1A Lake Of Water On Mars

Photo credit: theverge.com

For decades, scientists have debated about the possibility of large reservoirs
of water existing somewhere on Mars. Due to the extreme conditions of the
Red Planet, the scientific community is focusing on searching for underground
water deposits because they could be the only places capable of sustaining
life on that planet.

With hostile temperatures of -62 degrees Celsius (-80 °F) on the surface of
Mars, astronomers have been able to notice only some flows of super-salty
water in a liquid state. Meanwhile, the rest of the water seemed to be frozen in
layers of ice as in the polar ice caps.

To the surprise of many, scientists from the European Space Agency (ESA)
detected for the first time a large body of liquid water beneath the Martian
surface in July 2018. Using a radar instrument from the Mars Express orbiter
probe, the team found strong evidence of a water lake 20 kilometers (12.4 mi)
long near the south pole. This lake is buried under 1.5 kilometers (0.9 mi) of
ice and would be at least 1 meter (3 ft) deep.

It is still unknown why water is liquid in that reservoir, where temperatures

could be as low as -68 degrees Celsius (-90 °F). But it could be a combination
of the enormous pressure at that depth, underground air pockets that retain
the planet’s internal heat, and large amounts of dissolved salt in the water. In
any case, this finding increases the hope of scientists being able to find life on
Mars.
2The Creation Of The Coldest Object In Space

Photo credit: Live Science

The states of matter that people know well are solid, liquid, and gas. Some
others may know the fourth state, which is plasma. But there is a fifth state in
which matter can be found, and it is known as Bose-Einstein condensate
(BEC).

BEC occurs when atoms are cooled to extremely low temperatures which
cause them to stop moving and begin to group together as if they were a
single “super atom.” This exotic state was first theoretically formulated in the
early 20th century, but it was not until 1995 that scientists could artificially
recreate it in a laboratory.

Due to the peculiar physical characteristics of Bose-Einstein condensate,

scientists can use it to study quantum effects on a large scale. However, on
Earth, the BEC must be suspended with lasers or magnets. Otherwise, the
atoms disperse and change state.

But that is no longer a problem. In July 2018, scientists on the International

Space Station (ISS) cooled rubidium atoms until they reached the BEC state.
As gravity is negligible at that height in space, it is easier to manipulate such
matter up there, even for a longer time.

To perform the experiment, NASA sent a machine called Cold Atom Lab to
the ISS. This device, which is the size of a small refrigerator, can contain the
Bose-Einstein condensate inside it as well as be controlled directly from Earth.
It is interesting to note that this exotic matter has also become the coldest
object in outer space, although not the coldest in the universe.

3The First Planets Found In Another Galaxy

Photo credit: sciencedaily.com

To date, we have found almost 4,000 planets outside our solar system. Even
so, all these exoplanets have been located within the confines of our galaxy,
the Milky Way. Until now. Early in 2018, astronomers at the University of
Oklahoma detected for the first time in history a group of exoplanets in a
galaxy far, far away.

To achieve this finding, scientists used a method that involves a physical

phenomenon called “gravitational microlensing.” It happens that celestial
bodies of large mass like black holes and galaxies have the capacity to bend
light around them.

In this case, a galaxy located 3.8 billion light-years away from Earth magnified
the light of four distant quasars located directly behind the structure. Thus, the
“background light” of the quasars allowed astronomers to observe dark
objects such as planets inside that galaxy.

The researchers were able to detect around 2,000 planets, ranging from the
mass of the Moon to that of Jupiter. Until that moment, there was no real
evidence of exoplanets outside our galaxy.

Researcher Eduardo Guerras said that not even the best telescope we could
imagine would be able to directly see such planets. That is why the
“microlensing technique” is an invaluable resource for many astronomers
around the world.
4One Step Closer To Space Tourism

Photo credit: theverge.com

With the companies SpaceX and Blue Origin as its main competitors, Virgin

Galactic was founded with the mission of making outer space accessible to
tourists. However, since its creation in 2004, the private company has had
many problems to overcome to reach space.

It has been about 10 years since the firm promised tourist space flights. There
have been numerous delays and a fatal accident in 2014. But after all, it
seems that the time has come for Virgin Galactic to finally achieve its goals.

