The Role of Residual Stresses in the

Mechanical Performance of Case Carburized

Steels

L . J . EBERT

R e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s in case c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s s t e m f r o m two m a j o r s o u r c e s , both of which

a r e a s s o c i a t e d with the (rapid) cooling of the s t e e l s f r o m e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s . The
f i r s t s o u r c e is the m o r e r a p i d cooling r a t e of the s u r f a c e of the body, as c o m p a r e d with
the r a t e of the i n t e r i o r . The second is the t i m e lag in the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the austenife
on cooling b e t w e e n the high c a r b o n and low c a r b o n p o r t i o n s of the c a r b u r i z e d body. The
a s - e a r b u r i z e d r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t e n s i t i e s and s t a t e s a r e a R e r e d to v a r y i n g d e g r e e s d u r -
ing the c o u r s e of the t e s t s used to m e a s u r e the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . The s i g n i f i c a n t
changes take place not only as the r e s u l t of the s t r a i n of the m e a s u r e m e n t t e s t itself, but
a l s o b e c a u s e of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of any a u s t e n i t e r e t a i n e d in the case of the c a r b u r i z e d
p a r t , and b e c a u s e of s t r e s s e s developed within the part by v i r t u e of the r h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r -
a c t i o n s which o c c u r within the p a r t s i n c e it is, in e s s e n c e , a composite m a t e r i a l . The
r e s u l t a n t o b s e r v e d m e c h a n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e of the c a r b u r i z e d body is the s u m m a t i o n of the
i n t r i n s i c m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the m a t e r i a l i t s e l f , and the effects of the r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s e s a s - c a r b u r i z e d , and a s - a l t e r e d by the above p h e n o m e n a .

IT is g e n e r a l l y known that r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s in case rheology of composite m a t e r i a l s , of which a case c a r -

