Stress, Deformation, and Martensitic Transformation

R . H . R I C H M A N A N D G. F . B O L L I N G

M a r t e n s i t e f o r m a t i o n in f e r r o u s a l l o y s is i n e x t r i c a b l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h l o c a l d e f o r m a t i o n . I n
o r d e r to a s s e s s t h e r o l e o f t h i s p l a s t i c w o r k in t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , t h e d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e s
of F e - N i - C a u s t e n i t e s t o i m p o s e d c h a n g e s i n d e f o r m a t i o n v a r i a b l e s a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d . F o r
b o t h s t a b l e a n d metastable c o m p o s i t i o n s d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t s are made o f t h e s e p a r a t e a n d
combined influences of p r e s t r a i n and applied s t r e s s , and of s t r a i n - r a t e and dynamic s t r a i n
aging. I n addition, new martensite-start t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e defined a n d examined concep-
t u a l l y . A d i f f e r e n t i a l f o r m o f a n e n e r g y b a l a n c e that d e s c r i b e s o u r v i e w p o i n t o f a u s t e n i t e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n at s t r e s s is t h e n u s e d to i n t e r p r e t t h e r e s u l t s . S o m e c o n s e q u e n c e s c o n c e r n -
ing the importance of plastic w o r k , its s t r u c t u r e sensitivity, and the pervasive influence of
l o c a l s t r e s s s t a t e s are d e d u c e d and d i s c u s s e d .

IT i s inescapable that the real s t r e s s e s w h i c h a c c o m - quent transformation are s u b j e c t t o unknown relations

pany m a r t e n s i t e f o r m a t i o n i n i r o n a l l o y s w i l l d i c t a t e a t
what s t a g e t h e transformation p r o c e s s must involve
d i s l o c a t i o n s . T h e e x i s t e n c e of r e a l s t r e s s e s a s o p -
p o s e d t o p u r e l y chemical equivalents has been proved
post f a c t o by t h e e x t e n s i v e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n o b -
s e r v e d i n both t h e p a r e n t a n d p r o d u c t p h a s e s .~-3 B u t
the involvement of dislocation motion and multiplica-
t i o n c a n s t i l l be q u e s t i o n e d i n t e r m s of w h a t d i s l o c a -
t i o n s a r e p e r t i n e n t a n d h o w a n d w h e n do t h e y m o v e . I n
t h i s r e g a r d i t i s l o g i c a l t o e x p e c t only t w o p o s s i b l e r e -
l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n a u s t e n i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d dis-
l o c a t i o n b e h a v i o r , w h i c h do not n e c e s s a r i l y e x c l u d e
e a c h o t h e r . T h e a c t i o n of d i s l o c a t i o n s c a n be e n t i r e l y
a c o n s e q u e n c e of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a n d f o l l o w i n g i t i n
time; or, martensite formation can r e q u i r e concurrent
dislocation motion. T h e s e alternatives do not need to
be involved with questions about the g e o m e t r y of the
martensite-austenite interface and a b o u t martensite
nucleation, but they cannot be independent of the stress
state of the transforming s y s t e m . In consequence, w e
shall investigate the effects of stress and strain upon
the martensite reaction. S i n c e the overall p r o b l e m is
quite c o m p l e x with m a n y variables and s e c o n d a r y
forces such as those associated with solute pinning,
s o m e simplifying t h e m e is n e e d e d at the outset. W e
shall undertake a description by first postulating that
martensite formation is indeed partly a p r o b l e m of
dislocation motion, and that the pertinent dislocations
are responsive to relatively s m a l l stresses. T h e util-
ity of o b s e r v i n g t h e dynamic r e s p o n s e s to i m p o s e d
changes o f d e f o r m a t i o n v a r i a b l e s u p o n m e t a s t a b l e a u s -
t e n i t e is t h e r e f o r e a w o r k i n g a s s u m p t i o n .
Dynamics a r e e m p h a s i z e d i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h
new experimental p r o c e d u r e s from t h o s e typified
e a r l i e r by t h e w o r k o f E d m o n d s o n a n d Ko~ w h o o b -
s e r v e d p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n in a u s t e n i t e a n d m a r t e n -
site a f t e r some transformation. Interpretations of the
effects of prestrain, partial transformation, or any
o t h e r c h a n g e s i n t h e s t a t i c s t a t e o f s t r a i n upon s u b s e -
between s t a t e s of s t r a i n and thus of l o c a l s t r e s s e s .
T h e r e is also a p o o r c o n t r o l o f t h e s t r e s s v a r i a b l e s in
t h e s e k i n d s of static experiments for the s a m e r e a -
s o n s , a n d it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t m a n y c o n f l i c t i n g be-
h a v i o r s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d . 4-7
Changes o f deformation variables a r e e m p h a s i z e d
in o r d e r t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e p r e s e n t m e t h o d s f r o m t h e e x -
p e r i m e n t a l a p p r o a c h r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e w o r k o f P a t e l
a n d C o h e n8 w h o a p p l i e d e x t e r n a l s t r e s s e s t o p r o m o t e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . I t w a s r e c e n t l y s h o w n9 t h a t t h e i r r e -
s u l t s c a n be d u p l i c a t e d i n F e - N i - C a l l o y s a s l o n g a s
s t a t i c a l l y a p p l i e d e x t e r n a l s t r e s s e s a r e r e s t r i c t e d to
l e v e l s b e l o w t h o s e r e q u i r e d for m e a s u r a b l e plastic
microstrain ( ~ 10 -6 s t r a i n ) , a n d c a r b o n c o n t e n t s t o
£ 0 . 4 wt p c t . E x t e r n a l s t r e s s p r o m o t e s m a r t e n s i t e
f o r m a t i o n : m a r t e n s i t e - s t a r t t e m p e r a t u r e s (Ms) a r e
e l e v a t e d by a n a m o u n t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e e n t r o p y
of transformation and thus t o the potential e n e r g y of
the applied s t r e s s r e l a t i v e t o the free e n e r g y of t r a n s -
formation. The P a t e l and C o h e n kind of experiment
n e e d not be p e r f o r m e d s t a t i c a l l y , but i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o
k e e p in m i n d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f s t a t i c a n d d y n a m i c
l o a d i n gd i v e r g e at s t r e s s l e v e l s a b o v e those for i r r e -
v e r s i b l e d i s l o c a t i o n m o t i o n 2 It w i l l p r o v e c o n v e n i e n t
t o t h i n k o f t h e P a t e l a n d C o h e n a p p r o a c h as a n investi-
g a t i o n of " e l a s t i c '~ b e h a v i o r , a n d t h u s a s a n a p p r o a c h
not r e s p o n s i v e t o c h a n g e s .
We h a v e made s e v e r a l r e l a t e d s t u d i e s o f F e - N i - C
a l l o y s in w h i c h d e f o r m a t i o n w a s u s e d as t h e c o n t r o l l e d
v a r i a b l e , and many s u b t l e o b s c u r i n g effects w e r e
f o u n d 2 -12 S i n c e o u r o b j e c t i v e i s t o s i m p l i f y r a t h e r
t h a n t o d e t a i l t h e difficulties in a s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s a m o n g s t r e s s , deformation, and martensitic
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , o u r p r e v i o u s f i n d i n g s w i l l be i n t r o -
d u c e d only as t h e y are n e e d e d f o r clarification. P r i -
m a r i l y w e s h a l l e m p h a s i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e l o c a l
s t r e s s s t a t e , show its responsiveness t o changes, and
p o i n t out t h e consequences i m p o s e d upon t h e f o r m a t i o n
of lenticular martensites.

R. H. RICHMAN and G. F. BOLLING are with the Scientific Re-
search Staff, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Mich.
This paper is based on an invited talk presented at a symposium on
Formation of Martensite in Iron Alloys sponsored by the IMD Ferrous
Metallurgy Committee of T h e Metallurgical Society of AIME, May
1970, in Las Vegas, Nev.
THE I N F L U E N C E OF PRESTRAIN
T h e alloys and techniques used in this investigation
have been described before,I° ,~z for convenience w e
note a g a i n that an alloy such as 2436 contains 24 w t
pet Ni and 0.36 wt pet C. Specific compositions and

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971-2451

 Table I. Compositions, Ms Temperatures, and Curie Temperatures o f Fe-Ni-C Alloys

Nickel Content Carbon Content Chromium Content

Alloy Curie
Designation Ms,°K Temp.,°K Wt Pct At. Pet Wt Pct At. Pet Wt Pct At. Pct
FERROMAGNETIC
4924 NA (748) 49.1 47.5 0.24 1.13
4903 NA (755) 49.2 48.0 0.03 0.14
3372 NA (490) 33.0 31.1 0.72 3,32
3303 (140) 435 33.3 32.2 0.03 0.14
3203 204 382 31.7 30.6 0.03 0.14
3004 248 326 29.8 28.7 0.04 0.19
2911 265 280 28.5 27.4 0.11 0.52
2826 220 (277) 27,6 26.4 0.26 1.21
2823 226 271 27.8 26.6 0.23 1.08
PARAMAGNETIC
2436 271 23.6 22.5 0.36 1.67
2345 242 22,8 21.6 0.45 2.08
2363 203 23.0 21.6 0,63 2.89
1696 213 15.9 14.7 0.96 4.35
23(1.0)38 195 23.1 21.9 0.38 1.76 0.99 1.06
23(2.3)29 (160) 23.1 22.0 0.29 1.35 2.33 2.50
23(3.4)19 ~177 23.2 22.1 0.19 0,89 3.41 3.67
23(7.7)03 <~77 23.1 22.1 0.03 0.14 7,73 8.34

p e r t i n e n t t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e l i s t e d in T a b l e I , 280

w h e r e t h e n o t a t i o n Ms r e p r e s e n t s t h e o r d i n a r y m a r - _ n
-
,,~
-
~ ,w
l ~ 371 ° K
•
t e n s i t e s t a r t t e m p e r a t u r e s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e o b s e r v a - 260
2436
tion of s u r f a c e u p h e a v a l s o n p r e p o l i s h e d v i r g i n s p e c - 298 ° K0
i m e n s c o o l e d o n a m i c r o s c o p e s t a g e . C a r e was t a k e n 24O

t o a s s u r e that t h e s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s c o r r e s p o n d e d t o i 298* K D
.-1
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t h e bulk a n d not j u s t a t t h e s u r f a c e . 220 371" K •