On December 13, 2018, Virgin Galactic completed the first spaceflight of its
history using its VSS Unity spaceplane. This was also the first manned
spaceflight launched from American soil since the last flight of NASA’s space
shuttle in 2011. The spaceplane—an aircraft capable of going to space,
returning to Earth, and landing like an airplane—was carried by another
aircraft called WhiteKnightTwo to a height of 13 kilometers (8 mi). From there,
the VSS Unity separated, ignited its engines, and flew to a height of 82.7
kilometers (51.4 mi) at a speed of Mach 2.9.

At that point, the spacecraft exceeded the 80-kilometer (50 mi) limit that NASA
considers to be the beginning of outer space. For this reason, Mark Stucky
and Frederick Sturckow, the pilots of the VSS Unity, will receive their private
astronaut wings next year.

However, others argue that the aircraft did not reach space by not exceeding
the Karman Line at 100 kilometers (62 mi) high, which was internationally
established as the edge of space. Either way, this achievement gives Virgin
Galactic the confidence it needs to continue with the tests before its first
commercial flights.

5Origin Of Super-Neutrinos Discovered

Photo credit: theverge.com

Neutrinos are subatomic particles formed in almost the entire universe

through nuclear fusion processes. Due to their negligible mass and neutral
charge, neutrinos can traverse almost anything without being affected at all. In
fact, it is estimated that trillions of neutrinos go through a person’s body every
second. Until some time ago, scientists knew that neutrinos can come from
places like the Sun, supernovae, or our own atmosphere.

However, in September 2017, astronomers at an observatory called IceCube

detected a high-energy neutrino that collided with the Antarctic ice. It was
clear that this particle did not come from known places because it was
estimated that this type of neutrino was millions of times more energetic than
a normal neutrino. And if we just talked about how common the normal
neutrinos are, only 10 of these new “super-neutrinos” are detected every year.

Astronomers asked to point numerous telescopes around the world to a

specific portion of the sky from where they believed the super-neutrino had
come. Two NASA telescopes observed that there was a blazar—a type of
galaxy with a huge black hole in the center—emitting large doses of energy.

In a report issued in July 2018, the researchers who made the discovery
confirmed that the source of the neutrino was the blazar galaxy located four
billion light-years away from Earth. This finding not only establishes the first
known source of such particles but also helps scientists better understand
cosmic rays, which are created along with neutrinos.
6The Strongest Material In The Universe

Photo credit: Live Science

Graphene is 200 times stronger than steel. Meanwhile, a substance called

carbyne is twice as strong as graphene and is considered the most resistant
material on Earth. But what is the strongest material in the universe?
Well, in July 2018, scientists investigated such material inside a peculiar
celestial body and carbyne pales in comparison to its hardness. At least for
now, its name is “nuclear pasta.”

Nuclear pasta is the substance that makes up the core of a neutron star.
When a star explodes in a supernova and becomes a neutron star, its core
collapses inward and stores the mass of several suns in a few kilometers in
diameter. The superdense material that forms such a core takes several
shapes according to its location.

Through computer simulations, scientists from several US institutions tested

the strength of nuclear pasta. As the material was pushed to the limit, it was
concluded that this nuclear pasta is up to 10 billion times stronger than steel.
Without any other element capable of demonstrating similar properties,
nuclear pasta is now the strongest material in the universe.

These results have created more questions than answers for scientists—from
the necessary means to observe such material to the way in which nuclear
pasta generates gravitational waves.
7Dozens Of Cryovolcanoes On Ceres

Photo credit: arstechnica.com

Volcanoes are not limited to being hot. We are used to seeing big mountains
on Earth spitting fire and molten rock, but volcanoes on other worlds may
throw exactly the opposite: ice. This type of volcano, appropriately called a
cryovolcano, releases a frozen mineral substance called cryolava.

We have already shown you that Pluto has cryovolcanoes on its surface.

Titan, Saturn’s moon, also has this type of volcano. But it was not until
recently that we learned about the abundance of these formations in the solar
system.

In 2015, the space probe Dawn began to orbit the dwarf planet Ceres in the
asteroid belt while taking numerous photos of its surface. Thanks to this,
scientists confirmed the discovery of a cryovolcano on the surface of Ceres in
2016. This was incredible because it was believed that the planet was
geologically dead.