c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s play a m a j o r r o l e in d e t e r m i n i n g
the b a s i c (or unit) m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the
s t e e l s , and the o v e r a l l m e c h a n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e of
case c a r b u r i z e d components of s t r u c t u r e s . It is
f u r t h e r known that this role may be e i t h e r b e e n f i c i a l
or d e l e t e r i o u s . The n a t u r e of the role depends upon
the sign and i n t e n s i t y of the peak s t r e s s e s , the com-
plete d i s t r i b u t i o n of the s t r e s s e s in a l l t h r e e p r i n c i -
p a l d i r e c t i o n s , and the p a r t i c u l a r m e c h a n i c a l p e r -
formance characteristic under consideration.
D e s p i t e the fact that the influence of r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s e s on m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s has b e e n o b s e r v e d
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y in n u m e r o u s c a s e s , it is s t i l l difficult,
if not i m p o s s i b l e , to r a t i o n a l i z e the effects o b s e r v e d ,
and even m o r e difficult to p r e d i c t in advance the
q u a n t i t a t i v e effect that the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s will have
in s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s . T h i s is the r e s u l t of s e v e r a l
factors :
1) It is difficult to d e t e r m i n e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y the
r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s in all t h r e e p r i n c i p a l
d i r e c t i o n s without d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g of the p a r t .
The p r e s e n t status of n o n d e s t r u c t i v e m e a s u r e m e n t of
r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s l i m i t s the d e t e r m i n a t i o n to s u r f a c e
s t r e s s e s only.
2) The a s - c a r b u r i z e d r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s
m a y be a l t e r e d d u r i n g the p e r f o r m a n c e of the p r o p e r t y
m e a s u r e m e n t t e s t beyond the extent which can be
a n t i c i p a t e d f r o m the i m p o s e d s t r e s s state of the t e s t .
T h e s e changes s t e m f r o m the in situ g e n e r a t i o n of
a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s as a r e s u l t of: a) the t e s t -
s t r a i n induced t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a u s t e n i t e r e t a i n e d in
the case of the c a r b u r i z e d p a r t , and b) the t e s t - s t r a i n
induced i n t e r a c t i v e s t r e s s e s which r e s u l t f r o m the
L, J. EBERTis Professor,Departmentof Metallurgyand MaterialsScience,
CaseWesternReserveUniversity,Cleveland,OH44106.
Thispaper is basedon a presentationmadeat a symposiumon "Carburizing
and Nitridhag:Fundamentals,Processesand Properties"held at the Cincinnati
Meetingof the MetallurgicalSocietyof AIME,November11 and 12, 1975under
the sponsorshipof the Heat TreatmentCommittee.
ISSN 0360-2133178/1113-I537500.75/0
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA 9 1978AMERICANSOCIETY FOR METALSAND
THE METALLURGICALSOCIETYOF AIME
b u r i z e d p a r t is an o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e .
T h i s p a p e r r e p r e s e n t s at a t t e m p t to r a t i o n a l i z e the
influence of the a c t u a l r e s i d u a l s t r e s s state e x i s t e n t
in case c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s on t h e i r m e c h a n i c a l be-
h a v i o r as they a r e s u b j e c t e d to m e c h a n i c a l loads,
e i t h e r in the p r o p e r t y m e a s u r e m e n t test, or in s e r -
v i c e . The a p p r o a c h c o n s i s t s of the d e v e l o p m e n t of a
c o m p r e h e n s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a l l f a c t o r s which
c r e a t e the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s state as a r e s u l t of the c a r -
b u r i z i n g , and the m a n n e r in which the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s
state may be a l t e r e d by the loading s y s t e m beyond that
a n t i c i p a t e d f r o m the s t r e s s state of the applied load
itself.
The t r e a t m e n t of the topic h e r e will b e g i n with the
f a c t o r s which c r e a t e a state of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s in case
c a r b u r i z e d p a r t s , including the g e n e r a t i o n of r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s in a l l t h r e e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s .
C o n s i d e r a t i o n will then be given to the case c a r -
b u r i z e d p a r t as a composite m a t e r i a l , independent of
whether or not r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s m a y be p r e s e n t , and
a t t e n t i o n will be given to the s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s
(again in a l l t h r e e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s ) induced into
the p a r t by the e x t e r n a l m e c h a n i c a l loading of the
c o m p o s i t e . A t t e n t i o n will then be d i r e c t e d to the
m a n n e r in which i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s may be g e n e r a t e d
within the case c a r b u r i z e d m a t e r i a l f r o m the t e s t -
s t r a i n induced t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of any a u s t e n i t e which
may have b e e n r e t a i n e d f r o m the c a r b u r i z a t i o n heat
t r e a t m e n t . Again, this c o n s i d e r a t i o n will be inde-
pendent of the i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s which might have
o r i g i n a t e d f r o m other s o u r c e s . F i n a l l y , e m p l o y i n g
the w e l l - k n o w n p r i n c i p l e of s u p e r p o s i t i o n of s t r e s s e s
(since they a r e e n t i r e l y e l a s t i c phenomena), the i n -
t e r n a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s r e s u l t i n g f r o m each of the
v a r i o u s s o u r c e s will be s u m m e d to give the o v e r a l l
i n t e r n a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n within the case c a r b u r i z e d
m a t e r i a l u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n or e v a l u a t i o n . Specific
m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s will be cited as a p p r o p r i a t e to
d e m o n s t r a t e the concepts which a r e b e i n g set forth.
VOLUME9A, NOVEMBER 1978-1537
 THE ORIGIN OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN
AS- CASE- CARBURIZED STEELS
The c a r b u r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s used to s u r f a c e h a r d e n
s t e e l s i n v o l v e s heating the s t e e l s to t e m p e r a t u r e above
t h e i r c r i t i c a l a l l o t r o p i c phase t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t e m -
p e r a t u r e s in the c r e a t i o n of high s u r f a c e c a r b o n con-
c e n t r a t i o n s , and then s u b s e q u e n t l y cooling them at
v a r i o u s r a t e s (including d i r e c t quenching) to a m b i e n t
t e m p e r a t u r e s . In such heat t r e a t m e n t s , the t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n of the high t e m p e r a t u r e a l l o t r o p i c f o r m of
the s t e e l , a u s t e n i t e , into the a p p r o p r i a t e d e c o m p o s i -
tion p h a s e s , or phase m i x t u r e s ( f e r r i t e , carbide,
p e a r l i t e , b a i n i t e , a n d / o r m a r t e n s i t e ) is a c c o m p a n i e d
by volume changes of the s t e e l s . B e c a u s e of the p r e s -
ence of composition g r a d i e n t s within the steel, n o t a b l y
that of the c a r b o n content, different p a r t s of the s t e e l
component will tend to u n d e r g o the phase t r a n s f o r -
mation at d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s , and t h e r e f o r e at dif-
f e r e n t t i m e s , in the cooling p a r t of the heat t r e a t m e n t .
The t i m e lag of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n within the s t e e l gives
r i s e to i n t e r n a l c o m p a r a b i l i t y s t r a i n s , and the con-
c o m m i t a n t g e n e r a t i o n of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s . ~ It is this
s o u r c e of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s which n o r m a l l y comes to
mind when one c o n s i d e r s the p o s s i b l e o r i g i n s of the
stresses.
While it is t r u e that the time leg in the g a m m a phase
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a m o n g v a r i o u s p o r t i o n s of the s t e e l b e -
ing c a r b u r i z e d is a m a j o r s o u r c e of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s
g e n e r a t i o n , it is by no m e a n s the only s o u r c e . Any
m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l which is cooled r a p i d l y f r o m an
e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e , and which has s u b s t a n t i a l thick-
n e s s , will be p r o n e to g e n e r a t e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s on
n o r m a l cool-down, e v e n in the a b s e n c e of v o l u m e t r i c
changes a s s o c i a t e d with a l l o t r o p i c phase changes.
T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of s t e e l s , which have a ( r e l a -
tively) low t h e r m a l conductivity, and for which the
1538-VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1978
y i e l d s t r e n g t h is quite t e m p e r a t u r e dependent. T h e s e
r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s will be g e n e r a l l y additive to those
c r e a t e d by the phase t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , taking p r o p e r a c -
count of both the i n t e n s i t y and the sign of the s p e c i f i c
s t r e s s at each point in the body. Hence, each of the
two s o u r c e s of the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s m u s t be con-
s i d e r e d independently.
R e s i d u a l S t r e s s e s G e n e r a t e d on N o r m a l Cool-Down
The m a n n e r in which r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s a r e g e n e r a -
ted on n o r m a l cool down of m e t a l l i c bodies f r o m e l e -
vated t e m p e r a t u r e s is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 1.
In this figure, the n o r m a l t e m p e r a t u r e - t i m e cooling
c u r v e s for the s u r f a c e and the c e n t e r of a m e t a l l i c
c y l i n d e r a r e shown in the upper left c o r n e r . The cool-
ing r a t e of the s u r f a c e of the b a r is much g r e a t e r than
that of the c e n t e r . The m a n n e r in which this d i f f e r e n c e
in cooling r a t e s affects the g e n e r a t i o n of r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s e s is shown in the b a l a n c e of the f i g u r e .
A thin v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n of the s t e e l c y l i n d e r is
shown in the upper right c o r n e r of F i g . 1, and the
s k e t c h e s of that section, l a b e l l e d A through D, i l l u s -
t r a t e s c h e m a t i c a l l y the m a n n e r in which the shape
of the s e c t i o n changes at v a r i o u s s t a g e s of the cool-
ing p r o c e s s . The l e t t e r s A through D r e l a t e to the
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t i m e s on the cooling c u r v e s .
Since the s u r f a c e of the b a r cools f a s t e r than the
c e n t e r , it will tend to u n d e r g o its n o r m a l t h e r m a l
s h r i n k a g e at a f a s t e r rate than the c e n t e r . The hotter
(and t h e r e f o r e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e r ) c e n t e r of the b a r will
not p e r m i t the o u t e r s h e l l to undergo the c o n t r a c t i o n
which it would see as a free body. Consequently, t e n -
sion s t r e s s e s a r e g e n e r a t e d in the axial and c i r c u m -
f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n s of the cooling s h e l l . T h i s is
shown as a function of time in the i l l u s t r a t i o n i m -
m e d i a t e l y below the cooling c u r v e s . The r e s t r i c t i o n
Fig. 1--Schematic illustra-
tion showing the develop-
ment of residual stresses on
cool-down of a metallic ma-
terial which undergoes no al-
lotropic transformation on
cooling. Only longitudinal
stresses are shown.
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA
of the c o n t r a c t i o n of the s u r f a c e by the core would
n o r m a l l y g e n e r a t e the s t r e s s i n t e n s i t i e s shown as
Curve a. However, s i n c e this c o n t r a c t i o n is o c c u r r i n g
