Unit 2: Local and Global Communication in Multi-

Cultural Settings

Introduction

People from different cultures interact with each other posing communication problems in the
global community. There are cultural barriers that may interfere in communication processes
which are detrimental to intercultural understanding. Some of these intercultural interferences are:
1) different cultural affiliates, 2) inferiority of one’s culture, and 3) diverse cultural
communication practices (Wakat, 2018). There are cultural barriers because people interacting in
a global environment have different perspectives. With these, there are things that we need to
improve for effective communication.
Our journey to effective communication in multicultural settings starts with unlocking the two
significant terms – local communication and global communication. Local communication has its
foundation on the cultural context which means, it exposes the culture of the people forming their
own identity in the community. Globalization paved the way to many effects in humanity. Because
of the fast pace of technology, the internet quickly surpassed more the traditional way of
communicating. Through the internet, one can communicate instantly with people in other
countries and one can read about different cultures, as well as access articles and academic papers.
The role then of global communication is to modify or to create changes in the local setting.
In this module, you will be introduced to many forms of intercultural communication and strategies
to improve your competence as an intercultural communicator. It focuses on the different registers
and varieties of language and their vital role in written and spoken discourse. You will learn to
communicate effectively in a global society and to achieve effective global communication that
could produce a harmonious and a borderless relationship with others.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of how cultural diversity affects communication;
2. explain how cultural and global issues affect communication;
3. convey ideas through oral and written presentations for different target audiences in
local and global settings;
4. demonstrate understanding of the concept of language variation;
5. identify features of Philippine, American and British English, and
6. appreciate the differences of the varieties of written and spoken language.
Topic 1. Intercultural Communication

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. identify the needs and importance of learning and exploring intercultural

communication;
2. determine culturally appropriate terms, expressions and images (sensitivity to gender,
race and class); and
3. write examples of different forms of intercultural communication.

Presentation of Content

Language is a component that is linked to intercultural understanding. It acts as a way to bridge

misunderstanding between people of different cultures. Language is a medium of exchanging ideas
and transmitting cultural practices of other people in the global community.

Intercultural communication refers to interaction with people from diverse cultures (Jandt, 1998).
The following are the forms of Intercultural Communication (Jandt, 1998) as cited by Wakat
(2018):

1. Interracial communication – communicating with people from different races

2. Interethnic communication – interacting with people of different ethnic origins
3. International communication – communication between representatives from different
nations
4. Intra-cultural communication – interacting with members of the same racial or ethnic
group or co-culture

Improving Intercultural Communication Competence

Local and global communication requires the need to foster cooperative conversation for
effectiveness purposes. The norm or convention in communicating should be observed by the
communicators regardless of their cultural backgrounds and the required context of oral
communication (Manzano, 2018). Culture therefore is considered along with context. To be
effective and efficient in local and global communication, a speaker must engage with Grice’s four
maxims in conversation (Manzano, 2018).
Four Maxims of Grice’s Principles of Cooperative Conversation
1. Maxim of Relation
- Every interlocutor should be relevant in conversation wherein the relevance is a norm
that dictates the need for the interlocutors to become sensitive in the communication
process.
- They need to be relevant in communicating, requiring them to respond based on
cultural and contextual requirements.
Example: If in a restaurant, a customer asks the server, “Do you have mango juice?” In
local culture, the server usually responds: “Regular or large?” which means that mango
juice is available, so the customer needs to place an order according to size. This is a
form of communication that observes economy in talking wherein words are to be
deleted in order to minimize the time of talking and will speed up the service to
accommodate another customer.

2. Maxim of Quantity
- Every interlocutor should observe a “fair-share-talk of time.”
- Everyone should be given the opportunity to talk and should not dominate the event.
- Every interlocutor should be sensitive to time, be brief and give others the chance to
talk.

3. Maxim of Quality
- Every interlocutor should maintain what is true in a given conversation.
- Do not add or deduce information.
- Always maintain a good reputation whenever you talk.

4. Maxim of Manner
- In the local culture, the manner of saying word is more regarded than its content.
- Body language meanings vary greatly from culture to culture. Effective communication
requires that the communicator has appropriate knowledge of the cultural use of body
language in a multicultural setting.