N o t e e s p e c i a l l y i n T a b l e I that t h e a l l o y s a r e s e p a -
r a t e d into t w o m a j o r g r o u p i n g s d e p e n d i n g u p o n w h e t h e r 200 • " , 1696

t h e austenltes are ferromagnetic o r paramagnetic; as

w i l l be s e e n , t h e m a g n e t i c n a t u r e i s a n i m p o r t a n t d e -
terminant of behavior. 37'I* K
M a n y t e n s i l e s p e c i m e n s were p r e s t r a i n e d i s o t h e r - ..~...o •
200 0 298" K
m a l l y at v a r i o u s temperatures, both within a n d above ~ e ~_.~....~..a- 32o3
t h e temperature r a n g e for f o r m i n g m a r t e n s i t e at
I I I I I
s t r e s s , a n d to v a r i o u s s t r a i n l e v e l s , a f t e r w h i c h t h e 180 O 5 IO 15 - - 20

martensite s t a r t temperatures w e r e d e t e r m i n e d opti- PRE - STRAIN, %

c a l l y . T h e s e t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e n a m e d Mff i n o r d e r t o Fig. 1--The variation of Ms¢, with s t r a i n a n d deformation

distinguish t h e m f r o m t h e v a l u e f o r v i r g i n material,
Ms.
M se t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e s h o w n a s a f u n c t i o n o f s t r a i n
i n F i g . 1 f o r f o u r c o m p o s i t i o n s : f e r r o m a g n e t i c 3004
a n d 3 2 0 3 , a n d p a r a m a g n e t i c 2436 a n d 1 6 9 6 . I t i s a p -
parent that the ferromagnetic alloys b e h a v e differently
f r o m t h e p a r a m a g n e t i e , i n t h a t t h e Mse t e m p e r a t u r e s
f o r the p a r a m a g n e t i c c o m p o s i t i o n s s t r a i n e d a t two
temperatures d i v e r g e with i n c r e a s i n g s t r a i n w h e r e a s
those for t h e ferromagnetics r e m a i n essentially i d e n -
t i c a l . A l l t h e p r e s t r a i n m e a s u r e m e n t s we h a v e m a d e
are consistent with this discrimination. T h e divergent
b e h a v i o r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p a r a m a g n e t i c a u s t e n i t e is r e -
l a t e d t o t h e f a c t that m a r t e n s i t e i s f o r m e d d y n a m i c a l l y
over a l a r g e temperature interval d u r i n g the prestrain.
I n c o n t r a s t , t h e insensitivity of the f e r r o m a g n e t i c s t o
the t e m p e r a t u r e o f p r e s t r a i n d e p e n d s u p o n t h e f a c t
that l i t t l e o r no m a r t e n s i t e i s f o r m e d d u r i n g p l a s t i c
d e f o r m a t i o n a t s t r a i n r a t e s 10 -s t o 10 . 4 s e e -1 a n d a t
temperatures > 2O°K a b o v e Ms, a n d a l s o d e p e n d s u p o n
the extraordinary reversibility of flow s t r e s s with t e m -
p e r a t u r e o f t h e s e I n v a r s . l ° S o m e of t h e f e r r o m a g n e t i c
~.lloys i n T a b l e I h a v e C u r i e t e m p e r a t u r e s c l o s e t o Ms
temperature, of four a u s t e n i t e compositions: p a r a m a g n e t i c
2436 a n d 1 6 9 6 , and ferromagnetic 3004 a n d 3 2 0 3 .
(e.g., 2 9 1 1 ) o r C u r i e t e m p e r a t u r e s considerably b e -
l o w t h e t e m p e r a t u r e TO a t w h i c h a u s t e n i t e a n d m a r t e n -
s i t e a r e i n e q u i l i b r i u m ( e . g . , 2823). W h e n s u c h a u s -
tenites are p r e s t r a i n e d above and b e l o w t h e i r C u r i e
temperatures, v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d v a r i a t i o n s i n Mff c a n
r e s u l t . Such c o m p l e x i t i e s a r e c o u n t e r p a r t to a n d c o n -
s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s t r a i n - r a t e r e s p o n s e s s h o w n in Fig. 8
o f Ref. 12.
Certain previously-reported peculiarities of b e h a v -
ior, such as stimulation o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n at low
s t r a i n s f o l l o w e d by i n h i b i t i o n a n d t h e n by s t i m u l a t i o n
a g a i n a t h i g h s t r a i n s 3 , 13 w e r e n o t o b s e r v e d i n t h e
p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t s . T h i s c a n be a s c r i b e d t o t h e s e n -
s i t i v i t y o f M sC t o t h e r m o m e c h a n i c a l h i s t o r y , w h i c h i n -
c l u d e s not o n l y t h e m o d e o f p r e s t r a i n , but a l s o t h e
p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n i q u e s used to p r e p a r e a u s -
t e n i t e s p e c i m e n s . B e c a u s e i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t M sc i s
not a u n i q u e m e a s u r e , f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f d e t a i l i s
p o s t p o n e d at this p o i n t .

2452-VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER I971 METALLURGICA L TRANSACTIONS

 THE INFLUENCE O F APPLIED STRESS far. The inversion in the temperature dependence of
flow stress is taken as a defined point in all three ex-
A p r o c e d u r e that r e v e a l s a different martensite-
amples, and has been m a r k e d M ~ on the figure.
s t a r t t e m p e r a t u r e , one t h a t a r i s e s i n d y n a m i c r e -
Although the existence of M s° s is illustrated by the
s p o n s e s t o i m p o s e d c h a n g e , is e m b o d i e d in Fig. 2.
curves of Fig. 2, the best procedure for ascertaining
S t a n d a r d temperature-change t e s t s are s h o w n for a
explicit temperatures has been found to be a replot-
p a r a m a g n e t i c a l l o y (2345) b e f o r e a n d a f t e r p r e s t r a i n ,
ling of flow stress as a function of temperature in a
a n d f o r a f e r r o m a g n e t i c (3004). T h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n
way that excludes any work hardening introduced dur-
c u r v e s r e f l e c t to s o m e d e g r e e t h e d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s in
ing the deformation sequence. I° Such derived curves
t h e w a y s t r a i n is a c h i e v e d in t h e two c l a s s e s o f m a t e -
allow interpolation to determine the temperature ( M Z )
r i a l s , but t h e y e a c h e x h i b i t a c o m m o n a n d u n m i s t a k a b l e
at the peak stress, and also turn out to be relatively
c h a n g e in b e h a v i o r b e l o w s o m e t e m p e r a t u r e : t h e
independent of thermomechanical history. That is, it
s t r e s s decreases and the c u r v e s b e c o m e q u i t e irregu-
does not seem to matter whether or not martensite is
induced during the prestrain. Therefore, we are led
2345 by i t s r e l a t i v e i n v a r i a n c e t o s u s p e c t t h a t Ms( r i s a
24 = 3 x l 0-5 sec -I -- (r characteristic property of metastabie austenite.
Ms T h e r e s u l t s of m e a s u r i n g such martensite-start
t e m p e r a t u r e s in F e - N i - C a l l o y s at o r n e a r t h e i r f l o w
20
s t r e s s , a f t e r a n y p r e s t r a i n by s l i p o r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f
slip a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a r e a s s e m b l e d in Fig. 3. T h e
16 v a l u e s o f s t r a i n w e r e d i r e c t l y m e a s u r e d b u t , a s t o be
e x p l a i n e d , t h e i n t e r c e p t f o r e a c h of t h e c u r v e s i s a n
12 c a r t i f i c i a l o n e a t 10 -~ s t r a i n . T h e e v i d e n t s e l f - c o n s i s -
t e n c y s h o w n by a l l t h e a l l o y s i n v e s t i g a t e d , r e g a r d l e s s
8 of m a g n e t i c c h a r a c t e r , i s a f e a t u r e l a c k i n g i n t h e l i t -
e r a t u r e o f all M s temperatures m e a s u r e d a f t e r pre-
s t r a i n s a n d h e r e f o r M se i n o u r F i g . 1 .
I n t h e a r g u m e n t s t o be u s e d i n t h i s p a p e r , we s h a l l
J I I i I I J L I I I rely heavily upon t h e n a t u r e o f t h e n e w temperature
M s ~. P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y , a n y m a t e r i a l c a n be t e s t e d
2345 (as done h e r e ) for flow s t r e s s at v a r i o u s t e m p e r a -
28[ ~ - 3 x l O"5 secI l u r e s ; for a given s t a t e (history, s t r a i n , s t r e s s , t r a n s -
"E {--Ms f o r m a t i o n ) r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s u p e r s c r i p t ~ , t h e r e
26 7.4% PRE-SI"RAIN w i l l be a t e m p e r a t u r e b e l o w w h i c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
d o m i n a t e s - - t h a t is, t h e f l o w s t r e s s d e c r e a s e s with de-
c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e as in t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n in
b" 24 Fig. 2. U n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s in d e t a i l

/ b e t w e e n ferromagnetic and paramagnetic alloys. In

o')l--n
20" I [ I I
FERROMAGNETIC
280 ~ . . . . . . - " " ~ 29,1

260 ~---- 5004 o

o"
24 C Ms 24o ~ - . . . . 3203 ~ o

I 220 -- - . . . . . . . . . . . ~ , ~ 2823
20

16 ~ 240 ~ I I ]

12~ 2436 @1
300 A
8
280 2345
4 260 '
PARAMAGNETIC
;= =',
I , 2 4 0 1 - - ='~-~"" t%
J J i i i i i J i 2363
ELONGATION "-~
Fig. 2 - - S t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s s h o w i n g the temperature-change 5 I0 15 20

technique for d e t e r m i n i n g M ~s in t y p i c a l p a r a m a g u e t i c (2345) STRAIN, %

and ferromagnetic (3004) a u s t e n i t e s . T h e e x a m p l e of p r e - F i g . 3--Systematically d e t e r m i n e d M s~ t e m p e r a t u r e s for a s e -

s t r a i n e d 2345 i s i n c l u d e d t o demonstrate the p e r s i s t e n t c l a r - r i e s of F e - N i - C a l l o y s . Each c u r v e e n c o m p a s s e s a s p e c t r u m
ity with w h i c h M ~ i s r e g i s t e r e d . Notice a l s o the influence of of thermomechanical history. T h e dotted l i n e s a r e intended t o
magnetic c h a r a c t e r upon the q u a l i t y of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n approximate a v i r t u a l b e h a v i o r unattained b e c a u s e of s t r u c -
curves. t u r a l heterogeneities and anisotropy.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971-2453