at an e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e where the flow s t r e s s of the
m a t e r i a l and its e l a s t i c modulus is low, the full in-
t e n s i t y of the s t r e s s e s will not develop. R a t h e r , a
lower l e v e l of s t r e s s , that shown on Curve b, will be
present.
The m o r e r a p i d s h r i n k i n g r a t e of the cooler o u t e r
s u r f a c e s of the c y l i n d e r (in c o m p a r i s o n to that of the
i n n e r core) has a t e n d e n c y to " e x t r u d e " the hotter
(and t h e r e f o r e softer) i n n e r core in the a x i a l d i r e c -
tion. At the s a m e t i m e , the r e s i s t a n c e of the core to
the d e f o r m a t i o n t e n d e n c y will cause s o m e p e r m a n e n t
p l a s t i c s t r e t c h i n g of the o u t e r s u r f a c e s . The com-
bined a c t i o n s will then p r o m o t e the d e v e l o p m e n t of
the shape shown as Section B in the lower right c o r -
n e r of the f i g u r e . The cooling t i m e at which this
g e o m e t r y develops is shown as t i m e B on the cooling
curves.
As cooling continues, the w a r m e r core or c e n t r a l
s e c t i o n of the c y l i n d e r e v e n t u a l l y cools down and
u n d e r g o e s its n o r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n . I n so doing, how-
e v e r , it m e e t s r e s i s t a n c e to c o n t r a c t i o n f r o m the now
cool, and rigid, o u t e r s h e l l . Consequently, it develops
the shape shown as Section C, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t i m e
C on the cooling c u r v e . F i n a l l y , when the e n t i r e cylin-
der reaches ambient temperature a central section
will have b e e n inhibited f r o m u n d e r g o i n g its full con-
t r a c t i o n by the o u t e r s e c t i o n s of the c y l i n d e r . The net
r e s u l t is that the core is longer than it should be if
it were u n e n c u m b e r e d by the outer shell, and hence is
u n d e r t e n s i o n . R e a c t i v e l y , the o u t e r s h e l l is s h o r t e r
than it would be as a free body, b e c a u s e of the t e n s i o n
e x e r t e d upon it by the c e n t r a l s e c t i o n . Hence, it is
u n d e r c o m p r e s s i o n . The r e s u l t of the cooling i n t e r -
a c t i o n s is the s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n shown as Slice D,
and (in the m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m ) in the lower left
c o r n e r of the i l l u s t r a t i o n .
The r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , which
Fig. 2--Schematic illustra-
tion of the development of
residual stresses on the
quenching of a case car- Z~ O.SNC-.
burized steel in which the
transformation of the core
precedes that of the case on
0.I 1.0 1O t~0
cooling. Longitudinal
stresses only. Cc"I" Ol,a~lr ,*,.14o c<~<>u,,.i(, c.~,~,~'ES
Fr A, 5 0 ~ Ol~.eldLr'T'ICr II~*Q,I~r
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONSA
r e s u l t s f r o m n o r m a l cool down of a m e t a l l i c c y l i n d e r
f r o m high t e m p e r a t u r e is such that r e s i d u a l com-
p r e s s i o n is p r e s e n t on the s u r f a c e . F u r t h e r , this com-
p r e s s i o n is p r e s e n t in both a x i a l and c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l
d i r e c t i o n s on the s u r f a c e . F i g u r e 1 shows only the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of the a x i a l r e s i d u a l s t r e s s ; complete d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s of the s t r e s s e s in a l l t h r e e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c -
t i o n s a p p e a r in F i g u r e 5, and will be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r .
R e s i d u a l S t r e s s e s G e n e r a t e d by P h a s e
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in Case C a r b u r i z e d Steels
F i g u r e 2 is a s c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n of the m a n n e r
in which r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s a r e g e n e r a t e d in case c a r -
b u r i z e d s t e e l s as the r e s u l t of the t i m e - l a g in t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n b e t w e e n the case and the core of the c a r -
b u r i z e d s t e e l . In this i l l u s t r a t i o n , the p a r t is a g a i n
p r e s u m e d to be a c y l i n d e r with a c a r b o n d i s t r i b u t i o n
shown in the f i g u r e .
The Continuous- Cooling- T r a n s f o r m a t i o n (CCT)
curve for a p l a i n low c a r b o n s t e e l is shown on the
left side of the figure, along with m e a s u r e d cooling
curve for v a r i o u s r a d i a l locations in a 50 m m d i a m
b a r . * (Data t a k e n f r o m Ref. 2). The M s t e m p e r a t u r e s
*CCT curves are not to be confused with "TTT" (Time-Temperature-Transfor-
mation) curves which are usually determined by isothermal decomposition mea-
surement techniques. The TTT curves constitute a closer approach to equilibrium
conditions than do the CCT curves.
for p l a i n c a r b o n s t e e l s of s e v e r a l different c a r b o n
contents a r e also shown on the CCT curve d i a g r a m
by h o r i z o n t a l lines at the a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l s .
If it is p r e s u m e d that the m a x i m u m c a r b o n content
of the case is 0.8 pct or of higher, the s u p e r p o s i t i o n
of the cooling c u r v e s for the s e v e r a l r a d i a l locations
within the b a r on the CCT d i a g r a m c l e a r l y shows that
the core of the c a r b u r i z e d b a r , with its low c a r b o n
content, will t r a n s f o r m before the beginning of t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n in the high carbon case. T h i s m e a n s that
the core will expand in both the r a d i a l and c i r c u m -
T~ ~
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ior
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(a) (b) (c)
VOLUME 9A,NOVEMBER 1978-1539
 f
k\
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L a -t
~o
I!
(a)
f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n s , as well as in the axial d i r e c t i o n ,
as shown in P a n e l (b), while the case has no t e n d e n c y
to change its v o l u m e at that t i m e . The high t e m p e r a -
t u r e a u s t e n i t e which c o m p r i s e s the case is s u f f i c i e n t l y
p l a s t i c at that t e m p e r a t u r e that it will undergo s i z a b l e
p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n (stretching) to m a i n t a i n c o m p a t i -
b i l i t y with the (now l a r g e r ) c o r e . It will, however, af-
ford some r e s i s t a n c e to the f o r c e s c a u s i n g the de-
f o r m a t i o n , so that a x i a l t e n s i o n will be c r e a t e d in the
case, with the c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s
b e i n g g e n e r a t e d in the core. The r e s u l t a n t s t r e s s d i s -
t r i b u t i o n is shown in the lower s e c t i o n of P a n e l (b). It
should be noted that this d i s t r i b u t i o n , again, is that for
the axial d i r e c t i o n .
On f u r t h e r cooling, the a u s t e n i t i c s u r f a c e u n d e r g o e s
its phase t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , and would tend to exhibit the
attendant i n c r e a s e in v o l u m e , P a n e l (c) of Fig. 2. How-
e v e r , the p r e s e n c e of the (now) cool and r i g i d core
p r e v e n t s the s u r f a c e , or case, f r o m u n d e r g o i n g its
full f r e e - b o d y expansion. B e c a u s e of this r e s t r i c t i o n
to its full expansion, the case a c t u a l l y has s m a l l e r
d i m e n s i o n s than it would o t h e r w i s e have, and thus
a x i o m a t i c a l l y , it e x i s t s u n d e r a state of c o m p r e s s i v e
s t r e s s e s . Reactively, the core e x p e r i e n c e s t e n s i l e
s t r e s s e s , F i g . 2, P a n e l (c). The full d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
axial s t r e s s at a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e is that shown in
the lower p o r t i o n of P a n e l (c), Fig. 2.
C e r t a i n c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s have a b a s e c o m p o s i t i o n
a n d / o r c a r b o n l e v e l such that, on cool down f r o m the
a u s t e n i t i c r a n g e , the o u t e r s u r f a c e s or the case, u n d e r -
goes its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in advance of that of the core.
The r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m such
phase t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in these s t e e l s is shown in Fig.
3. F o r these s t e e l s , s i n c e the o u t e r case m a t e r i a l
r e t a r d s the complete e x p a n s i o n of the core in its sub-
s e q u e n t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the core of the m a t e r i a l is
s h o r t e r and s m a l l e r in d i a m e t e r than it would be
were it a free body. Consequently, it e x i s t s u n d e r a
state of c o m p r e s s i o n . Reactively, the case m a t e r i a l is
p r e s e n t in a s t a t e of t e n s i o n . The r e s u l t a n t s t r e s s d i s -
1540-VOLUME9A, NOVEMBER 1978
Fig. 3--Schematic illustra-
tion of the development of
residual stresses in a case
~ carburized steel in which the
transformation of the case
precedes that of the core.
Longitudinal stresses only.
~ ~o~
(b) (c)
t r i b u t i o n is shown in the lower right c o r n e r of the
figure.
In a few r a t h e r i s o l a t e d and specific i n s t a n c e s , p a r -
t i c u l a r l y those in which the case of the m a t e r i a l is
p a r t i c u l a r l y deep, the e n t i r e case may t r a n s f o r m at
n e a r l y the s a m e m o m e n t . This often r e s u l t s in a v e r y
complex s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n and i n t e r n a l c r a c k i n g in
the component. T h i s is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 4.
In F i g . 4, it will be noted that for a v e r y deep case,
of p e r h a p s 5 m m depth, with the c a r b o n content r a n g i n g
f r o m 0.4 to about 0.8 pct, the cooling c u r v e s for the
0.5, 2.0, and 5.0 m m depth l o c a t i o n s c r o s s the c o r -
r e s p o n d i n g M s t e m p e r a t u r e for the v a r y i n g c a r b o n
l e v e l s at a p p r o x i m a t e l y the s a m e t i m e . T h i s t i m e is
shown as t i m e W on the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n d i a g r a m .
The e x t r e m e l y l a r g e expansion, and the total net
force g e n e r a t e d by this e x p a n s i o n of the deep case,
produced m a j o r d i a l a t i o n as shown in P a n e l (b) of the
f i g u r e . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , a state of t r i a x i a l t e n s i o n
tends to be g e n e r a t e d in the core at this location.
Since the s t r e s s e s a r e of g r e a t i n t e n s i t y , and s i n c e
the t e m p e r a t u r e at which the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o c c u r s is
r e l a t i v e l y low, t h e r e is a s t r o n g t e n d e n c y for c r a c k s
to develop at the c a s e - c o r e i n t e r f a c e . I t ' s shown s c h e -
m a t i c a l l y on the right side of the f i g u r e .
In s u m m a r y , then, the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the a u s t e n i t e
in a case c a r b u r i z e d component may g e n e r a t e a v a r i e t y
of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s . They may be e i t h e r
t e n s i l e or c o m p r e s s i o n on the s u r f a c e and c o r r e s p o n d -
ingly c o m p r e s s i o n or t e n s i o n in the c o r e . F u r t h e r , the
peak i n t e n s i t i e s of the s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s may also be
v a r i a b l e . A s c h e m a t i c s u m m a r y of the v a r i o u s s t r e s s
d i s t r i b u t i o n s p o s s i b l e on the cooling of case c a r b u r i z e d
p a r t s is shown in Fig. 5. F u r t h e r , this figure also
shows the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n in all t h r e e
p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s . F o r case c a r b u r i z e d compon-
e n t s , the d i s t r i b u t i o n s in the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l d i r e c -
t i o n s a r e often n e a r l y the s a m e . D i s t r i b u t i o n s in the
r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n , however, m u s t be different f r o m
those in the o t h e r two d i r e c t i o n s .
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA
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Time, seconds

