used to
detect for possible existence of common method variance. They contended that if the first teachers
factor extracted from the un-rotated exploratory factor analysis accounts less than
50 percent threshold, then such bias is not a threat. The result indicated that the extraction 113
of the first factor accounted 16.07 percent out of the total 70.75 percent variance, suggesting
that common method variance issue is not established in the present study.

Assessing the measurement model

Once the data screening was completed, the reflective measurement model was assessed.
This process began with the test of indicator’s loading and reliability. From the analysis
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performed, one item from autonomy (QA5) and workload (QWL2), seven items (QWLB7,
QWLB8, QWLB9, QWLB12, QWLB13, QWLB14, and QWLB15) from work-life balance, and
five items of independent variable (i.e. job performance) were deleted from further analysis
due to its low reliability value that is less than cut-off values 0.40 for exploratory research
(Hulland, 1999). Table I show the summarized results.
Next, the internal consistency reliability was established by checking the composite
reliability (CR) coefficients of each construct (Henseler et al., 2009). All CR coefficients were
above 0.70, suggesting that the internal consistency reliability for each construct were
acceptable (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). In addition, the values of average variance extracted
(AVE) were also observed to determine the convergent validity of autonomy, workload,
work-life balance, and job performance. The results indicated that the value of AVE for all
constructs were laid well above the threshold value of 0.50. (Barclay et al., 1995; Bagozzi and
Yi, 1988), lending the evidence of convergent validity for each dimensions.

Model construct Measurement items Item loading Item reliability CR AVE R2

Autonomy QA1 0.736 0.542 0.922 0.629 –

QA2 0.820 0.672
QA3 0.825 0.681
QA4 0.769 0.591
QA6 0.863 0.745
QA7 0.766 0.587
QA8 0.766 0.587
Workload QWL1 0.652 0.425 0.853 0.596 –
QWL3 0.696 0.484
QWL4 0.803 0.645
QWL5 0.911 0.830
Work-life balance QWLB1 0.716 0.513 0.925 0.606 –
QWLB2 0.785 0.616
QWLB3 0.727 0.529
QWLB4 0.838 0.702
QWLB5 0.849 0.721
QWLB6 0.764 0.584
QWLB10 0.759 0.576
QWLB11 0.782 0.612
Job performance QJP6 0.844 0.712 0.869 0.769 0.281 Table I.
QJP7 0.909 0.826 Results of reflective
Notes: CR, composite reliability; AVE, average variance extracted; R2, R square measurement model
 IJEM To ascertain the discriminant validity, Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) criterion was employed.
32,1 They suggested that the square root of AVE should be greater than the correlation
coefficient of the respective construct. Table II depicts that each square root of AVE value
was greater than the correlation coefficients of the respective constructs, suggesting
adequate discriminant validity. To further check on this validity, cross-loadings of each
indicators were also observed (Hair et al., 2014). It was found that none of the indicators has
114 significantly cross-loaded. Thus, this further confirms the establishment of discriminant
validity of the constructs (Figure 2).

Assessment of structural model

After the measurement model was assessed for its reliability and validity, the structural
model was tested. Three criteria, namely R2 of endogenous latent variables, prediction
relevance (Q2), and estimates for path coefficients for model fit assessment, were used.
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The results of the study indicated that 28.1 percent of the variance in job performance was
explained by autonomy, workload, and work-life balance. The effect size ( f2) of constructs is
also calculated to determine if these exogenous variables have a substantial impact on the

Constructs 1 2 3 4

1. Autonomy 0.793
2. Workload 0.196 0.772
3. Work-life balance −0.078 0.338 0.778
Table II. 4. Job performance −0.316 −0.248 −0.397 0.877
Discriminant validity Note: Diagonals (in italic) represent the square root of AVE while the other entries represent the correlation
of reflective constructs coefficients

QA1

QA2 0.736
0.820
QA3 0.825
0.769 0.000
QA4 0.863
0.766 Autonomy
QA6 0.766

QA7 –0.340

QA8

QWL1 QJP6_recode
0.652 0.844
–0.043
0.696 0.000 0.281
QWL3 0.909
0.803
QJP7_recode
0.911
QWL4 Workload Job performance