the f o r m e r t h e r e is no evidence for martensite f o r m a -
tion until M sa is passed; in the latter t h e r e is s o m e
martensite formation at temperatures considerably
a b o v e Mff, as indicated partly by the serrated stress-
strain curves. Serrations signal the onset of transfor-
m a t i o n in the ferromagnetic alloys, but as has a l r e a d y
been pointed out12 they can have dual origin in 2345,
portrayed here as the typical paramagnetic austeuite.
T h e significant c h a n g e in the quality of m e c h a n i c a l re-
s p o n s e s f r o m temperatures a b o v e to t e m p e r a t u r e s be-
low M s° suggests that martensite formation a b o v e M s ~
in the paramagnetics is a p r o c e s s adjunct to slip.
M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is no difficulty in corroborating M sa
by other m e a n s in the paramagnetics, s i n c e t h e r e is a
distinct c h a n g e in the t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e of the
strain-rate sensitivity as M s~ is traversed in cooling,
as well as a d e c r e a s e in flow stress as the t e m p e r a -
ture is lowered. T h e s e are both d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e s to
change.
T h e r e are also slight differences in the strain de-
p e n d e n c e of M s ~ b e t w e e n ferromagnetic and p a r a m a g -
netic austenites, as well as a s m a l l c a r b o n dependence.
Nevertheless, the task of assessing the effects of
stress upon the formation of martensite can be simpli-
fied by considering M s ~ as univariant with strain.
That is, w e shall partly attribute any s m a l l variations
of M J to the inadequacies of our e x p e r i m e n t s rather
than to a history-sensitive M s a.
COMPARISON O F Ms¢ A N D M s~
T h e t w o p a r a m a g n e t i c a u s t e n i t e s ( 2 4 3 6 a n d 1696) of
F i g . 1 s h o w d i v e r g e n c e of M sc a t h i g h e r s t r a i n s f o r
t h e two temperatures o f p r e s t r a i n , w h e r e a s each c o m -
p o s i t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d by o n l y o n e c u r v e i n F i g . 3 . A
g r e a t diversity of thermomechanical history i s e n c o m -
p a s s e d by e a c h of t h e s e l a t t e r c u r v e s , a n d we b e l i e v e
t h i s t o be f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n that M s~r i s
characteristic. Nevertheless, a d i r e c t contrast of the
t w o m e a s u r e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w o u l d be m o r e m e a n -
ingful f o r identical a n d controlled histories. A c c o r d -
i n g l y , s p e c i m e n s o f 2436 a n d 1696 w e r e s t r a i n e d
20 p c t i s o t h e r m a l l y i n a n u n i n t e r r u p t e d f a s h i o n , a n d
t h e n M sa a n d M sc w e r e m e a s u r e d on s e p a r a t e p o r t i o n s
o f e a c h s p e c i m e n . T a b l e I I s u m m a r i z e s t h e r e s u l t s ; it
is c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e r e is p r a c t i c a l l y n o d i f f e r e n c e in
the Ms ~ v a l u e s w i t h i n e a c h c o m p o s i t i o n , but t h e c o r r e -
s p o n d i n g M se v a l u e s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
CLARIFICATION OF MARTENSITE-START
TEMPERATURES
T h e m e a s u r e m e n t at zero applied s t r e s s o f m a r t e n -
site-start temperatures after i r r e v e r s i b l e c h a n g e s
Table II. Comparison o f Mse and Ms° for Identical Specimens
Alloy Deformation Engineering
Designation Temperature, °K Strain,Pet Mff,°K M sa , °K
2436 295 20.4 246 308
2436 371 20.3 264 310
1696 253 20.9 190 279
1696 295 20.8 215 277
1696 371 22.2 212 276
2454-VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971
h a v e b e e n i n d u c e d i n the a u s t e n i t e i s a f a m i l i a r p r o c e -
d u r e . M e a s u r e m e n t o f M sa , w h e r e t h e a u s t e n i t e i s a t
o r n e a r i t s f l o w s t r e s s , is not. A n d s i n c e t h e two
m e a s u r e s a r e o n l y r a r e l y c o i n c i d e n t , i t m a y be h e l p -
f u l t o e x a m i n e M s~ a n d t h e n M sa c o n c e p t u a l l y i n o r d e r
t o d e d u c e what f a c t o r s c o n t r o l each o n e , why logically
t h e y m u s t be d i f f e r e n t , a n d w h a t v a r i a t i o n s o f e a c h c a n
be e x p e c t e d .
I g n o r e f o r t h e m o m e n t a n y e l a s t i c s t r e s s aid to
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , a s i t i s k n o w n t o be s m a l l .8 , 9 C o n s i d -
e r only t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a u s t e n i t e t o
g r o s s accommodation of a martensite plate, an a c c o m -
modation that i s o b s e r v e d t o o c c u r plastically.1 W h e n a
s p e c i m e n in a d e f o r m e d s t a t e ( c ) is c o o l e d at z e r o a p -
p l i e d s t r e s s to f i n d M f f , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p l a s t i c a c -
c o m m o d a t i o n will r e q u i r e w o r k roughly p r o p o r t i o n a l
t o t h e i n c r e m e n t o f f l o w s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ( ~ ).
T h i s w o r k c a n be s u p p l i e d o n l y by t h e c h e m i c a l d r i v -
i n g f o r c e . S i n c e t h e c h e m i c a l d r i v i n g f o r c e is i t s e l f
proportional to the interval b e t w e e n the s p e c i m e n tem-
perature and the e q u i l i b r i u m t e m p e r a t u r e 7o b e t w e e n
a u s t e n i t e a n d m a r t e n s i t e , a n d m a n y s t a t e s (c) c a n be
imagined, all o f t h e m different, we s h o u l d expect a
d i f f e r e n t MsE f o r e a c h (£). F i g . 1 i l l u s t r a t e s o n e d e -
p e n d e n c e o f M s~ u p o n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t e n s i l e p r e -
strain; other variations have been r e p o r t e d previously
f o r s i m i l a r a l l o y c o m p o s i t i o n s 2 , za
Now, h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r a n y metastable a u s t e n i t e un-
der an externally applied s t r e s s c l o s e t o i t s flow
s t r e s s a , no m a t t e r w h a t a i s a n d t h u s n o m a t t e r w h a t
t h e s t a t e (¢) o f t h e a u s t e n i t e . F o r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s
t h e w o r k o f a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i l l be
p r o v i d e d by t h e e x t e r n a l s y s t e m t o a d e g r e e d e p e n d i n g
on how c l o s e l y the applied s t r e s s approximates the
f l o w s t r e s s . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e so d e t e r m i n e d , M sa, a t
w h i c h transformation b e g i n s to dominate the applied
s t r e s s n e c e s s a r y for significant s t r a i n , s h o u l d t h e r e -
f o r e be f a r l e s s v a r i a b l e t h a n a l m o s t a n y o t h e r c h a r -
acteristic of the martensite reaction.
N e x t , l e t us e x p l a i n w h y i t i s so c o n v e n i e n t t o c o n -
s i d e r M sa a s u n i v a r i a n t r a t h e r t h a n a s t h e s l o w l y d e -
c r e a s i n g a n d t h e n i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n of s t r a i n s h o w n
i n F i g . 3 . I t w i l l be s h o w n f o r " t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h
the applied s t r e s s approximates the flow s t r e s s " that
a t h e o r e t i c a l l y t r a c t a b l e i d e a l i z e d b e h a v i o r ('Ca = T y
- c o n s t a n t ) r e s u l t s in a n M sa s l o w l y i n c r e a s i n g w i t h
s t r a i n , a n d s t a t e d that a s i m i l a r r e s u l t w o u l d a r i s e
f r o m t h e a l t e r n a t i v e but l e s s t r a c t a b l e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t
t h e a p p l i e d s t r e s s is a c o n s t a n t f r a c t i o n o f t h e f l o w
s t r e s s a t M s ~ , "ca / ' c y = c o n s t a n t .
E x p e r i m e n t a l l y , t h e s l i g h t i n i t i a l d e c r e a s e s i n M s~
a t l o w s t r a i n s c a n be i n h e r e n t i n t h e w a y t h e c u r v e s o f
F i g . 3 a r e c o n s t r u c t e d . It i s o b v i o u s l y i m p o s s i b l e by
d e f i n i t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e a n M sa f o r z e r o s t r a i n by s y s -
tematic temperature-change t e s t s on a s i n g l e s p e c i -
m e n . R a t h e r , ea, c h p o i n t o n t h e o r d i n a t e w a s o b t a i n e d
f r o m m a n y s p e c i m e n s each t e s t e d at a different t e m -
p e r a t u r e as in Fig. 4 , a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e f o r p e a k
s t r e s s a t 10 -3 s t r a i n t a k e n a s M sa . It w a s e a r l i e r
s h o w n9 t h a t a l t h o u g h " e l a s t i c " s t r e s s e s ( i n t h e s e n s e
u s e d f o r t h e P a t e l a n d C o h e n8 a p p r o a c h ) s t i m u l a t e t h e
o n s e t o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a t a r a t e ~ 1 . 2 ° K p e r k g - m m -2,
above s o m e threshold l e v e l of s t r e s s the consequences
o f s t a t i c a n d d y n a m i c l o a d i n g d i v e r g e . N o t e in Fig. 4
a n d i n p r e v i o u s c o m p i l a t i o n s 1°, x2 t h a t t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
 18 cation s t a g e s . Beyond the low s t r a i n ( s t r e s s ) r e g i m e
o o o t h e r e s h o u l d be no m o r e s e p a r a b l e " e l a s t i c " s t i m u l a -
16 o t i o n , but f u r t h e r r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n i s not w o r t h w h i l e b e -
o o o ° ° ° o o

o o
o o [] o o o c a u s e t h e s i m p l i f i e d d e s c r i p t i o n of M sz d e v e l o p e d l a t e r
14 o
o
o o
o
will d e m a n d a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e a p p l i e d s t r e s s
o
and the flow s t r e s s for s t r a i n - a v e r a g e d specimens,
12 •
a n d so w i l l e n c o m p a s s a n y e l a s t i c s t r e s s e s i n q u e s -
E • • tion.