Transformation in r 50-mm-dla P
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F i g . 4 - - S c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n of the d e v e l o p m e n t of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s , and the o c c a s i o n a l c r a c k i n g , of a deeply c a r b u r i z e d
s t e e l on q u e n c h i n g , w h e n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the e n t i r e c a s e t a k e s p l a c e at a l m o s t the s a m e i n s t a n t .

CIX)I; - I D O ~ W -t. R,,~.NS F O R,l.d A T t 0 ~ T R A i,l ~1!='0 2..RAT I ON

Fig. 5--Schematic i l l u s t r a -
tion of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
three principal normal
s t r e s s e s w h i c h can be d e -
veloped on the q u e n c h i n g of
metallic m a t e r i a l s . The
s t r e s s e s s h o w n in the left
panel are those for metals
w h i c h u n d e r g o no a l l o t r o p i c
c h a n g e s . T h o s e in the c e n t e r . . ~
and r i g h t p a n e l s depict c a s e
carburized steels.
+

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(a) (b) (c)

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONSA VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1978-1541

 9i-~OO i

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I I I ] C~ENCHEO I I
il -o,c.c
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0.15

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4-100 P- O.Ol,~
Fig. 6 - - M e a s u r e d r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s distributions (length-
w i s e direction) in a c a r b u r i z e d
c h r o m e - c a r b o n s t e e l , and in
the s a m e s t e e l u n c a r b u r i z e d .

O IIC) m~ Lc>u6
I,.~ r t n r n '~JtoIE~
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,ram -4

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0 o.z o.4- (}.~ 0.~ 0 ~.b 0.4- o J, o.~

..o|] ~ ,r.,~ I .I.~1 Fig. 7 - - M e a s u r e d t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s of c a s e

c a r b u r i z e d p l a i n - and c h r o m e - c a r b o n s t e e l s ,
l as a function of the c a s e depth, and the c o r -
responding measured residual stress dis-
; [~ll]'--~,.-~ -, ~ _ t r i b u t i o n s in c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s p r i o r to t e s t -

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1542-VOLUME9A, NOVEMBER 1978 METALLURGICAL T R A N S A C T 1 O N S A

 Also shown in F i g . 5, for convenience of r e f e r e n c e ,
is the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n in a l l t h r e e p r i n -
cipal d i r e c t i o n s that r e s u l t s in the n o r m a l cool down
of m e t a l l i c p a r t s which do not u n d e r g o phase t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n s . ( F r o m Fig. 1), T h i s is shown in the P a n e l
(a) of F i g . 5. The specific r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u -
t i o n s in a p a r t i c u l a r c a r b u r i z e d component m a y be a
s u m m a t i o n of the s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s shown in P a n e l s
(a) plus (b), or i n P a n e l s (a) plus (c), depending upon
the n a t u r e of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the case and core
on cool down. In those c a s e s , the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s
c o n t r i b u t e d by the n o r m a l cool down, that is those ap-
pearirtg in P a n e l (a), a r e s m a l l in c o m p a r i s o n with
those r e s u l t i n g f r o m the phase t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s .
MEASURED RESIDUAL STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS
A c t u a l r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s m e a s u r e d on
c a r b u r i z e d p a r t s a r e shown in F i g s . 63 and 7.4 The data
on F i g . 6 a l s o show the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n in
the l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n for the u n c a r b u r i z e d base
s t e e l in the o r d i n a r y q u e n c h e d - a n d - t e m p e r e d condi-
tion, as well as for the c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s . It will be
noted that the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s at the s u r f a c e of the
b a r a r e of c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t sign, although r e l a -
t i v e l y the s a m e a b s o l u t e i n t e n s i t y , depending upon
whether the p a r t was c a r b u r i z e d o r not.
In F i g . 6, it will be noted that the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s
in the c a r b u r i z e d b a r a r e c o m p r e s s i v e n e a r the s u r -
face although the m a x i m u m i n t e n s i t y c o m p r e s s i v e
s t r e s s is a t t a i n e d at some s m a l l d i s t a n c e b e n e a t h the
Fig. 8--Fiber composite
simulation model which is
the direct physical counter-
part of a case carburized
steel.
- "-
L'
i
L
(a)
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA
s u r f a c e . The a u t h o r s of this work a t t r i b u t e the s o m e -
what lower i n t e n s i t y c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s on the v e r y
s u r f a c e to the p r e s e n c e of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e in the
case.
F i g u r e 7 shows both the l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e
r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t e n s i t i e s for 11.3 m m d i a m round
b a r s c a r b u r i z e d to t h r e e d i f f e r e n t depths, and for two
different s t e e l s . F o r the p l a i n c a r b o n steel, the in-
t e n s i t y of the c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s i n c r e a s e s as the
case b e c o m e s d e e p e r . T h i s is g e n e r a l l y t r u e also for
the 0.20 pct c a r b o n s t e e l containing 1.0 pct c h r o m i u m .
However, for this l a t t e r steel, the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s -
t r i b u t i o n s for the b a r s with the 0.4 m m deep case have
shapes s u b s t a n t i a l l y different f r o m those of the other
two case depth s t e e l s . The a u t h o r s of this work offer
no explanation for this d i s p a r i t y .
CASE CARBURIZED STEELS AS COMPOSITES
C h e r t and c o - w o r k e r s , in t h e i r work in the a n a l y t i -
cal p r e d i c t i o n of the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of o r i e n t e d
f i b e r composite m a t e r i a l s , have developed a s i m u l a -
tion model with which to p r e d i c t the i n t e n s i t y of the
r h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s that o c c u r on the a x i a l load-
ing of c o m p o s i t e s (5 through 8). F i g u r e 8 shows this
model. It can be seer~ that the m o d e l is the exact
p h y s i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t of a case c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l .
The o u t e r s h e l l of the model is the h a r d e r component
or the case in a c a r b u r i z e d steel; the i n n e r c y l i n d e r
r e p r e s e n t s the core. While the c a r b o n g r a d i e n t within
a n a c t u a l c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l has the shape shown in the
!iili
iiil!
!111~
(b)
VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1978-1543
lower p a r t of P a n e l (a) the f i g u r e , it can in fact be
s i m u l a t e d by that shown in P a n e l (b). In this l a t t e r
i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h e r e is a s h a r p d i s c o n t i n u i t y in c a r b o n
g r a d i e n t at the c a s e - c o r e i n t e r f a c e . The a p p r o p r i a t e
a x i a l t e n s i o n s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s for the case and
the core of the c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l a r e shown on the
right side of the f i g u r e .
When the composite is loaded in s i m p l e u n l a x i a l
t e n s i o n the d i s p l a c e m e n t s , or d e f o r m a t i o n s , which r e -
sult a r e shown in Fig. 9. Since both case and core
have the s a m e e l a s t i c constants they will d e f o r m as
a single unit when an (completely e l a s t i c ) i n i t i a l in-
c r e m e n t of s t r a i n (el) is added to the c o m p o s i t e . The
r e s u l t a n t s i n g u l a r i t y of the d e f o r m a t i o n r e s u l t i n g
f r o m the s t r a i n (ex) is shown in P a n e l (a) of the f i g u r e .
Since both case and core d e f o r m e d as a s i n g l e i n t e g r a l
unit, the only s t r e s s e s g e n e r a t e d a r e those in the a x i a l
d i r e c t i o n and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n is u n i f o r m as shown.
When a second i n c r e m e n t of s t r a i n (e2) is added to
the composite, the r e s u l t a n t s t r a i n i n c r e m e n t is s t i l l
in the e l a s t i c r e g i o n for the case, but in fact may be
in the e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c r e g i o n for the core. T h i s would
indicate, then, that the core would tend to c o n t r a c t
d i a m e t r a l l y m o r e than the case, b e c a u s e the P o i s s o n
r a t i o of the core exceeds that of its e l a s t i c value. As
~ e t
i t
+ I
I i
t *
J ;
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t 1
i
I I
Li
,
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i
o
IIIIIIIIIII11
+-I
o tltlil itl
e+
0
(a) (b)
Fig. 9--Schematic illustration of the manner in which the rheological interaction between case and core generates complex
stress states, even on simple loading of composite materials.
1544-VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1978
a r e s u l t , t r a n s v e r s e s t r e s s e s a r e g e n e r a t e d in the
r a d i a l and c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n s . T h e s e t r a n s -
v e r s e s t r e s s e s a r e shown in the lower p o r t i o n s of
P a n e l (b) of the f i g u r e .
It will be noted that the t r a n s v e r s e s t r e s s e s g e n e r -
ated in a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n a r e c o m p r e s s i v e
at the s u r f a c e and t e n s i l e in the core. In this r e s p e c t ,
they r e s e m b l e the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y
e n c o u n t e r e d in case c a r b u r i z e d components, F i g s . 2
to 5. The s o u r c e of the g e n e r a t i o n of the t r a n s v e r s e
s t r e s s e s is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 10. In this
figure, the c o n t r a c t i o n of the core is e x a g g e r a t e d to
e m p h a s i z e its tendency to pull away f r o m the case.
However, s i n c e laws of m e c h a n i c a l c o m p a t i b i l i t y
dictate that a continuum m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d , the f r e e
body c o n t r a c t i o n of the core is not e x p e r i e n c e d . The
n a t u r e of the s t r e s s e s r e q u i r e d to m a i n t a i n the con-
t i n u u m is a l s o shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g . 10.
While the above model was developed to s i m u l a t e
the i n t e r n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s in o r i e n t e d f i b e r composite
m a t e r i a l s , it also d u p l i c a t e s exactly those e n c o u n t -
e r e d in the a x i a l loading of case c a r b u r i z e d com-
p o n e n t s . The a c c u r a c y of the model has b e e n d e m o n -
s t r a t e d by E b e r t and c o - w o r k e r s . ~ F i g u r e 11 is an il-
l u s t r a t i o n of this v a l i d a t i o n . In this figure, the t a n -
ZX~&
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1. . . . . . . . . , - 4
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I ,,%
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA
 l]llli ill :