Sets of Common Body Language in Multicultural Setting:

a. Shaking hands: Cultural norms for hand shaking vary.
• For example, in the Philippines and in America, the cultural gesture of shaking hands
upon greeting is considered the norm when doing a person to person introduction.
• To refuse a handshake is considered a very rude gesture.
• By contrast, in Saudi Arabia, you can shake a man’s hand after meeting him but you
cannot shake a woman’s hand at all in greeting.
b. An OK sign
• The OK hand gesture in America and England is quite popular and considered a general
gesture that denotes an agreement of sentiment.
• An OK sign in Brazil is the equivalent of using your middle finger as a gesture in
America.
• The OK hand gesture is taken as an insult in most Latin American countries, Austria
and France.

c. Thumbs-up
• The thumbs-up gesture can be an equivalent to the OK gesture and is widely used
equivalent to the OK gesture and is widely used within America, England and the
Philippines.
• In many cultures around the globe, giving a thumbs-up gesture is a very large insult
like the Americas excluding the United States, it is a horrible idea that denotes as a
sexual insult and correlates to the middle finger meaning in the United States.

d. Sitting with crossed legs

• This is common in North America and European countries, but is considered
disrespectful in Asia and the Middle East where a straight and balanced posture prevails
as a norm.

e. Eye contact
• This is considered a positive aspect of body language in the Philippines.
• It is also common in Spain and the Arabic culture (among people of the same sex).
• Not looking back when someone is looking at you is considered disrespectful and
demonstrates insecurity, lack of interest, or indicates deception.
f. Nodding the head
• Head nod up and down generally means agreement, approval, or “yes” while head nod
from side to side or head shake means the “no” for Filipinos.
• To Bulgarians and Greeks, nodding up and down indicates negative response for they
are known for their unusual manner of saying “yes” and “no.”

g. Tugging the earlobes

• The Portuguese tug their earlobes to indicate tasty food, the Spaniards to signify that
someone is not paying for their drinks, but in Italy, it insinuates sexual innuendos.
Topic 2. Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written
Language

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. discuss the importance of different language varieties in spoken and written language;
2. identity the five common types of written and spoken language register; and
3. perform an activity showing the different varieties of spoken English

Presentation of Content
We live in a world where English crosses national boundaries and migration brings people together
from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, says Urszula (2014). Undeniably, the universal
language has penetrated societies and has impacted them in so many facets such as in education,
politics, trade and commerce, economy, technology, culture, among others. As such, non-native
speakers of English draw upon it, either wittingly or unwittingly, in relation to their linguistic and
socio-cultural contexts. Questions, however, arise from the fact that English is the most widespread
language in the world ---- Is there a Standard English? Which variety of English should we speak?
These questions are tough to answer and are subjects of on-going debates. Uychoco and Santos
(2018) cites McCrum et.al (1986) who espoused the idea of World Englishes (WE) in response to
which variety of English should be used. They say that all languages are equal in functionality, but
not all are equal in prestige. In other words, the issue points back to variability of language or
variation as a characteristic of all languages.
Language variety, also called lect, is a generic term for any distinctive form of a language or
linguistic expression (Nordquist, 2018). It is a term that encompasses the overlapping
subcategories of language including dialect, register, jargon and idiolect.
Nordquist (2018) adds that varieties of language develop for a number of reasons. One reason
points to geography where people living in different geographic areas tend to develop distinct
dialects. Other reasons have to do with social class, occupation and age group. Further, one obvious
reason for the variation is the necessity for and ease of interaction (www.nou.edu.ng)
Language Varieties: Dialect, Sociolect, Idiolect, Slang, Jargon, Pidgin, Creole, Register
The term dialect refers to a geographical variant of a language (Hickey, 2012). It is a variety of a
language spoken by a group of people that is characterized by systematic features (e.g.,
phonological, lexical, grammatical) that distinguishes it from other varieties of that same language.
Further, it is a variation of a language that is characteristic of the users of that language (Solano-
Flores, 2006).
Sociolect, on the other hand, also known as a social dialect, is a variety of language (or register)
used by a socioeconomic class, a profession, an age group, or any other social group (Nordquist,
2018). According to Lewandowski (2010), it is a lect which is thought of as being related to its
speakers’ social background rather than geographical background. Simply put, it is a variety
spoken by a particular social group, class or subculture whose determinants include such
parameters as gender, age, occupation and possibly few others.
An idiolect, is the distinctive speech pattern of an individual, a linguistic pattern regarded as unique
among speakers of a person’s language or dialect. It is a language variety peculiar to a single
speaker of a language which includes vocabulary appropriate to various interests and activities,
pronunciation reflective of the region in which you live, and variable styles of speaking that shift
subtly depending on whom one is addressing (www.thooughtco.com/idiolect-language-term-
1691143).
Slang refers to words that are not considered part of the standard vocabulary of a language and
that are used very informally in speech especially by a particular group of people (Merriam-
Webster, 2018). It is characterized as a very informal language variety that includes new terms and
sometimes not polite words and meanings. Meanwhile, jargon is a set of vocabulary items used
by members of particular professions, that is, their technical terms. For example, linguists have a
large vocabulary that is not well understood by non-linguists. Dictionary definitions of jargon
usually give examples like computer jargon and the jargon of the advertising business, but all
professions have their own jargons (Hudson, 1996).
Pidgins, according to Ozuorcun (2014) are simplified languages that occur from two or more
languages. Pidgins are developed by people who do not have a common language to communicate
in the same geographical area. Wardaugh (2006) calls it nobody’s first language/mother tongue
because it doesn’t have any native speakers, it is just used as a contact language for communication
purposes.
In contrast to a pidgin, a creole is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a
new generation of speakers. Aitchison (1994) as cited by Wardaugh (2006) says, ‘creoles arise
when pidgins become mother tongues.’ A creole, therefore, is a ‘normal’ language in almost every
sense. A creole is a pidgin which has expanded in structure and vocabulary to express the range of
meanings and serve the range of functions required of a first language.’
Register, sometimes called style, is another complicating factor in the study of language varieties,
confesses Wardaugh (2006). He goes on to define register as set of language items associated with
discrete or occupational groups, and exemplified surgeons, pilots, banks managers, jazz fans and
pimps as employing different registers. It is, a variety of language defined according to its use in
social situations and is, according to Flowerdew (2014), understood as the context-specific variety
of language. Eaton (2012) refers to it as the level of formality with which you speak. She tells that
different situations and people call for different registers. She shares Joos (1967)’s 5 types of
register used in spoken and written language namely formal, frozen or static, consultative, casual,
and intimate.
a. Frozen or “static” register
At this level, language is literally “frozen” in time and form. It does not change. This type of
language is often learned and repeated by rote. Examples include biblical verse, prayers, the Pledge
of Allegiance, and so forth.