~8 OoO THE I N F L U E N C E OF STRAIN RATE

%0°
- ~- o o o 8 O n e a i m of o u r o r i g i n a l p r o g r a m w a s to find e x p e r -
6 • o o
• o
i m e n t a l evidence for the importance of e x t r i n s i c p l a s -
4 o o 4 x lOS~-- t i c p r o c e s s e s ( i . e . , c o n c u r r e n t d i s l o c a t i o n m o t i o n ) in
%o 2436 , 1(~4~ the transformation energetics. P r e s u m i n g the s i m i -
2 [] IG3~
l a r i t y of austenite transformation to mechanical t w i n -
o
o n i n g , t h e r e s h o u l d be a r e g i m e i n w h i c h s t r e s s - i n d u c e d
I I i I i L i i i i cooperative s h e a r s ( m a r t e n s i t e f o r m a t i o n ) furnish
220 40 60 80 300 20 40 60 80 400 20 m o s t o f t h e s t r a i n , but r e l a x a t i o n s by s l i p a t a c r i t i c a l
TEMPERATURE,°K
s t a g e of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e a n e n e r g y d i s s i p a -
Fig. 4--Initial flow s t r e s s e s for paramagnetic 2436 at the t i o n t h a t c o n t r o l s t h e r e s p o n s e s t o i m p o s e d c h a n g e s in
s m a l l e s t detectable s t r a i n (4 × 10-5) a n d two o t h e r p r o o f
d e f o r m a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s 14 O n e o f t h e a n t i c i p a t e d o b -
s t r a i n s . M g for each s t r a i n i s the t e m p e r a t u r e at w h i c h the
peak s t r e s s o c c u r s . servations w a s a negative s t r a i n - r a t e sensitivity,
m u c h in t h e m a n n e r o f C o n t i n u a l M e c h a n i c a l T w i n n i n g .
Such r e s p o n s e s were in f a c t s e e n a n d r e p o r t e d e a r l i -
+35
e r , 12 but t h e y w e r e o b s c u r e d s o m e w h a t by w h a t c o u l d
p r o p e r l y be i n t e r p r e t e d a s d y n a m i c s t r a i n a g i n g , i . e . ,
+30 the Portevin-Le Chatelier ( P - L ) effect a r i s i n g through
c a r b o n interaction with dislocations.
+25 I n o r d e r t o continue our object o f s e p a r a t i n g o v e r -
l a p p i n g p h e n o m e n a , a n d t h u s to c o n f i r m h e r e t h e r o l e
+20 o f e x t r i n s i c slip in m a r t e n s i t e f o r m a t i o n , a n e w a l l o y
s e r i e s , F e - 2 3 N i - C r - C w a s examined. Its designation
~2-- +15 i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t u s e d b e f o r e , e x c e p t that the c h r o -
x
mium c o n t e n t a p p e a r s in p a r e n t h e s e s b e t w e e n t h e
¢ ¢
' ~ ~4 +10
n i c k e l a n d c a r b o n l e v e l s ; a s a n e x a m p l e 23(2.3)29 c o n -
t a i n s 2.3 wt p c t C r i n t h e n o m i n a l 2329 a l l o y . T h i s
s e r i e s a l l o w s t h e v a r i a t i o n of M s t e m p e r a t u r e s a s a
+5
f u n c t i o n o f c a r b o n c o n t e n t , but a t c o n s t a n t n i c k e l c o n -
t e n t , for paramagnetic (and thus non-Invar)austenites.
W i t h o u t a t h i r d s o l u t e e l e m e n t it is i m p o s s i b l e t o
r e a c h v e r y l o w c a r b o n c o n t e n t s in F e - N i a l l o y s w i t h -
out encountering t h e ferromagnetic transition. Al-
t h o u g h i t m a y not be s t r i c t l y c o r r e c t , w e s h a l l i g n o r e
°I0 t h e e f f e c t s o f c h r o m i u m v a r i a t i o n . It i s n o t e w o r t h y
that t h r e e of the alloys purposely have very low M s
200 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 300
TEMPERATURE, =K temperatures; only 23(1.0)39 c a n be t r a n s f o r m e d u n -
Fig. 5--Strain-rate sensitivity n u m b e r is plotted as a function der s t r e s s at t e m p e r a t u r e s c o n v e n i e n t f o r our a p p a r a -
of t e m p e r a t u r e and c a r b o n content for four p a r a m a g n e t i e aus- tus.
tenites of constant nickel content. T h e negative strain-rate Strain-rate sensitivities w e r e m e a s u r e d as a f u n c -
sensitivities c e n t e r e d a r o u n d 2 9 0 ° K originate in d y n a m i c
t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d c a r b o n c o n t e n t in t h e F e - N i -
strain aging.
Cr-C s e r i e s ; Fig. 5 s u m m a r i z e s t h e r e s u l t s . F o r ef-
f e c t i v e l y z e r o c a r b o n , t h e r e w a s only a p o s i t i v e
for t h e dynamic testing p e r s i s t s at l e a s t t o s t r e s s e s s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y . W h e n c a r b o n is p r e s e n t , t h e r e
f o r 10 -3 s t r a i n , l e a d i n g t o M J t e m p e r a t u r e s a b o u t are slightly negative s t r a i n - r a t e sensitivities at t h e
2 0 ° K a b o v e M s . V a l u e s p l o t t e d o n t h e o r d i n a t e of h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s , c e n t e r e d n e a r 2 9 0 ° K , but t h e e x -
F i g . 3 a r e a b o u t 2 0 ° K t o o h i g h , a n d we s u s p e c t t h a t t h e tent of the temperature r a n g e for the negative r e -
v i r t u a l c a s e s h o u l d be a n o v e r a l l s l o w i n c r e a s e o f M s a s p o n s e s i s not g r e a t l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e c a r b o n c o n -
w i t h s t r a i n a s s h o w n by t h e d o t t e d l i n e s i n F i g . 3 . t e n t . B e l o w t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e for this d y n a m i c
With t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s t r a i n t h r o u g h t h e 1 t o 2 p c t s t r a i n a g i n g ( P - L effect), the s t r a i n - r a t e sensitivity
r a n g e , M s~ s h o w s a t r a n s i e n t a p p r o a c h t o t h e v i r t u a l b e c o m e s p o s i t i v e for all t h e a l l o y s i n a s m u c h a s t e s t -
l i n e s , p r o b a b l y due t o t h e s u c c e s s i v e e l i m i n a t i o n o f ing is still at l e a s t 1 0 0 ° K a b o v e M s . T h a t is, the a u s -
f a v o r a b l e e m b r y o s w h i c h a r e s t i m u l a t e d in t h e d y n a m - t e n i t e s a r e not sufficiently s u b e o o l e d b e l o w T O t o s u s -
ic l o a d i n g o r to v a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l inadequacies r e - tain m a r t e n s i t e f o r m a t i o n u n d e r s t r e s s . T h e s t r a i n -
l a t e d to m e a s u r e m e n t s upon s p e c i m e n s containing in- r a t e r e s p o n s e s s h o w n in Fig. 5 h a v e n o t h i n g to d o with
t r i n s i c structural anisotropy inherited from the f a b r i - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ( w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f 2 3 ( 1 . 0 ) 3 8 at t h e

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971 2455

l o w e r temperatures) b e c a u s e t h e alloys were d e s i g n e d
specifically t o p e r m i t evaluation o f t h e P - L effect
a l o n e . T h e o n e a l l o y 23(1.0)38, w i t h M s = 1 9 3 ° K , e x -
h i b i t s a s m a l l but d e f i n i t e s e c o n d r a n g e o f n e g a t i v e
s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y . T h i s b e h a v i o r c a n be u n a m -
biguously dissociated f r o m d i r e c t c a r b o n - d i s l o c a t i o n
i n t e r a c t i o n s by t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p o s i t i v e s t r a i n - r a t e
s e n s i t i v i t y ; i t c a n t h e r e f o r e be a t t r i b u t e d t o m a r t e n -
s i t e f o r m a t i o n . F u r t h e r c o n f i r m a t i o n f o r t h e last a t -
t r i b u t i o n i s p r o v i d e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n M s¢r b e l o w
w h i c h m o s t of t h e n e g a t i v e s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y o c -
c u r s . T h u s , the r e s p o n s e s o b s e r v e d are completely
consistent with expectation b a s e d upon previous i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n . ~2
A n i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a r i s o n is s h o w n in Fig. 6 . T h e
t h r e e a l l o y s s e l e c t e d , 2 4 3 6 , 2 3 4 5 , a n d 23(1.0)38, a r e
a l l c l o s e l y s i m i l a r i n n i c k e l a n d c a r b o n c o n t e n t s , but
t h e compositions are sufficiently different that Ms
+15
÷10
b~,~
~[ 0 _ _ m
,;
( a n d t h u s M sa ) f o r t h e s e p a r a m a g n e t i c a u s t e n i t e s a r e
reasonably well s e p a r a t e d . T h e n e g a t i v e s t r a i n - r a t e
sensitivities a s s o c i a t e d with martensite formation un-
d e r s t r e s s c a n be c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d a n d a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h Msa; w h e r e M sa i s n e a r 2 9 0 ° K , t h e r e s p o n s e a r i s -
ing from the p h a s e transition s u p e r i m p o s e s upon the
negative s t r a i n - r a t e sensitivity a s s o c i a t e d with d y n a m -
ic s t r a i n a g i n g in p a r a m a g n e t i c F e - N i - C a l l o y s .
M o r e o v e r , i t c a n be s e e n t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e d e g r e e o f
negative s t r a i n - r a t e sensitivity b e c o m e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y
s m a l l e r as M f f d e c r e a s e s , t h e relative change o f r e -
s p o n s e in t h e l i m i t e d t e m p e r a t u r e r e g i m e just b e l o w
M f f is a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t f o r c o n s t a n t c a r b o n c o n -
tent.
DISCUSSION OF STRAIN-RATE E F F E C T S
In v i e w of the p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e of t h e m a g n e t i c
c h a r a c t e r of the a u s t e n i t e u p o n r e s p o n s e s to d e f o r m a -
tion v a r i a b l e s , it is i m p o r t a n t at this p o i n t to s u m m a -
rize in T a b l e Ill t h e s t r a i n - r a t e c h a n g e t e s t i n g of b o t h
f e r r o m a g n e t i c a n d p a r a m a g n e t i c F e - N i - C a l l o y s . It is
s e e n that s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y is a v e r y c o n s i s t e n t
d e l i n e a t o r of m a g n e t i c s t a t e , c a r b o n c o n t e n t , a n d m a r -
t e n s i t e f o r m a t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a v a r i e t y of c o m p l e x
c o n t r i b u t i o n s m u s t b e k e p t in m i n d in o r d e r to i n t e r -
p r e t the r e s u l t s , s i n c e the s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y is
not a s s i m p l e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a s
Msa. For example, many of the observables originate
in the interaction of carbon and dislocations, depend-

V,.,,F
-5
ing upon the magnetic state but independent of the fact
-tO

-15

[ I I
\/,.,
Vl ± . ._. . _ _ _
that martensite is forming. In this connection, the
work of Rose and Glover's demonstrates that indeed
serrated stress-strain curves (and presumably nega-
tive strain-rate sensitivities) can develop in ferromag-
200 2;~0 240 260 280 :~00 520 netic Fe-Ni-C austenites at temperatures typically
TEMPER&TURE, *K
370°K and above. Further evidence enabling a direct
Fig. 6--Comparison of s t r a i n - r a t e c h a n g e r e s p o n s e s a s a
function of M s for t h r e e paramagnetic a u s t e n i t e s of s i m i l a r comparison of the two kinds of austenite is shown in
n i c k e l a n d c a r b o n contents. N o t e that the a b r u p t change to- Fig. 7: neither a high-carbon, ferromagnetic Invar al-
w a r d more negative r e s p o n s e s i s in each c a s e s i g n a l l e d by Ms~. loy (3372), which although it does not transform to