Fig. 10--Schematic i l l u s t r a t i o n
depicting the m a n n e r in which
the need to maintain a m e -
c h a n i c s continuum in axially
loaded c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l s
g e n e r a t e s internal s t r a i n s and
the attendant internal s t r e s s e s .

gential surface s t r a i n is plotted as a function of the ing even at ambient t e m p e r a t u r e s . In transforming,

applied axial s t r a i n for a two-piece composite test it undergoes the usual v o l u m e t r i c expansion attendant
b a r . This type of r e l a t i o n was found to be the most with a l l o t r o p i c change, Since the trm~sforming phase
sensitive to the internal interactions which occur in grains a r e completely enclosed by the a l r e a d y -
the composite. The excellent a g r e e m e n t between the
a n a l y t i c a l l y p r e d i c t e d relation and that m e a s u r e d ex-
p e r i m e n t a l l y substantiates the a c c u r a c y of the p r e -
dictive s y s t e m .
Case c a r b u r i z e d components a r e , in fact, com-
posites and t h e r e f o r e undergo typical composite in-
t e r n a l interactions, even in the absence of r e s i d u a l z
s t r e s s e s . These interactions should be taken into a c -
-r'E ~#~,61~ #-OADIw,AG, ~..Om~1~Q'rEQ
count in attempting to rationalize the total p e r f o r m -
ance of the c a r b u r i z e d p a r t because, like r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s e s , they a r e another input into the instantane- I I I
ous s t r e s s state that e x i s t s in the c a r b u r i z e d part
under load. ,.,E~.~_,~ E ~ , - l ~j ,,"

CONTRIBUTION OF THE TRANSFORMATION OF

RETAINED AUSTENITE
As noted above, the rapid cooling of the high carbon
steel case of the case c a r b u r i z e d component r e s u l t s
in the retention of significant amounts of retained
austenite in the case. The austenite retained in the o Y " ....
lower carbon core is much (or even insignificantly) Q 2 4- G 8 to I'~ ~4- ~6
less, The amount retained in both case and core is
g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d when the base s t e e l contains a l l o y -
Fig. l l - - C o m p a r i s o n of the measured and computed strains in
ing elements such as nickel. the tensile test of a two-piece cylindrical composite, showing
The retained austenite in the c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l is the accuracy of the interaction model in the prediction of
sensitive to t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to m a r t e n s i t e on s t r a i n - composite performance.
MF.TALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1978-1545
f o r m e d , and u n c o m p l i a n t m a r t e n s i t e m a t e r i a l , the b l e n t t e m p e r a t u r e (almost) a l l of the a p p a r e n t " p l a s -
v o l u m e t r i c change c a u s e s additional s t r a i n s within tic f l o w " s t r a i n s were a b s e n t . T h i s d e m o n s t r a t e s the
the e n t i r e v o l u m e of m a r t e n s i t e . T h e s e s t r a i n s a r e magnitude of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e x p a n s i o n s t r a i n s .
g e n e r a l l y negative in sign, in that the p r e - e x i s t i n g F i g u r e 12 f u r t h e r shows that lower c a r b o n steel,
m a r t e n s i t e opposes the v o l u m e t r i c i n c r e a s e . In t e r m s 4817, of the s a m e b a s e composite as the h i g h e r c a r -
of the c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t r e s s e s , the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in- bon 4885 s t e e l had e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e p e r -
duces a d d i t i o n a l c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s in a l l t h r e e f o r m a n c e curve whether o r not it was f i r s t r e f r i g e r -
principal directions. ated t o - 321~ b e f o r e t e s t i n g at a m b i e n t t e m p e r a -
The m a n n e r in which the m e c h a n i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t u r e s . T h i s steel, which c o r r e s p o n d s to the core of a
of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e induces additional s t r a i n s into c a r b u r i z e d steel, contained p r a c t i c a l l y no r e t a i n e d
the m a t e r i a l in which it is contained was d e m o n - a u s t e n i t e . Hence, r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e could not affect
s t r a t e d by T r o i a n o in a r e c e n t study. 9 Data f r o m this its mechanical behavior.
work a r e shown in F i g . 12. The influence of the mechanical transformation in-
F i g u r e 12 shows b e n d i n g l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s for duced strains (and stresses) on actual mechanical
both a high c a r b o n low alloy s t e e l (AISI 4885) and low performance will be discussed more fully in a later
c a r b o n (AISI 4817) s t e e l of the s a m e b a s e a n a l y s i s section.
which had b e e n c a r b u r i z e d . The higher c a r b o n s t e e l
had the s a m e g e n e r a l c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s as the case
of the c a r b u r i z e d 4817 s t e e l . Both s t e e l s were given
the s a m e heat t r e a t m e n t and thus the 4885 s t e e l had SPECIFIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AS
the s a m e a m o u n t of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e as the c a r - AFFECrED BY RESIDUAL STRESSES
b u r i z e d 4817 had in its high c a r b o n case. The assessment of the contribution of the residual
F i g u r e 12 shows that when the high c a r b o n (homo- stress state distributions in carburized steels to the
geneous) s t e e l with s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t s of r e t a i n e d total mechanical performance is very often difficult.
a u s t e n i t e was t e s t e d as a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e , its load The chief s o u r c e of difficulty lies in the fact the m a g -
deflection curve deviated f r o m l i n e a r i t y at about 1700 nitude of the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s peak i n t e n s i t i e s and the
lbs, taking on the a p p e a r a n c e of u n d e r g o i n g p l a s t i c de- n a t u r e of t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e m o r e or l e s s d i r e c t l y
f o r m a t i o n f r o m that loading to the f r a c t u r e load of r e l a t e d to the depth of the case a n d / o r its carbon
about 6000 lbs. Actually, the a p p a r e n t " p l a s t i c flow" content d i s t r i b u t i o n . Since the depth of the case and
r e p r e s e n t e d the g r a t u i t i o u s (expansion) s t r a i n s r e - its c a r b o n content of t h e m s e l v e s constitute a m a j o r
s u l t i n g f r o m the a u s t e n i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . When the input into the value of the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s ,
s a m e s t e e l was r e f r i g e r a t e d at - 3 2 1 ~ to t r a n s f o r m n e i t h e r the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s p a r a m e t e r n o r the b a s i c
the a u s t e n i t e to m a r t e n s i t e and then t e s t e d at a m - s t r e n g t h input p a r a m e t e r s can be v a r i e d independently.
Hence, it is v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to s e p a r a t e one f r o m
the other. In only a few i n s t a n c e s does this a p p e a r to
4885 have been done s u c c e s s f u l l y .
j I REFRIGERATED AT -321"F
J TESTED AT 7 5 " F
7 gs I
/
/ Tensile Properties
/
F i g u r e 7 cited p r e v i o u s l y shows the m a n n e r in
6 ' 9/ ~ C '
I! 4885 which the t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and t e n s i l e elongation of a
, / ~ . J TESTEDAT TS"F
0.20 pet c a r b o n s t e e l and a 0.2 pct c a r b o n plus 1.00
17 CARBURIZ~D pct c h r o m i u m s t e e l v a r y as the case depth i n c r e a s e s .
,t/l-/. t 1TESEDAT,.F S i m u l t a n e o u s with the i n c r e a s e in case depth is an
5 I 'X e- / ' ~ ~4 ~__ *S,T CARSUR,ZED
/ f /I , ~ ~?FR,GE.ATEDAT i n c r e a s e in the peak i n t e n s i t y of the c o m p r e s s i v e
J STIED AT 7 5 " F r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s in both the longitudinal and t r a n s -
o 4 L v e r s e d i r e c t i o n s of the case of the composite. It can
o
o_ be s e e n in Fig. 7 that the t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h g e n e r a l l y
d e c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g case depth. At the s a m e
t i m e the data could be c o n s t r u e d to m e a n that the
...i
t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h also d e c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g peak
C - INITIAL CRACK i n t e n s i t y of the r e s i d u a l c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s n e a r the
I l - FRACTURE
s u r f a c e of the m a t e r i a l .
2 On the b a s i s of the data p r e s e n t e d for the 0.20 pct
c a r b o n s t e e l , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n the two effects
is not p o s s i b l e . However, in the case of the alloy s t e e l
AUSTENITE some i n d i c a t i o n of the effect of the r e s i d u a l com-
' - /I :O.4T,ECES
GIVEN COLD TREATMENT IMMEO4- p r e s s i o n can be s e e n . In this i n s t a n c e , t h e r e is a
I ~ E L Y AFTER QUENCH
n e g a t i v e p e r t u r b a t i o n in the slope of the t e n s i l e
o0 O.010 0.020 0.030 0.O40
1 O.O~ 0.060
s t r e n g t h v s case depth curve at the value of 0.4 m m
case depth. R e f e r r i n g to the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u -
DEFLECTION c-'~ INCHES
tion for this case depth, it can be s e e n that the total
Fig. 12--The manner in which the transformation of retained
austenite in a bAgh carbon quenched-and-tempered steel c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s p r e s e n t i n the case at this case
(with the transformation occurring during the test) influenees depth is d i s c o n t i n u o u s l y s m a l l e r than that which
the tensile stress-strain eurve of a steel. would have been expected on the b a s i s of the data for