b. Formal register
This style is impersonal and often follows a prescriptive format. The speaker uses complete
sentences, avoids slang and may use technical or academic vocabulary. It is likely that the speaker
will use fewer contractions, but opt instead for complete words. (Example: “have not” instead of
“haven’t”).
This is the register used for most academic and scientific publishing. It also includes business
Letters, letters of complaint, some essays, reports, official speeches, announcements, and
professional emails.

c. Consultative register
This is the register used when consulting an expert such as a doctor. The language used is more
precise. The speaker is likely to address the expert by a title such as “Doctor”, “Mr.” or “Mrs.”.

d. Casual/Informal Register
This register is conversational in tone. It is the language used among and between friends. Words
are general, rather than technical. This register may include more slang and colloquialisms.
Personal e-mails, phone texts, short notes, friendly letters, most blogs, diaries and journals make
use of casual register.

e. Intimate register
The language used by lovers. It is also the language used in sexual harassment. This is the most
intimate form of language. It is best avoided in public and professional situations.

Varieties of English

It has already been said that languages are all equal in functionality, but not in prestige. Prestige-
wise, the two most well-known varieties of English are those of the colonial superpowers: British
English and American English (Uychoco and Santos, 2018). These two varieties differ in terms
phonology, vocabulary, spelling and grammar, although much of the differences lie on phonology
and vocabulary. The table below adapted from Finegan (2004) and Kortmann (2005) as cited in
http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/Sociolinguistics/BritishandAmericanEnglish illustrate some of
the prominent differences between the two most widespread English varieties:

British English American English

Phonology e.g. Pronunciation of /r/ in all
(RP versus pronunciation of /r/ only when it precedes a distributions: GA = rhotic accent
GA) consonant: hairy [] vs. hair [] -> retroflex /r/ in word-final position
-> /r/ is dropped in word-final positions in many in most American varieties
British varieties (speakers of Irish and Scottish
English follow the American pattern rather than
the British pattern

Pronunciation of /a/ usually as [] in words Most American varieties:

like can’t, dance etc. in British varieties pronunciation of /a/ in words
like can’t, dance etc. as []

In British varieties /t/ is usually not pronounced /t/ usually pronounced as a flap []
as a flap [] between two vowels the first of between two vowels the first of
which is stressed which is stressed -> sitter []
Spelling e.g. e.g.
Colour, labour, favour Color, labor, favor
Licence, defence License, defense
Analyse, organise Analyze, organize
Theatre, centre Theater, center
Dialled, cancelled Dialed, canceled
Instalment, skilful Installment, skillful
tyre tire
programme program
catalogue catalog

Grammar e.g. perfect: Simple past: Did you ever go to

Experiential perfect: Have you ever gone to Rome?
Rome?

e.g. perfect: Simple past can be used: He just

With certain adverbs (e.g. just, already, finished his homework; She left
recently): He has just finished his homework; already.
She has left already.