Table III. Strain-Rate Changes and Behavior

Strain-Rate Sensitivity Temperature

Alloys Origin of Behavior
o-e Curve Positive Negative Ms M~ M~ + 100

D Spontaneous transformation
All
Very Stress aided transformation
Discontinuous Large Erratic
[] Abrupt change to I
•~ All
© Large No apparent transformation
o
Carbon Free Normal Ordinary fcc mode
Fe-Ni
Small T/> 370°K strain aging

Large Regular ::::::::::::::: Transformation aided plasticity

Moderate T A.p. & t T~> 270°K

• v y n a m i cstrain aging
Small T ~< 450°K strain aging

Large Exaggerated fcc mode

Carbon Free ©
Fe-Ni-Cr © Ordinary fcc mode
Normal

2456 VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

 30 H R e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a n a l y t i c a l d e r i v a t i o n w i l l be g i v e n
0-3303
e-3372
o-4903
25 B-4924
2C
bT~,, I~. --'v ~ / / ~ ~ ~ " 0
° ,o2- -
o ~ - oI / I I I I I I
200 220 240 260 280 300
TEMPERATURE *K
Fig. 7 - - S t r a i n - r a t e sensitivity n u m b e r s for ferromagnetic
austenites with I n v a r (3303 and 3372) and non-Invar (4903 a n d
4924) properties. C a r b o n r e d u c e s the magnitude of the r e -
sponses, but negative s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t i e s a r e not ob-
s e r v e d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s n e a r l y a s low a s for the p a r a m a g n e t i c s
n e t i c s shown in Fig. 5 .
m a r t e n s i t e is l a t e n t l y unstable, n o r a m e d i u m - c a r b o n ,
f e r r o m a g n e t i c , s t a b l e n o n - I n v a r (4924) e x h i b i t s n e g a -
t i v e s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t i e s i n t h e r a n g e of t e m p e r a -
t u r e s at w h i c h t h e p a r a m a g n e t i c s are negative, Fig. 5.
Such differences b e t w e e n f e r r o m a g n e t i c a n d p a r a -
magnetic austenites are coupled further t o the fact
that the ferromagnetic s t a t e inhibits martensite for-
m a t i o n u n d e r s t r e s s , l° T h e r e f o r e , in o r d e r to p u r s u e
the p r o b l e m of p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n c o n c u r r e n t w i t h a
c r i t i c a l s t a g e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n we a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o
a combination of circumstances, a r e g i m e of mechan-
i c a l b e h a v i o r c a l l e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n - a i d e d p l a s t i c i t y , 12
within w h i c h t h e strain-rate sensitivity b e c o m e s in-
creasingly negative a n d t h e flow s t r e s s b e c o m e s h i g h e r
t h e h i g h e r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s r e g i m e will o f n e c e s -
s i t y o c c u r a t t e m p e r a t u r e s a t a n d s l i g h t l y b e l o w M s~ ,
e x i s t o n l y f o r c a r b o n - c o n t a i n i n g a l l o y s of t h e F e - N i - C
s e r i e s , a n d t h e n only f o r a l l o y s w i t h o u t a r e a l C u r i e
T e m p e r a t u r e in t h e a u s t e n i t i c s t a t e , n
T h e influence of s t r a i n r a t e upon martensitic t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n c a n be q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d , but j u s t a s we
simplified M f f f o r t h e sake o f a r g u m e n t , t a k i n g it t o
be i n v a r i a n t , we s h a l l be c o n c e r n e d not w i t h m a g n i -
t u d e s but only w i t h t h e q u a l i t y o f s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v -
i t i e s in t h e p a r a m a g n e t i c a l l o y s .
INTERPRETATION O F STRESS E F F E C T S
IN M A R T E N S I T E F O R M A T I O N
O b v i o u s l y we h a v e not a d d r e s s e d o u r s e l v e s e x p e r i -
m e n t a l l y to t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n o f m a r t e n s i t e f o r m a -
t i o n ° W h a t follows t h e n is a s p e c i a l o r r e s t r i c t e d
theory for the interrelation of s t r e s s , deformation,
and martensitic transformation. Naturally, some
g e n e r a l i t y is n e c e s s a r y in t h a t well-established c r y s -
tallographic, chemical, and constitutional properties
m u s t not be v i o l a t e d by t h e t h e o r y , but t h e p r i m a r y
c o n c e r n w i l l be w i t h t h e e f f e c t s of s t r e s s s p o n t a n e o u s -
ly g e n e r a t e d o r e x t e r n a l l y i m p o s e d . A n a t t e m p t will
be m a d e t o a c c o u n t f o r a l l t h e o b s e r v e d e f f e c t s o f
s t r e s s , a t l e a s t i n p r i n c i p l e , so t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e r e -
l i a n c e is p l a c e d u p o n t h e details o f our p r e v i o u s i n -
v e s t i g a t i o n s . S i n c e n o t a l l of t h o s e d e t a i l s h a v e b e e n
d e s c r i b e d h e r e , t h e y w i l l be r e s t a t e d w i t h o u t d i s c u s -
sion w h e r e t h e y a r e needed.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
b e c a u s e we do not w a n t b a s i c i d e a s t o be o b s c u r e d by
the p u r s u i t of r i g o r . Instead, the conceptual s t e p s
l e a d i n g t o t h e central s t a t e m e n t of t h e t h e o r y are de-
s c r i b e d , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e e n d r e s u l t a r e
t h e n e x a m i n e d . It is e v e n p o s s i b l e in t h i s c o n t e x t t o
r e g a r d t h e p r i n c i p a l equation as empirical, f o r it i s
not r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e t h e o r y i s d e v e l o p e d r i g -
o r o u s l y n e a r l y a s m u c h as it m a t t e r s t h a t n e w g u i d e -
l i n e s f o r e x p e r i m e n t s a n d f o r understanding t h e ob-
servations e n s u e .
C o n s i d e r two i d e a l a n d identical austenite c r y s t a l s :
o n e is at t e m p e r a t u r e T > M s u n d e r a n e x t e r n a l
s t r e s s that h a s a c o m p o n e n t o f s h e a r s t r e s s T a o n t h e
c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c s y s t e m a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e m a r t e n -
s i t e s h e a r ~ M ; t h e o t h e r c r y s t a l is s t r e s s - f r e e at M s .
I n a d d i t i o n l e t t h e r e be s o m e p r o c e s s t h a t p r o d u c e s
e m b r y o s o r n u c l e i o f m a r t e n s i t e ; i t d o e s not m a t t e r
what t h e p r o c e s s is, just a s l o n g a s it is r e a s o n a b l e t o
a s s u m e the same austenite/martensite interface
structures for any c o m p a r a b l e stage in the transfor-
m a t i o n o f t h e two c r y s t a l s . T h e incremental c r i t i c a l
s t e p in t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f a m a r t e n s i t e r e g i o n c a n t h e n
be c o m p a r e d f o r t h e t w o a u s t e n i t e c r y s t a l s r e g a r d l e s s
o f t h e respective s i z e s o f t h e transformed r e g i o n s at
t h e c r i t i c a l s t a g e . At t h i s j u n c t u r e i t i s s t a t e d e m p h a t -
i c a l l y t h a t t h e r e is n o h i d d e n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t s o m e -
h o w defines nucleation and propagation separately for
the (lenticular) martensite r e g i o n s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a -
t i o n . W e a r e only m a k i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n our
concern with the e a r l y s t a g e s of transformation when
thermodynamics dominate, and the l a t e r s t a g e s that
involve very high-velocity interface and dislocation
m o t i o n , i . e . , discontinuous or " U m k l a p p " events d u r -
i n g w h i c h t h e g r o w i n g body is r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o
i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s . 16
Any s t r e s s t h a t a i d s m a r t e n s i t e f o r m a t i o n m u s t be
d e r i v e d from the s t r e s s vM, w h e r e the s u p e r s c r i p t
has been a d d e d as a r e m i n d e r t h a t it i s t h e real s t r e s s
p r e v a l e n t w h e n t h e m a r t e n s i t e b e c o m e s c r i t i c a l in t h e
a u s t e n i t e . T h i s will add to t h e c h e m i c a l f o r c e d e r i v e d
f r o m t h e f r e e e n e r g y p e r u n i t v o l u m e ~ x S v ( To - T ) d e -
p e n d i n g u p o n t e m p e r a t u r e , 17 a n d w i l l d i r e c t l y h e l p t o
o v e r c o m e t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o a c c o m m o d a t i o n in t h e p a r -
ent a u s t e n i t e , w h i c h i n t u r n d e p e n d s o n s o m e a p p r o p r i -
a t e s t r e s s . However, any s t r e s s p e r v a d i n gthe a u s t e n -
i t e c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o w a s t e f u l w o r k by l o w e r i n g t h e r e -
s i s t a n c e to d i s l o c a t i o n m o v e m e n t a n d / o r m u l t i p l i c a -
t i o n . T h e s e w a s t e f u l e v e n t s ( d e n o t e d by a f u n c t i o n , 4 ,
s i m i l a r t o t h a t u s e d in t h e t r e a t m e n t o f m e c h a n i c a l
t w i n n i n g 14) w i l l a l s o be r e s p o n s i v e t o s t r e s s e s g e n e -
r a t e d by t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e o f t h e m a r t e n s i t e w i t h i t s
s h e a r a n d v o l u m e e x p a n s i o n d r i v e n by i n t e r n a l ( c h e m -
ical) f o r c e s . By a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s as in
t h e A p p e n d i x , a n e n e r g y b a l a n c e c a n be p r o p e r l y c o n -
s t r u c t e d in w h i c h t h e e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l w o r k a r e
equated for an incremental advance of the t r a n s f o r m -
ing region. E l a s t i c , shape, and s u r f a c e e n e r g i e s are
a l l e n u m e r a t e d o r i g i n a l l y , but by i n v o k i n g t h e d e v i c e
o f u s i n g Ms as a r e f e r e n c e temperature, r e w r i t i n g
the e n e r g y balance, and then subtracting the new e n e r -
gy b a l a n c e f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l , s o m e t e r m s a r e m a d e t o
c a n c e l out. T h e r e s u l t i n g equation d e s c r i b e s most
s i m p l y t h e a c t i o n o f a n e x t e r n a l s t r e s s aid t o t r a n s -
formation:
V O L U M E 2, S E P T E M B E R 1971 2457
 Strain-Dependence of M e
= ( T o - Too) + - cr, /s _ 4 ) +
One definition of M sa and its dependence upon t h e r -
momechanical history d e r i v e s from the convenient a s -
+ ~ - too [1] sumption that
Although Eq. [1] appears t o be composed of sym- M a
Ta s = Ty-- constant [3]
bolieally complex elements, each component can be
shown as in the Appendix t o be reasonably simple in
and the corresponding plausible assumption that
application. For example, the energy dissipated in
ff
moving extraneous dislocations d u r i n g transformation
aaMs = ay - constant [4]
will depend upon the s h e a r stresses generated at and
by the c r i t i c a l s t a g e of martensite formation. The too- Eq. [1] then becomes (for too ~ 0)
notonic increasing function ~ and its dimensionless
argument implicitly evaluate this, and at the same T yM sa _ ToM as _ o t M f f = 5 1+ ~ [5]
time show that the dissipation becomes intolerably
l a r g e at the s h e a r flow s t r e s s , r a = Ty. The a r g u - and for the simplest c h e m i c a l s t r e s s , i . e . ,
ment of ~ also has a nonzero v a l u e for zero external X {AS v ( T o - T ) / £ M } : A S v ( TO -- T ) / C M [6]
s t r e s s , thus differing from the s i m i l a r function de-
s c r i b e d in detail for a mechanical twinning process. ~4 this is
This difference a r i s e s in the chemical s t r e s s ex-
pressed by a second implicit function, Ma Ma ol a Ty -- --
TyS _ To s _ M s = b l + ~; ba
{AS v( To - T)/¢M}, "pushing" the martensite into
the austenite even in the absence of T a. Of the other [7]
symbols, only 5~ involves a conceptual difficulty not
encountered before. It represents an intuitive t e c h - where the b ' s a r e constants involving Eqs. [4] and [5]
nique for dealing with the problem that any work done and Too, flyMs, aMs, and a TO which are all m a t e r i a l
in resisting the dilatation for an incremental volume constants. Eq. [7] is only satisfied for
change d V will generally occur within a l a r g e r vol-
ume d V'. S i n c e this turns out not be a critically i m - M a M a
Ty s _ To s _ a M f f = constant [8]
portant feature of the analysis, w e simply approximate
Here w e have r e l a t e d Msa t o a difference, between the
dg' ~dV.
s h e a r flow s t r e s s ry and an elastic component, that
In a e e o r d with our p u r p o s e w e s h a l l not attempt to
dissect and explain the elements of the theory em- must be mostly s t r a i n dependent and univariant. So,
bodied in Eq. [1], but instead w e test its consequences w e obtain
and ask if it s e r v e s the p u r p o s e of guidance and in- a M sa
sight for which it was developed. Therefore, w e pro- a¢ ~ constant [9]
ceed to demonstrate that in fact the theory does deal
A s i m i l a r consequence follows for T a / r y ~ constant,
properly with the variability of Ms¢, the s t r a i n depend-
and consistent results a r e observed experimentally,
ence of Msa, two separate r e g i m e s of strain-rate sen-
Fig. 3.
sitivity, and even suggests a new way t o e x a m i n e the
transformation energetics :
Structure Sensitivity of Transformation Energetics
Ms Temperature For the newly defined temperature Msa, Eq. [5] is
Obviously for T = M s , ~ = ~oo, cry = cr7s ro = "Coo, 6'M_I M : - M s M z}
T 2 s~=(TO-TOO) + CM [ y Cry - - ~ a s
and no external stress is required for transformation,
by definition. + (Mj - Ms) +