1546-VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1978 METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA

s s t r e s s and e n d u r a n c e l i m i t . H o w e v e r , even in t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the p r o o f is not c o m p l e t e l y unequivo-
cal, b e c a u s e in o r d e r to a c h i e v e the d i f f e r e n t r e s i d u a l
I-
s t r e s s i n t e n s i t i e s , s t e e l s of s e v e r a l h a r d e n a b i l i t i e s
.3 w e r e e m p l o y e d . T h i s m e a n s that, d e s p i t e the fact
UJ that s u r f a c e h a r d n e s s was constant, the depth of h a r d -
n e s s v a r i e d with the h a r d e n a b i l i t y of the s t e e l s . Thus,

3
r S o ~ = ~
i-
~ M l ~ =
!
CO~'A~t"r __
the t o t a l c o m p r e s s i v e f o r c e in the s u r f a c e a l s o v a r i e d ,
O = 8o01-,l~.
d e s p i t e the fact that the p e a k i n t e n s i t i e s w e r e con-
2 s t a n t . H o w e v e r , even if t h i s s h o r t c o m i n g of the i n v e s -
W
0 r I.o 1.5 Z.O ?.5 3.0 t i g a t i o n p r o v e s s e r i o u s , the study s t i l l c o m e s a s c l o s e
.40c 9 , = r , 9 a s p o s s i b l e to a c l e a r d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the d i r e c t r e l a -
tion b e t w e e n c o m p r e s s i v e r e s i d u a l s u r f a c e s t r e s s and
§162
fatigue r e s i s t a n c e .

I
o
- 20r
Bend T e s t s
W -40~
' ~ The e x t e n s i v e use of c a s e c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s in g e a r
p r o d u c t i o n has p r o m o t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t s in the
0.5 I.O 1.5 2.0 2.S .~.0 bend t e s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s . A
r3
EFFECTIVE CASE DEPTH - turn
n u m b e r of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have b e e n u n d e r t a k e n to a s -
F i g . 1 3 - - F a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s of a s e r i e s of c a s e c a r b u r i z e d s e s s the r o l e of the c a s e c a r b u r i z i n g p a r a m e t e r s ,
c h r o m e - m o l y b d e n u m s t e e l s , and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e a s - including r e s i d u a l s t r e s s , on the bend t e s t c h a r a c t e r -
u r e d p e a k r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s , s h o w i n g t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h i s t i c s of t h e s e s t e e l s . One such i n v e s t i g a t i o n is that
h a r d e n a b i l i t y of t h e b a s i c s t e e l a f f e c t s the f a t i g u e p r o p e r -
of K r o t i n e e t a l . 9
t i e s , and t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y
o v e r r i d e s o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s in d i c t a t i n g f a t i g u e p e r f o r m - In this i n v e s t i g a t i o n , c o g n i z a n c e was t a k e n of the
ance. fact that the c a r b u r i z e d component is in fact a c o m -
p o s i t e , and f u r t h e r that the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s m a y in
the 0.2 m m and 0.8 m m c a s e d e p t h s . It would a p p e a r fact be a l t e r e d d u r i n g the t e s t by v i r t u e of t r a n s f o r -
then that the m i n i m u m in t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o c c u r r i n g at m a t i o n of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e . The findings of this in-
the 0.4 m m c a s e depth is r e l a t e d to the p e r t u r b a t i o n
in the r e s i d u a l c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s in both l o n g i t u d i n a l T
and t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n f o r t h i s c a s e depth, and not
6 -- TENSION SlOE 4 8 ~ , . , K CARB-~ LOAD-'~
to the v a r i a t i o n s in s t r e n g t h of the c a s e and c o r e . OF BEND / 4817 I- ~1
~-- ~ "J ~ Z 5 Pz
LLI
O
4-- q -20 '~
,,,
Fatigue Properties .~" ~ 4885 TRANSf n
3- 9 -,5 s
While it i s g e n e r a l l y conceded that the p r e s e n c e of 2 ~4875 I0 Z
r e s i d u a l c o m p r e s s i o n in a s u r f a c e of m e m b e r s sub- LU
u~ P
j e c t e d to c y c l i c fatigue loading is b e n e f i c i a l to the
fatigue p r o p e r t i e s of the m a t e r i a l , h e r e too it has
b e e n v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to s e p a r a t e this r e s i d u a l
go /
0
I oll~,
0.5
TM I I
1.0
I I
1.5
I I
2.0
I t
2.5
I
5.0 ~.
0
s t r e s s effect f r o m the c o n c u r r e n t p h e n o m e n a that
a r e p r e s e n t to p r o d u c e a high fatigue r e s i s t a n c e .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , in the c a s e of c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s , the
h i g h e r c a r b o n content of the c a s e a u t o m a t i c a l l y a s - Ti COMPRESSIONSIDE -7
OI 6p OF BEND ~ 4 ~75 L U0 A ~
s u r e s a h i g h e r l o c a l t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h v a l u e ha the
l