But that was just the beginning. In September 2018, a team of researchers
published a report stating that Ceres has around 22 cryovolcanoes on its
surface. Most of these volcanoes are currently inactive, although they are
estimated to be less than a billion years old.

While the composition of the cryolava in Ceres remains uncertain, the

cryovolcanoes in other planets expel liquid nitrogen, dust, and methane.
September’s finding is extremely important because it proves that Ceres is still
geologically active. How these cryovolcanoes work exactly is a question that
remains to be solved. While volcanoes on Earth act by the internal heat of the
planet, Ceres does not have such energy to power its cryovolcanoes.
8We Have Learned To Remove Space Junk

Photo credit: iflscience.com

With the help of rockets, space stations, and satellites, humans have made
great advances that have improved the lives of many people. But when these
inventions stop working, their parts just keep floating in space as useless
waste. We call this “space junk,” and there is a lot of it. Since there are
millions of pieces of space debris around the Earth and a collision with these
would be catastrophic, space exploration is becoming more difficult.

For that reason, scientists have struggled to find a way to eliminate space
junk. This year, it seems they have found it. Researchers at the University of
Surrey in England sent a satellite called RemoveDEBRIS into space.

This satellite has the mission to test four built-in technologies to try to deorbit
space debris: a net, a smaller satellite, a harpoon, and a dragsail. In
September, the first experiment involving the net was conducted, and the
results were successful.

First, the satellite launched a piece of metal—to imitate real space junk—
whose speed was around 27,359 kilometers per hour (17,000 mph). Moments
later, RemoveDEBRIS also fired the net in the trajectory of the object. The
cobweb-like net quickly opened and engulfed the debris without difficulty.

Scientists hope that both the net and the debris will burn in the atmosphere in
a couple of months. Although the novel experiment shows how promising this
technology is in removing space debris, one concern is the potentially higher
cost of having to clean up larger space junk.
9Water Ice Found On The Moon

Photo credit: Live Science

For a long time, there has been evidence pointing to the existence of ice on
the Moon, but the proof has never been conclusive. There were signs of ice at
the lunar south pole, for example, but these observations could be explained
with phenomena other than the presence of water.

That changed on August 20 when NASA first confirmed the existence of water

ice on both poles of the Moon. The definitive evidence was obtained through
observations made by the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3), an instrument
aboard an Indian spacecraft. These observations showed significant amounts
of ice deposited at the bottom of several craters at the south pole. Meanwhile,
the ice is more dispersed in thinner layers at the north pole.

Although the Moon’s surface reaches 100 degrees Celsius (212 °F), making
the presence of liquid water impossible, the temperature in the polar craters
drops to -157 degrees Celsius (-251 °F). This allows the water there to remain
frozen for long periods.

This great discovery may encourage attempts to return to the Moon. Several
uses for lunar water have already been planned. In some cases, it could be
filtered and used for astronauts’ consumption. It could also be split into
hydrogen and oxygen to provide air to humans there or for use as rocket fuel.
This last option would allow the Moon to be used as a refueling stop for
spaceflights to more distant places.
10The Largest Star Map Ever Made

Photo credit: esa.int

In April 2018, the European Space Agency (ESA) publicly released the largest
sky map ever created to date. The map is a three-dimensional reconstruction
of the sky seen from Earth, thanks to data obtained by the Gaia spacecraft.

This space probe was launched in 2013 by the same agency and is located
1.6 million kilometers (1 million mi) away from Earth. With two telescopes and
a one-billion-pixel camera, Gaia’s mission is to photograph the entire sky
every two months.

With the information obtained, ESA’s star map contains the brightness and
position of 1.7 billion stars. This makes the map 700 million times larger than
its preliminary version in 2016. At the same time, it stores data about the color
and movement of 1.3 billion stars. As if that were not enough, the image
shows the location of half a million other galaxies as well as 14,000 asteroids
in our solar system.

This map, which will remain under construction for the next few years, is a
gold mine for astronomers around the world. With such a detailed model,
scientists will be able to better understand the formation and structure of our
galaxy as well as find evidence of new exoplanets.