Variability of Mse If the equation pertinent t o Mes, ( i . e . , Eq. [A-8] minus

In-7]
For any prestrain history, Eq. [1] may be written in
M c
t e r m s of Mse ; in those circumstances both T a s and 0 = (To-7oo) +5M'~ (cryMCs_ cryM s ) + a(MCs _ M s )
E
~ f s = 0, and if w e use the approximation that ~MsE
+ too [10]
~ too ~ 0, w e obtain is subtracted from Eq. [5], then for to - ~oo ~ 0
I !
5M (Ms M£) £M Mff 5M Ms Ms
Ms¢ = M s + A ~ v Cry -- Cry s + A ~ v ('r°° -- TO ) T a + 6M
CM cra[ +_MM --crY I
[2]
+ ~M~ [11]
Eq. [2] is the ambiguity MCs > M s , depending upon the
changed s t r e s s with respect t o dilatation, i . e . , Further, w e can eliminate the second term in special
a ~ se ~ crMs and upon the changed l o c a l s t r e s s with r e - c a s e s by r e a l i z i n g that for e q u i v a l e n t s t r a i n h i s t o r i e s
spect to s h e a r Too > TO (for s m a l l strains). @ vis and a yi~s will differ only in the temperature de-

2458-VOLUME 2, SEPTEMBER 1971 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

 401[ - -
Table IV. Derived Temperature-Dependence
36 696
o f Flow Stress for 295°K Deformation i =5 x lO'Ssec"

o AT
28
Engineering At Ms°, Ao
Strain, Pct Mso, °K kg-mm-2 Mff, °K (Ms° - Mse), °K AT ff 24 ~c

Alloy 2436 ZO

0.10 292.0 17.5 271.0 21.0 0.83

16
0.56 290.5 18.1 270.0 20.5 0.88
0.97 288.0 19.8 269.0 19.0 1.04
1.77 294.0 29.8 268.0 26.0 1.15
4.37 303.5 42.4 268.0 35.5 1.20 8

6.26 302.5 47.4 267.5 35.0 !.35

8.34 313.5 55.5 264.0 49.5 1.12 0~.%
16.06 304.0 67.9 246.0 58.0 1.17
ELONGATION
20.44 308.0 79.0 246.0 62.0 1.27
F i g . 8--A s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e for paramagnetic 1696 showing
Alloy 1696 the following regimes: dynamic s t r a i n aging (T _>270°K),
0.10 248.0 26.0 212.0 36.0 0.72 transformation-aided plasticity (T= 233°K especially, but
3.83 252.0 40.1 201.0 51.0 0.79 contributions also at T > 233°K), and s t r e s s - a i d e d t r a n s f o r -
6.96 262.0 54.6 201.0 61.0 0.90 mation (T <233°K).
12.91 261.5 58.1 200.0 61.5 0.95
15.72 274.0 64.9 208.5 65.5 0.99
20.82 276.5 73.7 215.5 61.0 1.21 s e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l l y c a n be c o n f i r m e d a n a i y t i c a l l y by
o b t a i n i n g [ 8 ( A a / & T ) / a £ ] f r o m Eq. [ 1 2 ] , a n d t h e n u s -
ing E q s . [2] a n d /9] to e v a l u a t e t h e e x p r e s s i o n .
p e n d e n c e of the e l a s t i c m o d u l i , m a k i n g the a p p r o x i m a t i o n
ay s permissible, and T w o R e g i m e s of S t r a i n - R a t e S e n s i t i v i t y
!
M a 6M M: a i ) It is next of i n t e r e s t in the d e v e l o p m e n t of this
p a p e r to a p p l y Eq. [1] to the d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e two
o r in r e w r i t t e n f o r m , u s i n g the p l a u s i b l e a s s u m p t i o n d i s t i n c t b e h a v i o r s s i g n a l l e d by s t r a i n - r a t e c h a n g e s .
that aa a n d T a a r e r e l a t e d by a g e o m e t r i c and c o n - I n the f i r s t , c a l l e d s t r e s s - a i d e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,~z the
s t r a i n t f a c t o r , a = w 7, a s s u m p t i o n is m a d e that TaM << Ty w h i c h l e a d s to the
a p p r o x i m a t i o n 4 ~ 400, and the e q u a t i o n b e c o m e s TM
' ~ ~
1 ( C°SM)-- (Y =a+ Ms [12] oc (~y + s t r a i n r a t e i n d e p e n d e n t t e r m s . F o r this e x -
-5 l+cM ~ ~ treme
M s - Ms Mas - M s
It is E q . [12] t h a t c a n p r o v i d e us with a n o t h e r i n s i g h t
( ara ~ i(arY
into the i n f l u e n c e of s t r e s s on the s t r u c t u r e - s e n s i t i v i t y
of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e n e r g e t i c s , d e r i v e d now f r o m the H e r e , quite surprisingly, s t r e s s produces primarily
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n M Cs a n d Msa a s s p e c i a l t e m p e r a - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n (but the d e f o r m a t i o n r e s p o n s e s i n -
t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o f " f l o w s t r e s s " , & a / A T , at t e m p e r a - d u c e d by d y n a m i c s t r a i n - r a t e c h a n g e s h a v e t h e s a m e
t u r e s b e l o w M sa. A n u m e r i c a l e v a l u a t i o n of the l o w e r s e n s e a s t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s l i p . T h e 2 1 0 ° K p o r -
l i m i t in E q . [ 1 2 ] , a , g i v e s a v a l u e of a b o u t 0.6 k g p e r tion of Fig° 8 i l l u s t r a t e s both the c o r r e c t n e s s of the
s q m m - ° K , t a k i n g f o r F e - N i - C a l l o y s A S v = 1.5 c a l a s s u m p t i o n that •M a << Z y , and the p o s i t i v e s t r a i n - r a t e
p e r m o l e - ° K , w = 2.2, cM = 0.2 and 5~4 = 0 . 0 4 . T h e s e n s i t i v i t y that e n s u e s w h e n c h e m i c a l f o r c e s a r e d o m -
r e l a t i v e p e r t i n e n c e of M se and Mff b e c o m e s m a n i f e s t i n a n t . I n this r e s p e c t , t h e f e r r o m a g n e t i c a n d p a r a -
12
in this e v a l u a t i o n in the s t e p of o b t a i n i n g A T at m a c - m a g n e t i c a u s t e n i t e s a r e i d e n t i c a l in t h e i r r e s p o n s e s •
r o s c o p i c s t r a i n s , s i n c e i t i s Mse that is the r e f e r e n c e i i ) Only two m o r e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e f o r the
t e m p e r a t u r e at a p a r t i c u l a r s t r a i n , and not M s . T h u s , r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n ~-a and ~-y : i f 7 a __> r y , g r o s s
T = Ms a - Mse a n d &or = a (at M s a ) . T y p i c a l r e s u l t s y i e l d i n g by slip o c c u r s ; the o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y is that
a r e s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e IV f o r the two p a r a m a g n e t i c TaM < Ty, c a u s i n g 4 to i n c r e a s e r a p i d l y so that ~ >> 40,
a l l o y s 2436 a n d 1 6 9 6 , w h e r e i t is s e e n that A e / A T a n d E q . [1] c a n b e r e w r i t t e n a s
v a l u e s s t a r t out n e a r but a b o v e the t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t o f TaM oc 4 + s t r a i n - r a t e i n d e p e n d e n t t e r m s .
0.6 at ¢ = 10 -s a n d i n c r e a s e s l o w l y as s t r a i n i n -
c r e a s e s . The reasonable physical interpretation pro- T h e n t h e s t r a i n - r a t e d e p e n d e n c e of the a p p l i e d s t r e s s
v i d e d by the e q u a t i o n is that a s the p a r e n t a u s t e n i t e b e c o m e sx4
b e c o m e s h a r d e n e d by g r o s s y i e l d i n g a n d t r a n s f o r m a -
t i o n , t h e r e s i s t a n c e to d i l a t a t i o n (for w h i c h t h e r e is no
s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) i n c r e a s e s f a s t e r than the r e s i s t -
a n c e to s h e a r (for w h i c h t h e r e is a n e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s T h i s is p r e c i s e l y the b e h a v i o r o r i g i n a l l y a n t i c i p a t e d ,
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , a s the a u s t e n i t e is i n - and i l l u s t r a t e d c l e a r l y by the 2 3 3 ° K p o r t i o n of F i g . 8 .
c r e a s i n g l y h a r d e n e d , relatively m o r e e x t r a n e o u s w o r k T h e c o r r e c t n e s s of the a s s u m p t i o n 7aM < Ty, w h i c h
is done b y the s h e a r t h a n by the d i l a t a t i o n • T h i s is r e - c a n now be r e g a r d e d a s a d e f i n i n g c o n d i t i o n , is also
f l e c t e d in E q . [12] by ~ ~ i n c r e a s i n g m o r e r a p i d l y
Ms c l e a r in the f i g u r e . F o r r e a s o n s that will be d i s c u s s e d ,
t h a n ( M f f - Mse). T h e c o n s e q u e n t i n c r e a s e in & a / A T this s p e c i a l r e g i m e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n - a i d e d p l a s -