QWL5
–0.409
QWLB1

QWLB2 0.716
0.838
QWLB3 0.849 0.727
0.764 0.000 QWLB11
0.785
QWLB4 0.759
Figure 2. 0.782 QWLB10
Measurement model Work-life balance
QWLB5
QWLB6
 endogenous construct, which is job performance. Cohen (1988) proposed the values of 0.02, Job
0.15, and 0.35 represent small, medium, and large effects, respectively. Hence, the effect size performance
of work-life balance on job performance is medium, while the effect size of autonomy and among
workload on job performance is small. Table III illustrates the result of the effect size.
This study also used prediction relevance (Q2) as an additional test for model fit. teachers
To evaluate the predictive validity of a model using PLS, Q2 was calculated via blindfolding
procedure. As suggested by Hair et al. (2014), if the Q2 is greater than 0 then the model can 115
be viewed as having a predictive relevance. Q2 only applies to endogenous construct (i.e. job
performance). Using an omission distance of six with the sample size of 302, the result
showed that the model has adequate predictive relevance as the Q2 values are 0.213, that is
above 0. Table III depicts the result on analysis of effect size.
Besides that, the path coefficients of the three independent variables (i.e. autonomy,
workload, and work-life balance) on job performance were gathered via analysis of PLS
bootstrapping (5,000 resamples). The results showed that only workload had no significant
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influence on job performance. Hence, only H1 and H3 posited earlier in this study
were supported. Table IV presents the results on path coefficients and hypotheses
testing (Figure 3).

Discussions
To recapitulate, the result showed that autonomy has positively impacted job performance
among teachers. This indicated that teachers who have higher level of autonomy are more
likely to demonstrate excellent job performance. According to Spector (1986) and Saragih
(2011), work autonomy allows employees to determine the order and pacing of their task
assignment, as well as procedures required to complete their tasks. Further, Abott (2014)
asserted that teachers are in the best position to make decisions on how to effectively
conduct teaching and learning for their students. They should be given as much autonomy
as possible when it comes to choosing teaching strategies, lesson design, and also in
providing academic support to students. To put it differently, by having greater autonomy,
job performance of teachers can be enhanced.
The results also reported that workload had no significant impact on job performance
among teachers. This finding is inconsistent to previous studies by Nachreiner (1995),
Oron-Gilad et al. (2008) and Yeh and Wickens (1988). A plausible explanation to this is that
most teachers in the study have more than 16 years of experience in the teaching field.

Exogenous variables R2 excluded f2

Autonomy 0.180 0.141

Workload 0.279 0.003
Work-life balance 0.136 0.202 Table III.
Notes: R2 included ¼ 0.281; R2 excluded ¼ coefficient of determination of focal predictor that excluded from Analysis of effect
the model; f2 ¼ (R2 included − R2 excluded)/(1 − R2 included) size ( f2)

Hypotheses Relationship Coefficient t-value Supported

H1 Autonomy → job performance −0.340 7.547** Yes

H2 Workload → job performance −0.043 0.937 No Table IV.
H3 Work-life balance → job performance −0.409 9.112** Yes Path coefficients and
Note: t-valueW2.33 (significant at **p o0.01) hypotheses testing
 IJEM
32,1

Autonomy

116 7.547

0.937
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Workload Job performance

9.112

Figure 3.
Structural model
Work-life balance

They may have the expertise required in performing their work because they have adequate
experience in executing their tasks and responsibilities related to teaching. Hence, heavy
workload has no bearing on job performance among teachers in this study.
Based on the results, it is evident that work-life balance has a significant relationship with
job performance. The finding is in line with the results reported by Rego and Pina e Cunha
(2009), Harrington and Ladge (2009), Parkes and Langford (2008), and Bloom and Van Reenen
(2006). This suggests that teachers, who are able to juggle work and life and control and
manage problems by themselves, are able to perform at their best at work.
This is because by having a better personal life, teachers tend to have better mood at the
workplace. The good psychological well-being and harmony in life help teachers to
concentrate on their work and catapult their performance level.

Implications, recommendations, and conclusion

Taken together, the findings of this research have provided theoretical and practical
implications in the domain of all variables understudy. Specifically, this study has provided
additional empirical evidence to the body of knowledge with regard to the linkage between
workload, work-life balance, autonomy, and job performance. As for practical ramification,
the research results validated the notion that autonomy and work-life balance are of utmost
importance in boosting job performance among teachers. Practically put, in reviewing the
existing policies and procedures with regard to performance management, the aforesaid
factors deserve a higher level of scrutiny in any educational setting. This is attributed to the
 fact that teachers would engage in high performance behavior if the management of schools Job
provide adequate autonomy and work-life balance for them to perform at their best. performance
This study has highlighted several directions for further research endeavors. among
Future research should replicate the framework of this study in other settings, such as
private schools or higher education institutions. Importantly, studies on these aspects in teachers
other perspectives would perhaps yield interesting perspective and understanding with
regard to job performance across different settings. Finally, a comparative study between 117
various contexts would be very useful in understanding factors related to job performance
in different nature of organizations.

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Further reading
Hair, J.F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C.M. and Mena, J.A. (2012), An Assessment of the Use of Partial Least
Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Corresponding author
Johanim Johari can be contacted at: johanim@uum.edu.my

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