No use of additional past participle Two past participle forms

form gotten of the verb get of get: got and gotten. Their use
marks a semantic difference:
-> gotten = used to indicate
situations which are dynamic or in
progress
-> got = used to indicate static
situations and resultative states:
They’ve gotten interested (‘have
developed interest in…’)
versus
They’ve got interested (‘are
interested’)
 Vocabulary e.g. e.g.
Lift Elevator
Petrol Gas/Gasoline
Lorry Truck
Queue Line
Torch Flashlight
Boot Trunk (of a car)

Below are additional examples that show the variation between the two varieties at the level of
vocabulary taken from:
https://www.boredpanda.com/british-american-english-differences-
language/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=organic&utm_campaign=organic
British English American English
Trainers Sneakers
Jumper/pull-over Sweater
Chips French fries
Crisps Potato chips
Biscuit Cookie
Peckish Hungry
Aubergine Eggplant
Flat Apartment
Chemist’s Drugstore/Pharmacy
Windscreen Windshield
Indicator Blinker
Timetable Schedule
Rubber Eraser
Post Mail
Holiday Vacation
Nappy Diaper
Loo Restroom
Telly Television
Sweets Candy
Candy floss Cotton candy
 Rubbish Garbage
Bin Trash can
Football Soccer
Anti-clockwise Counter-clockwise
Pavement Sidewalk

Philippine Variety of English

The late Danilo Dayag averred that Philippine English is a legitimate nativized variety of English
which shares some linguistic properties ascribed to other varieties but has features that are peculiar
to it (https://benjamins.com/catalog/veaw.g42.09day).

Uychoco and Santos (2018) add that it has its own idiosyncratic usages made overt in terms of
vocabularies and the meanings assigned to them. For instance, they say, comfort room is a
Philippine term for “washroom,” “toilet” or “lavatory,” and the word salvage does not necessarily
mean “to save” but connotes something evil (murder brutally). Madrunio and Martin (2018), on
the other hand, described Philippine variety of English as something puristic or difficult to
understand. To support their point, they say stick refers to cigarette, high blood means upset or
tense, and blow out means to treat someone. Other lexical items such as studentry (student body),
motel (used for extramarital affairs), Amboy (a Filipino perceived to be too American), Pulot boy
(boy who picks up tennis balls in a game), and balikbayan box (a large box where Filipinos
returning from abroad place all their shopping), among others.
Pronunciation-wise, Philippine English is rhotic, but the local /r/ is an alveolar flap, not an AmE
retroflex. (2) It is syllabletimed, following the rhythm of the local languages; full value is therefore
given to unstressed syllables and schwa is usually realized as a full vowel. (3) Certain polysyllables
have distinctive stress patterns, as with elígible, establísh, cerémony. (4) Intonation is widely
characterized as ‘singsong’. (5) Educated Filipinos aim at an AmE accent, but have varying success
with the vowel contrasts in sheep/ship, full/fool, and boat/bought. (6) Few Filipinos have the /æ/
in AmE mask; instead, they use /ɑ/ as in AmE father. (7) The distinction between /s, z/ and /ʃ, ʒ/
is not made: azure is ‘ayshure’, pleasure ‘pleshure’, seize ‘sees’, cars ‘karss’. (8) Interdental /ɵ, ð/
are often rendered as /t, d/, so that three of these is spoken as ‘tree of dese’
(https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-
maps/philippine-english).
Summary
Language is a medium for communication. The challenge of today’s global world is to
communicate effectively with people of different cultural backgrounds and diverse communication
practices. Living in a global community demands an understanding of the similarities and
differences from one country to another and from one culture to another. There is also a need to
understand and learn the varieties and registers of spoken and written language. Therefore,
language is a cultural component which serves as bridge to understand people around the world.
Intercultural communication is interacting with people of different cultures. The four forms of
intercultural communication (interracial, interethnic, international and intracultural) give way to
an exposure of one person to people of different cultures which demands competence in interacting
with people. To be effective and efficient in local and global communication there is a need to
enhance one’s skills in intercultural communication.
It is notable that one of the characteristics of language is variability. There are varieties of language
due to reasons like geography, social class, occupation and age group. The different language
varieties are: dialect – geographical variant of a language, sociolect – social dialect, idiolect –
speech pattern of an individual, slang – not considered part of standard vocabulary of a language,
pidgins – simplified languages, register – sometimes called style which has five types used in
spoken and written language. The types of register are frozen or static, formal, consultative, casual
intimate. These registers are defined according to social situations and according to the level of
formality with which you speak. Everyday registers are often spoken while in academic context,
oral forms are accompanied with written communication.
In terms of functionality, languages are equal but prestige wise, there are two most well-known
varieties of English which are the British English and American English. These two have
differences in phonology, vocabulary, spelling and grammar.
On the other hand, Philippine English has linguistic properties and features. It has idiosyncratic
usages, and puristic or difficult to understand. Pronunciation wise, Philippine English is rhotic,
syllable timed, polysyllabic with distinctive stress. It has also a distinct intonation pattern.
Despite the challenges brought about by cultural diversity and differences in communication, our
written and oral communication effectiveness must be enhanced. We must embrace the benefits of
cross-cultural communication. It is through language and culture that we understand people in
multi-cultural contexts.