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1 9 7 1 - 2 4 5 9


5004
28 No221
El= 3 3xlO see
24 ~Z= 3 3 x I O ' s s e c ' l e
N . " bon upon mechanical r e s p o n s e s and thus upon d i s l o c a -
~ 20 el 62
12
z a b e h a v i o r p r o d u c e d in p a r a m a g n e t i c a u s t e n i t e s a n d to
8
4 s i t i o n a f f e c t s d i s l o c a t i o n s a s we h a v e s u p p o s e d , x° o r
0 2 %
0 I I I ~ J ~ I I P J J I a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , o r thus a b o u t our v i e w o f t h e
ELONGATION
Fig. 9--A s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e f o r 3 0 0 4 , a typical low c a r b o n
ferromagnetic austenite of the Invar c l a s s . T h e s e g m e n t s a r e
smooth at T > 238°K, and s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t i e s a r e l a r g e
a n d positive throughout. T h e only s p e c i a l r e g i m e i s s t r e s s -
a i d e d transformation at T <_ 238°K.
ticity 12 i s a b s e n t i n t h e f e r r o m a g n e t i c a u s t e n i t e s t y p i -
f i e d by 3004 i n F i g . 9 .
A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e s a m e d i s t i n c t b e h a v i o r c a n be
d e d u c e d i n F i g . 6 , n a m e l y that t h e o n s e t o f l a r g e n e g -
a t i v e s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y i s s i g n a l l e d by M sa . I n
other w o r d s , c l e a r l y identifiable transformation-
a i d e d p l a s t i c i t y o c c u r s w h e n (O'cM/OT) > 0 . S u c h b e -
havior further augments t h e uniqueness a r g u m e n t o f -
(7
f e r e d f o r Ms, a t l e a s t i n t h e c a s e of p a r a m a g n e t i c
austenites.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
W e have presented some experiments concerned
w i t h d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e s of m e t a s t a b l e a u s t e n i t e t o
i m p o s e d c h a n g e s o f d e f o r m a t i o n v a r i a b l e s . Our ob-
ject has been t o find s i m p l e relationships between de-
f o r m a t i o n a n d m a r t e n s i t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in t e r m s o f
s t r e s s e s , a n d s o m e o f this aim has been achieved. It
w a s i m p o s s i b l e f o r us t o i g n o r e s o m e o v e r l a p p i n g a n d
intriguing secondary phenomena involved with m a r t e n -
s i t e f o r m a t i o n , but we h a v e not y e t c o n t e m p l a t e d a n y
s u b t l e t i e s o f t h e s o - c a l l e d c h e m i c a l f a c t o r s , a n d we
h a v e studiously avoided questions a b o u t crystallog-
r a p h y . T h i s v i e w f o l l o w s a b i a s t h a t we a d o p t e d a t t h e
outset: martensite formation and mechanical twinning
a r e closely s i m i l a r a n d it is s i m p l e s t t o a t t e m p t e x -
a m i n a t i o n o f a s s o c i a t e d p l a s t i c p r o c e s s e s by s u p p o s -
i n g t h a t m a r t e n s i t e g e n e r a t i o n c a n be a n a l y z e d i n t h e
s a m e f a s h i o n a s t w i n n i n g . 14 T h e f u n c t i o n ~ i n t r o d u c e d
h e r e is the r e m n a n t of that b i a s ; a s b e f o r e , it is a m o -
n o t o n i c i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n of s o m e s t r e s s a r g u m e n t .
T h e f o r m in E q . [i] is a p p e a l i n g b e c a u s e it s h o w s
clearly h o w e n e r g y can be dissipated simultaneously
with martensite formation by dislocations m o v e d con-
c u r r e n t l y but e x t r i n s i c to the s p e c i f i c a n d u n k n o w n
p r o c e s s of f o r m i n g m a r t e n s i t e .
It h a s t u r n e d out that o n l y a s m a l l i n t e r i m r e g i m e
o f b e h a v i o r , transformation-aided plasticity, h a s t h e
p r o p e r a t t r i b u t e s f o r a p r o c e s s s i m i l a r to our v i e w o f
dynamic or continual mechanical twinning. In this r e -
g i m e we e x p e c t , a n d s e e , a n e g a t i v e s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i -
t i v i t y in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a p o s i t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e de-
pendence of " f l o w s t r e s s . "
2460-VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971
T h e r e a s o n s for such a limited e x t e n t of t h e s o u g h t -
for behavior depend upon t h e difficulties o f s e p a r a t i n g
m a g n e t i c c h a r a c t e r , x° t h e i n f l u e n c e o f d i s s o l v e d c a r -
b o n o n t h e m a g n e t i c c h a r a c t e r , xl t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c a r -
t i o n s , zz a n d e v e n s e c o n d a r y i n f l u e n c e s i n v o l v i n g i n t e r -
r e l a t e d changes of C u r i e Temperature, dislocation
mobility, transformation t e m p e r a t u r e and c a r b o n con-
t e n t . T o - d a t e t h e n we a r e l i m i t e d t o t h e d e l i n e a t i o n o f
the i n f e r e n c e o f a b e h a v i o r i n f e r r o m a g n e t i c a u s t e n i t e s .
F o r we c a n n o t be c e r t a i n t h a t t h e f e r r o m a g n e t i c t r a n -
t h u s be c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of d i s l o c a t i o n s
austenite transformation u n d e r s t r e s s . However, the
experimental evidence for a s p e c i a l behavioral r e -
g i m e , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n - a i d e d p l a s t i c i t y , in p a r a m a g -
n e t i c s f o r c e s u s to i n f e r t h a t f e r r o m a g n e t i s m in I n v a r
alloys affects dislocations a n d / o r dislocation i n t e r a c -
tions.
T h e t h e o r y e m b o d i e d i n E q . [1] i s s t r i c t l y i n a c c o r d
w i t h a n d q u i t e c l e a r l y m o l d e d by t r a d i t i o n a l a s s u m p -
t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , the s t a t e of s t r a i n of m a r t e n s i t e
has been neither introduced nor questioned. A f t e r aus-
t e n i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the p r o d u c t m a r t e n s i t e s a r e in-
v a r i a b l y h e a v i l y t w i n n e d o r d i s l o c a t e d , w h i c h is c e r -
t a i n l y a n a l l o w a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e of c a t a s t r o p h i c g r o w t h
o n c e s o m e c r i t i c a l s t a g e is s u r m o u n t e d . B u t is the
m a r t e n s i t e at t h e c r i t i c a l s t a g e , w h i c h is p r e s u m a b l y
the s t a g e e x a m i n e d b y c l m n g e s of d e f o r m a t i o n v a r i a -
b l e s , the s a m e a s the s u p e r c r i t i c a l o r e n d - s t a t e m a r -
t e n s i t e ? A n d t h u s is the e n t r o p y of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
u s e d p r o p e r l y , i.e., a s i n d e p e n d e n t of s t r a i n r a t e ,
temperature, composition, reaction path, and so forth.
O n l y t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to l e n t i c u l a r o r p l a t e - l i k e
m a r t e n s i t e h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d i n the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i -
gation, but t h e r e s e e m s no r e a s o n w h y o t h e r m o d e s
a n d o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k c a n n o t b e s u b j e c t e d to
the kind of a n a l y s i s d e s c r i b e d h e r e . In one extreme,
the r e g i m e of s t r e s s - a i d e d transformation, the f o r m a l
description differs only slightly f r o m that documented
by C o h e n a n d c o w o r k e r s ; s ' 18 a d i v e r g e n c e a r i s e s o n l y
i f t h e a u s t e n i t e i s i n a s t a t e o f s t r a i n i n w h i c h in_homo-
g e n e i t i e s a n d t h e m o v e m e n t o f s m a l l n u m b e r s o f dis-
l o c a t i o n s c a n be i m p o r t a n t . A t t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e
w h e r e the temperature dependence of the flow s t r e s s
is o r d i n a r y a n d n e g a t i v e a n d y e t m a r t e n s i t e c a n f o r m
a d j u n c t t o s l i p , we d i f f e r not a t a l l f r o m p r i o r r a t i o n -
alizations. T o t h e best o f our j u d g m e n t , e v e n t h e
characteristics o f i s o t h e r m a l m a r t e n s i t e seem also
to d e p e n d u p o n s t r e s s s t a t e , probably in t h e f o r m o f
l o c a l s t r e s s relaxations.
SUMMARY
1) T h e l o c a l d e f o r m a t i o n t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s t h e c r i t i -
c a l s t a g e o f a u s t e n i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to l e n t i c u l a r
m a r t e n s i t e h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d by m e a s u r i n g the d y -
n a m i c r e s p o n s e s of metastable F e - N i - C austenites t o
i m p o s e d c h a n g e s in d e f o r m a t i o n v a r i a b l e s .
2) S e v e r a l p h e n o m e n a ( s u c h a s f e r r o m a g n e t i c t r a n -
s i t i o n s a n d d y n a m i c s t r a i n aging) t h a t o v e r l a p in t h e
temperature r a n g e commonly u s e d for transformation
s t u d i e s of F e - N i - C a l l o y s have been s e p a r a t e d e x p e r i -
mentally.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
 3) Important influences upon transformation origi-
nate primarily in the m o d e s and stress levels of, and