c a s e . Since it is g e n e r a l l y known that the fatigue r e -

s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s with t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , it has b e e n ao
i m p o s s i b l e to d e l i n e a t e b e t w e e n the c o n t r i b u t i o n of the Z
c o m p r e s s i v e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s and h i g h e r s t r e n g t h in
the c a s e .
In one i n v e s t i g a t i o n , h o w e v e r , t e s t s w e r e d e s i g n e d l / . ~4885"LTRANSF : ~
to p e r m i t a r b i t r a r y c o n t r o l of the p e a k i n t e n s i t y of
the r e s i d u a l c o m p r e s s i o n in the s u r f a c e of a fatigue 'r/ . ""B j
OV I ~.-~,~0~I~ - ~ 1 4875 1 I I I I 0
t e s t p i e c e while keeping the s u r f a c e h a r d n e s s con- 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 5.0
s l a n t . ~~ The d a t a f r o m t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e shown LONGITUDINAL BENDING STRAIN ~ (L x lO0
in F i g . 13. Fig. 1 4 - - B e n d i n g load v s both l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r a i n ( m e a s -
F i g u r e 13 shows that the e n d u r a n c e l i m i t of the u r e d on both c o n v e x and c o n c a v e s i d e s of the t e s t p i e c e )
and t h e a m o u n t of a u s t e n i t e t r a n s f o r m e d f o r s e v e r a l h i g h
v a r i o u s s t e e l s i n c r e a s e d a s the p e a k i n t e n s i t y of the
c a r b o n alloy s t e e l s and a c a s e c a r b u r i z e d low c a r b o n a l -
r e s i d u a l c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s in the s u r f a c e i n - loy s t e e l , s h o w i n g the d i f f e r e n c e in t h e r a t e of a u s t e n i t e
c r e a s e d . T h i s would s e e m to i n d i c a t e a d i r e c t r e l a - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in the p r e s e n c e of t e n s i o n s t r a i n s and in
tion b e t w e e n magnitude of c o m p r e s s i v e r e s i d u a l t h e p r e s e n c e of c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n s .

METALLURGICAL T R A N S A C T I O N S A VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1 9 7 8 - 1 5 4 7

F i g . 1 5 - - T h e r o l e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e in a m e l i o r a t i n g the c o m p l e x s t r e s s s t a t e w h i c h w o u l d n o r m a l l y be
p r e s e n t on the s u r f a c e of a c a s e c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l b a r l o a d e d in p u r e b e n d i n g .

~l'-- 48 XX ~ FRACTURE

I'D

COMPONENTS

o I I I I I I l I I
0 O. 50 1.00 1.50 2. O 0 2.50

--
"b" 2 0 - - ~
_ 4817

COMPOSITE
F i g . 1 6 - - T h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e t r a n s f o r m a -
tion of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e a f f e c t s the t r a n s v e r s e
s t r e s s on the s u r f a c e of a c a s e c a r b u r i z e d
s t e e l b a r l o a d e d in p u r e b e n d i n g .

CASE --
W
I I , I , I i I~ i
> O 0.50 LOO t.50 2.00 ~.50
Z

4817 _ _ _ ~ ~

INTERACTION
JO-- ,r "r _ r - ~T

, I l I , I , I i I
0.50 |.00 1.50 2.00 2,5q
LONGITUDINAL BENDING STRAIN ~ EL x IO0

1 5 4 8 - V O L U M E 9A, NOVEMBER 1978 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS A

v e s t i g a t i o n d e m o n s t r a t e the i m p o r t a n c e of r e t a i n e d I

i i
UNCARBURIZED
a u s t e n i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n on b e n d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e of NOTCHED SPEC&
case c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l . - - ~ 0001 NOTCH R A D I U S -
The f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t finding was that the r a t e of tO%NOTCH DEPTH
SAE STEELS (AREA
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e depended upon
*~ 5o' O EX-I
whether the loading action produced a d o m i n a n t t e n - i 9 4817
sile s t r a i n or a d o m i n a n t c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n , i.e., B 4620
whether the location u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n was on a ~ 40 | 8620 . r

convex or concave side of the bend t e s t p i e c e . I.--

F i g u r e 14 shows that, for the s t e e l s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a - z 30
123
tion, the a u s t e n i t e r a t e of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was con-
z
o
I 1 i i [
Z r
SAE EX-i EXTENT OF CARB. bd F--
F- Z
STEEL DEPTH AREA o I0
80 9 0009" 11.5%
0 0.015 " 19%
0 0.019 " 25% -3OO -2OO -IOO O IOO 200
70 i TEST TEMPERATURE -- ~
(c')
60

s i d e r a b l y higher on the t e n s i o n side of the bend than

bJ 50
>.-er that on the c o m p r e s s i o n side of the b e n d . The r a t i o
:,.- ,,~
of r a t e s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was e s s e n t i a l l y 2 to 1.
~C )z- - 40-- When case c a r b u r i z e d b a r s containing s u b s t a n t i a l
(3 a m o u n t s of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e in t h e i r c a s e s a r e sub-
Z jected to b e n d i n g s t r a i n s , the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the
wo 50--
a u s t e n i t e into m a r t e n s i t e is a c c o m p a n i e d by a s i g n i -
ficantly large volume s t r a i n - a n e x p a n s i o n . T h i s has
Wll:
~-- i-- 20 the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of r e d u c i n g the t e n d e n c y for l a t e r a l
z
o c o n t r a c t i o n of the s u r f a c e of the b a r , the r e s i s t a n c e
IO to which t e n d e n c y is the o r i g i n of the l a t e r a l t e n s i o n

0 S'- t /
- 3 0 0 - 2 0 0 -iO0 0 I00 200
s t r e s s e s which develop in the b e n d i n g of flat b a r s .
As a c o n s e q u e n c e , the l a t e r a l t e n s i l e s t r e s s which
n o r m a l l y is g e n e r a t e d in the flatwise b e n d i n g of b a r s
TEST TEMPE.;tATURE--*F is g r e a t l y r e d u c e d . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , the d e g r e e of
(a)
b i a x i a l t e n s i o n of the s u r f a c e d e c r e a s e s . The de-
c r e a s e i n s t r e s s b i a x i a l i t y is an a m e l i o r a t i n g influence
SAE 4620 EXTENT OF CARB on the m e c h a n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e of the case, m a k i n g
STEEL DEPTH AREA
70 case m a t e r i a l s which would n o r m a l l y be quite b r i t -
9 0.009" 11.5%
0 0015 " 19 % tle, behave in a m u c h m o r e ductile fashion. It is quite
l"1 0.019 " 25% p o s s i b l e that this influence a c c o u n t s , to a large ex-
60
tent, for the fact that case c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s , loaded
$ in:bendbag, p e r f o r m much b e t t e r than the b a s i c c h a r -
50 t a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i r components might w a r r a n t . F i g u r e
15 i l l u s t r a t e s this b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n .
40 F i g u r e 15 shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the longitudinal
~z (tangential) s t r e s s and the t r a n s v e r s e (lateral) s t r e s s
:3
d i s t r i b u t i o n s in a c a r b u r i z e d b a r which has b e e n sub-
30
jected to p u r e b e n d i n g s t r a i n s of 0.25 pct, 0.50 pct,
and 1.6 pct. The data in the figure a r e l i m i t e d to those
~ z~ 20 v a l u e s in the convex (tension) p o r t i o n of the b a r thick-
o,o n e s s . In the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , it was a s s u m e d that the
I0
l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r a i n was l i n e a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d through
the b a r t h i c k n e s s .
The data in F i g . 15 show c l e a r l y that, a f t e r the on-
0 set of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the t r a n s -
-3OO -2OO -~OO O I00 200
TEST TEMPERATURE ~ ~ v e r s e t e n s i l e s t r e s s in the case has a much lower
(b) value than it would have had in the a b s e n c e of the
Fig. 17--Data demonstrating the "metallurgical notch" ef- t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . As a m a t t e r of fact, the value a c t u a l l y
fect which the case of a case carburized steel creates in the b e c o m e s c o m p r e s s i v e if the b e n d i n g s t r a i n s r e a c h a
material. (a) Variation in tensile duetils trar~sits tempera- sufficiently high v a l u e .
ture of SAE EX-1 steel with carburized case depth (no notch). The full extent of the change in s t r e s s i n t e n s i t i e s
(b) Variation in tensile ductility transition temperature of
SAE-4620 steel with carburized case depth (no notch). (c) on the s u r f a c e s t r e s s e s for the c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l of
Ductility transition curves for five steels in the notched con- Fig. 15 is shown in F i g . 16. The m a n n e r in which the
dition (no carburizing). t r a n s v e r s e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s with l o n g i t u d i n a l b e n d i n g

METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1978-1549

s t r a i n for each of the s t e e l components (case and
core) of the c a r b u r i z e d b a r is shown in the upper
plot. The s a m e v a l u e s for the c o m p o n e n t s as a n in-
t e g r a l c a r b u r i z e d b a r a r e shown in the c e n t e r plot.
The d i f f e r e n c e in b e h a v i o r s between the components
by t h e m s e l v e s , and as a composite b a r , is then the
magnitude of the i n t e r a c t i o n effect brought about by
the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e in the
m a t e r i a l . T h i s is shown in the bottom f i g u r e . The
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e r e d u c e s the
t e n s i l e i n t e n s i t y of the t r a n s v e r s e s t r e s s , in the
case e v e n to the point of i t s b e i n g c o m p r e s s i v e , while
at the s a m e t i m e i n c r e a s i n g the l e v e l of the t r a n s -
v e r s e s t r e s s in the c o r e . The r e d u c t i o n of the t e n -
s i l e s t r e s s in the case m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e -
duces p e r f o r m a n c e d e m a n d s placed upon the case
m a t e r i a l , while i n c r e a s i n g those placed upon the core
m a t e r i a l . The " t r a d e - o f f " in d e m a n d s , however, is
in the d i r e c t i o n of i m p r o v i n g o v e r a l l b a r p e r f o r m -
a n c e . The tough l o w - c a r b o n core m a t e r i a l is quite
capable of withstanding h i g h e r p e r f o r m a n c e d e m a n d s
without f a i l u r e , while the r e d u c e d p e r f o r m a n c e de-
m a n d s placed upon the case m a t e r i a l p e r m i t the b a r
to d e f o r m m o r e b e f o r e f a i l u r e of the c a s e .
In c o n s i d e r i n g the data shown in F i g s . 15 and 16, it
should be noted that the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s l e v e l in the
c a r b u r i z e d b a r was s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e d by s u i t a b l e
t e m p e r i n g t r e a t m e n t s , the peak value b e i n g less than
10,000 p s i . Had the n o r m a l c o m p r e s s i v e r e s i d u a l
Fig. 18--Subsurfacecrack occurring at (or near) the case-
core interface of a case earburized steel loaded in uniaxial
tension. Magnification 335 times.
1550-VOLUME 9A, NOVEMBER 1978
s t r e s s e s b e e n p r e s e n t in the case m a t e r i a l , the b e n e -
f i c i a l effects of the r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e t r a n s f o r m a -
tion in the case would have been even m o r e s t r i k i n g .
LOCUS OF FAILURE INITIATION IN
CARBURIZED STEELS
E x a m i n a t i o n of the s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s in F i g s .
7, 9, and 15 r e v e a l s that a s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e s t r e s s
state change o c c u r s at the c a s e - c o r e i n t e r f a c e of
carburized steels. Specifically, the longitudinaland
transverse stress value undergoes a rapid change at
this location, with some values actually changing sign.
This phenomenon is much like that brought about by
a mechanical notch in a homogeneous material. In-
deed, the action of the case on a case carburized
steel has been shown to be that of a "metallurgical"
notch. 11 F i g u r e 17 shows that the n u m b e r of c a r -
b u r i z i n g s t e e l s were r a n k - o r d e r e d in the s a m e m a n -
n e r (in t e r m s of ductility and t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a -
t u r e ) whether the notch was g e o m e t r i c in the homo-
geneous b a s e steel, or " m e t a l l u r g i c a l " in the un-
notched c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l by v i r t u e of its having been
carburized.
The s e v e r i t y of the s t r e s s e n v i r o n m e n t at the c a s e -
core i n t e r f a c e should then dictate the i n i t i a t i o n of the
f r a c t u r e of the c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s at this location.
E x p e r i m e n t a l v e r i f i c a t i o n of this p r e d i c t i o n was ob-
t a i n e d by Funatani in his work, Fig. 13, and by Kro-
fine in his studies.~ F i g u r e 18 shows the c r a c k at the
c a s e - c o r e i n t e r f a c e of an unnotched c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l
t e s t e d in s i m p l e u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n . 12
SUMMARY
It is very difficult, if not impossible, to define the
influence which residual stresses have on the mechani-
cal properties of case carburized steels in either a
succinct or a quantitative manner. The reasons for
the difficulty lie in the following observations:
1) Residual stress intensities and distributions
are closely related to other parameters, such as
case depth, case hardness, and so forth, which also
have a major influence on the mechanical properties
of the case carburized part. This means that the
basic residual stress measures, such as peak inten-
sity, distribution, and so forth cannot be varied in-
dependently.
2) Several innate characteristics of carburized
cases on the steels, notably the strain-induced trans-
formation of austenite retained in the case, create
dynamic changes in the effective "residual" stresses
in the case carburized component. These changes
take place d u r i n g the t e s t s that a r e p e r f o r m e d to
m e a s u r e the m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s .
3) Case c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l s a r e de facto composite
s t r u c t u r e s and, a s such, a r e s u b j e c t to the develop-
ment of r h e o l o g i c a l l y induced t r a n s v e r s e s t r e s s e s
d u r i n g the m e c h a n i c a l t e s t s . T h e s e s t r e s s e s also de-
pend on the m a j o r m a t e r i a l s p a r a m e t e r s of the c a r -
b u r i z e d c a s e - case depth and case h a r d n e s s .
4) The magnitude of the effect of the r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s e s depends to some d e g r e e on the p a r t i c u l a r
mechanical property under consideration.
D e s p i t e t h e s e difficulties in a s s e s s i n g the q u a n t i -
rive effect of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s on m e c h a n i c a l p r o p -
e r t i e s , two g e n e r a l i t i e s a p p e a r to be d e m o n s t r a t e d :
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSA
 1) In m o s t i n s t a n c e s , the two m a j o r principal s u r - 2. A. Rose and H. P. Hougardy: Symp. Transl. andHard. Steels, pp. 155-67,
face r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s in the c a s e of the c a r b u r i z e d University of Michigan, 1967.
3. D. M. Nakhimov and A. Ya. Novikova: Met. ScL Heat Treatment, July-
s t e e l s are c o m p r e s s i v e . The third principal s t r e s s
August 1968, vols. 7-8, pp. 518-20.
(that n o r m a l to the s u r f a c e ) is, of c o u r s e , z e r o at the 4. M. Motoyama: Suppl. Jap. lnst. Met., 1968, pp. 142-46.
s u r f a c e , and r e a c h e s s o m e r e l a t i v e l y low t e n s i l e 5. L. J. Ebert and J. D. Gadd: Fiber Comp. MatTs., pp. 89-113, ASM, 1965.
value below the s u r f a c e . 6. L. J. Ebert, S. S. Hecker, and C. H. Hamilton: J. Comp. Mater., 1968, vol. 2,
2) Certain s e l e c t e d m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , w h o s e pp. 740-48.
7. S. S. Hecker, C. H. Hamilton, and L. J. Ebert: J. Mater., 1970, vol. 5, pp.
values are enhanced to a large d e g r e e by high s u r f a c e
868-900.
h a r d n e s s and strength, are further i m p r o v e d by the 8. C. H. Hamilton, S. S. Hecker, and L J. Ebert: J. BasicEng., 1971, vol. 93,
r e s i d u a l c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s in the hardened c a s e . series D, no. 4, pp. 661-70.
A m o n g t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s a r e bend r e s i s t a n c e and fa- 9. F. T. Krotine, M. F. McGuire, L. J. Ebert, and A. R. Troiano: Tran~ ASM,
tigue r e s i s t a n c e . 1969, vol. 62, pp. 829-38.
10. K. Funatani: Suppl. Jap. Inst. Met., 1968, pp. 565-68.
11. L. J. Ebert, F. T. Krotine, and A. R. Troiano: J. Basic Eng., 1965, vol. 87,
RE FERENCES series D, no. 4, pp. 871-74.
12. L. J. Ebert, F. T. Krotine, and A. R. Troiano: MetalsProgr., September 1966,
1. D. P. Koistinen: Trans. ASM, 1958, vol. 50, pp. 227-41. pp. 61-64.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONSA V O L U M E 9A, N O V E M B E R 1978 1551