resistance to, austenite deformation.
4) It is d e d u c e d that austenite deformation d u r i n g
martensite formation must be a n elastic-plastic bal-
ance depending upon the stresses internally generated,
externally i m p o s e d , and persisting f r o m t h e r m o m e -
chanical history. T h u s , it is impossible to consider
the details of martensite formation without incorporat-
ing the effects of stress.
5) T h e effects of stresses upon transformation to
lenticular martensite have been hypothesized, tested,
and interpreted.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h e a u t h o r s a r e i n d e b t e d t o M r . B . V. K o v a c s f o r
h i s a b l e a s s i s t a n c e w i t h m o s t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
w o r k , t o M e s s r s . R . J e r v i s , A . R . K r a u s e , a n d S. M e t -
h a y , e a c h f o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g in s p e c i f i c e x p e r i m e n t s , t o
Dr. C. L. M a g e e for n u m e r o u s d i s c u s s i o n s a n d c r i t i -
c i s m s , a n d t o D r s . T . L . J o h n s t o n a n d K. R . K i n s m a n
for critical r e v i e w s of the manuscript.
APPENDIX
Stress-Induced Martensite--An Abbreviated
F o r m a l Description
L e t us p r o c e e d i n d i s c r e t e s t e p s t o a m e n d t h e d e -
s c r i p t i o n u s e d f o r C o n t i n u a l M e c h a n i c a l T w i n n i n g , ~4
so that it w i l l a c c o u n t f i r s t of a l l f o r m e c o n t r i b u t i o n
o f m a r t e n s i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to d e f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c -
t e r i s t i c s w h e n m o s t o f t h e s t r a i n o c c u r s by t r a n s f o r -
m a t i o n . B y c h a n g i n g s u b s c r i p t s , E q . [6] of R e f . 14 b e -
comes
£M T a d V > ~ £ M T o d V + Y M d A + A f v d V +E M t d V
[A-l]
H e r e CM i s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s h e a r , T a t h e e x t e r n a l
s t r e s s r e s o l v e d onto t h e s h e a r p l a n e , 7o a n i n t r i n s i c
r e s i s t a n c e (of e l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r ) t o t h e s h e a r , 7M t h e
martensite-austenite s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e f r e e e n e r g y , Afv
t h e free e n e r g y change per unit v o l u m e t r a n s f o r m e d
(negative), and ~ the dissipation factor. W e ignore for
the moment any dilatation r e s u l t i n g from the p h a s e
t r a n s i t i o n , a f e a t u r e a b s e n t in t h e t w i n n i n g p r o c e s s ,
a n d c o n s i d e r only the u n i t i n c r e m e n t a l v o l u m e a n d
a r e a c h a n g e s , d V a n d dA r e s p e c t i v e l y , that a r e a s s o -
c i a t e d with the cooperative s h e a r . T h e function t for
t h e m a r t e n s i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is best c h o s e n as a m o -
notonic a s c e n d i n g function of the following argument:
• T a + "~ _ To
w h e r e T y is t h e s h e a r s t r e s s f o r o v e r a l l s l i p , a n d E
in u n i t s o f s t r e s s is i t s e l f a n i n e x p l i c i t f u n c t i o n
Z = ~ \ ¢ M I
that d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y upon temperature. T h e form
of Eq. [A-2] e x p r e s s e s t h e p u r e l y local, s t r e s s - a u g -
m e n t i n g effect within a m a r t e n s i t e volume, w h i c h
a r i s e s b e c a u s e of the chemical d r i v i n g force. This
f o r c e c r e a t e s an equivalent s t r e s s that e n l a r g e s the
extrinsic distortion through a supplemented numerator
METALLURG{CALTRANSACTIONS
( c o m p a r e d t o CMTX4), but t h e r e i s n o d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e
o v e r a l l r e s i s t a n c e to t h e i n s e r t i o n o f a s h e a r e d r e g i o n
i n t o t h e p a r e n t c r y s t a l , so t h e d e n o m i n a t o r r e m a i n s
u n c h a n g e d . ( A l t e r a t i o n o f t h e a r g u m e n t h e r e m a y be
c o m p a r e d in d e t a i l to t h e e f f e c t s o f c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c
o r d e r o n t w i n n i n g . ~4) T h u s , f o r "ra ~ Ty, the f l o w
s t r e s s f o r slip is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s p e c i m e n ,
as before, a n d t h e e n e r g y r e q u i r e d t o b a l a n c e t b e -
c o m e s exorbitant. In such instances, twinning/marten-
s i t e c a n a c c o m p a n y o v e r a l l slip as a s p o r a d i c e v e n t ,
a n d not a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s . F o r
T a --* 0 , t s h o u l d be s m a l l a n d l o c a l , s a y , a t t h e v a l u e
to.
W h e n a d i l a t a t i o n is i n c l u d e d t o provide a m o r e real
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r the i n c r e m e n t a l
g r o w t h o f a m a r t e n s i t e c r y s t a l at s o m e c r i t i c a l s t a g e ,
t is r e t a i n e d u n c h a n g e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e " d i s s i p a t i o n
o f e n e r g y by s l i p c o n c u r r e n t w i t h ( t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ) but
e x t r i n s i c t o t h e ( t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ) p r o c e s s i t s e l f : ''~4
£ M T a d V + 5M ( y a d V ' > C M ' r o d V + 5 M ~ T y d V '
+ YM dA + A f v d V + eM t d V [A-3]
Here 5M i s t h e d i l a t a t i o n , * ~ a i s t h e e x t e r n a l s t r e s s
*Corresponding t o Christian's AJ9
r e s o l v e d for dilatation, and the additional work
5M ((ry -- ( r a ) d V ' i s d o n e a g a i n s t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f l o w
s t r e s s ~y t h r o u g h a v o l u m e i n c r e m e n t d V ' >_ d V . F o r
a p u r e s h e a r , t h e e x t r a w o r k c M ~ d V w h i c h is p l a s t i c
a n d l o s t , is s e p a r a t e f r o m t h a t w h i c h is e l a s t i c a n d
s t o r e d £ M T o d V , b e c a u s e of the oblateness of the body;
or r a t h e r , the oblateness a r i s e s b e c a u s e of the d i s p a r -
i t y i n t h e k i n d s of w o r k that m u s t be d o n e . H o w e v e r , i t
is i m p o r t a n t to r e a l i z e t h a t a d i l a t a t i o n is a c c o m p a n i e d
by no s u c h a m e n a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , a n d w e a r e l e f t t o
cope with a w o r k e d v o l u m e dV'>_ dV.
N o w i f V i s s m a l l , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t d W > > d V , but
t h i s e x t r e m e i s not e x p e c t e d s i n c e we s u s p e c t t h a t
such a critically s m a l l r e g i o n w o u l d o c c u r only if t h e
pure s h e a r component completely dominated the d i l a -
tation, and a l o n e controlled the reaction. On the other
h a n d , i f V i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e a n d 5M only a f e w p e r -
c e n t , t h e n w e m a y a p p r o x i m a t e d V' z d V, o r c o m p e n -
s a t e by t a k i n g
5 ~ d V ' = 5'MAY [A-4]
N o w n o t e t h a t A f v is, in n o r m a l u s a g e
A Y v = A S v ( T - To), [A-5a]
a n d we m a y u s e
zxfv ~ ( T - To) [A-Sb]
CM
T h e n f o r p r o p a g a t i o n ( t a k i n g e q u a l i t y a n d T a = T aM )
fix M
[A-6]
1 dA
w h e r e fl = ¢ ~ d V i s a s h a p e f a c t o r . 14 T r a n s f o r m a -
t i o n w i t h n o e x t e r n a l s t r e s s e s ( i . e . , T a = 0) a t t h e
temperature M s g i v e s
5~v/
0 =Too + £ ~ ~ s +~M~+~(Ms To)+too [A-7]
VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971-2461
and at the temperature Me gives
0 = To + ~ M O'Myys + YM/3 + °t(M~s - TO) + ~o" [A-8]
R E F E R E N C E S
1. B. Edmondson and T. Ko: ActaMet., 1954, vol. 2, p. 235.
2. E. S. Machlin and M. Cohen: Trans. AIME, 1951, vol. 191, p. 746.
3. P. M. Kelly and J. Nutting: J. lron Steellnst., 1961, vol. 197, p. 199.
4. A. W. McReynolds: Z Appl. Phys., 1949, vol. 20, p. 846.
5. G. V. Kurdjumov, O. P. Maksimova, A. I. Nikonorova, Z. D. Pavlenko, and
A. M. Yampol'skii: Fiz. Metal Metalloved., 1958, vol. 6, p. 95.
6. J. F. Breedis and W. D. Robertson: ActaMet., 1963, vol. 11, p. 547.
7. For a compilation of references to the influence of deformation upon trans-
2462-VOLUME 2, SEPTEMBER 1971
formation, see R. P. Reed and J. F. Breedis: Behavior o f Metals at Cryogenic
Temperatures, p. 60, Am. Soc. Testing Mater., 1966.
8. J. R. Patel and M. Cohen: ActaMet., 1953, vol. 1, p. 531.
9. G. F. Boiling and R. H. Richman: ScriptaMet., 1970, vol. 4, p. 539.
10. G. F. Bolling and R. H. Richman: Phil. Mag., 1969, vol. 19, p. 247.
11. G. F. Boiling and R. H. Richman: Phys. Stat. Sol., 1968, vol. 26, p. 743.
12. G. F. Boiling and R. H. Richman: Acta Met., 1970, vol. 18, p. 673.
13. T. G. Gooch and D. R. F. West: J. Iron Steellnst., 1967, vol. 205, p. 555.
14. G. F. Boiling and R. H. Richman: A ctaMet., 1965, vol. 13, p. 709.
15. K. S. B. Rose and S. G. Glover: Acta Met., 1966, vol. 14, p. 1505.
16. J. Venables: at. Phys. Chem. Solids, 1964, vol. 25, p. 693.
17. L. Kaufman and M. Cohen: Progress in MetalPhysics, vol. 7, p. 165,
Pergamon Press, 1958.
18. S. A. Kulin,Morris Cohen and B. L. Averbach: Trans. AIME, 1952, vol. 194,
p. 661.
19. J. W. Christian:ActaMet., 1958, vol. 6, p. 377.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS