What are plastics?

It may surprise students to learn that gutta-percha, shellac, and the horns of animals—all naturally
occurring substances—were used as plastic material before the first synthetic plastics were produced.
Gutta-percha is derived from the sap of certain trees, and shellac is made from the secretions of a tiny
scale insect. Before horn can be used, however, it must be “plasticized,” or softened, by being boiled in
water or soaked in an alkaline solution.

The first synthetic plastic was made from the plant material cellulose. In 1869, John Wesley Hyatt, an
American printer and inventor, found that cellulose nitrate could be used as an inexpensive substitute
for ivory. The mixture could be plasticized with the addition of camphor. Celluloid, as this new material
was called, became the only plastic of commercial importance for 30 years. It was used for eyeglass
frames, combs, billiard balls, shirt collars, buttons, dentures, and photographic film.

In 1951, two young research chemists for Phillips Petroleum Company in Bartlesville, Okla., made
discoveries that revolutionized the plastics world. Today, the plastics they discovered—polypropylene
and polyethylene—are used to produce the vast majority of the thousands of plastics products all over
the world. (Read more about their discoveries in “Serendipity, Science & Discoveries” in this
publication).

Petroleum to Plastics

The technological road from oil field to finished plastic product has numerous fascinating side trips.
Here’s the route taken in the petroleum-to-plastics process: petroleum is drilled and transported to a
refinery. Crude oil and natural gas are refined into ethane, propane, hundreds of other petrochemical
products and, of course, fuel for your car. Ethane and propane are “cracked” into ethylene and
propylene, using high-temperature furnaces. Catalyst is combined with ethylene or propylene in a
reactor, resulting in “fluff,” a powdered material (polymer) resembling laundry detergent. Fluff is
combined with additives in a continuous blender. Polymer is fed to an extruder where it is melted.
Melted plastic is cooled then fed to a pelletizer that cuts the product into small pellets. Pellets are
shipped to customers. Customers manufacture plastic products by using processes such as extrusion,
injection molding, blow molding, etc.

The Basics of Plastic Manufacturing

Plastics are organic materials that contain such elements as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N)
chlorine (Cl) and sulfur (S). They are made from raw materials such as oil, natural gas and coal. The first
step in making plastics is the polymerization of the raw materials, resulting in a product called a
monomer.

The groups of atoms that are used to make unit cells are called monomers. For some plastics, such as
polyethylene, the repeat unit can be just one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms. For other plastics,
such as nylons, the repeat unit can involve 38 or more atoms. When we combine monomers, we
generate polymers or plastics. Raw materials form monomers that can be or are used to form unit cells.
Monomers are used form polymers or plastics.

When the connection of the carbon atoms forms two and three-dimensional networks instead of one-
dimension chains, the polymer will be a thermoset plastic. Thermoset plastics are characterized by not
being meltable. Thermoset plastics, such as epoxy adhesives or unsaturated polyester boat hulls and
bathtubs or the phenolic adhesives used to make plywood, are created by the user mixing two chemicals
and immediately using the mixture before the plastic “sets up” or cures.

The formation of the repeat units for thermoplastics usually begins with the formation of small carbon-
based molecules that can be combined to form monomers. The monomers, in turn, are joined together
by chemical polymerization mechanisms to form polymers. The raw material formation may begin by
separating the hydrocarbon chemicals from natural gas, petroleum, or coal into pure streams of
chemicals. Some are then processed in a “cracking process.” Here, in the presence of a catalyst, raw
materials molecules are converted into monomers such as ethylene (ethene) C2H4, propylene (propene)
C3H6, and butene C4H8 and others. All of these monomers contain double bonds between carbon
atoms such that the carbon atoms can subsequently react to form polymers.

Other raw material chemicals are isolated from petroleum, such as benzene and xylenes. These
chemicals are reacted with others to form the monomers for polystyrene, nylons, and polyesters. The
raw materials have been changed into monomers and no longer contain the petroleum fractions. Still
other raw materials can be obtained from renewable resources, such as cellulose from wood to make
cellulose butyrate. For the polymerization step to work efficiently, the monomers must be very pure. All
manufacturers purify raw materials and monomers, capturing unused raw materials for reuse and
byproducts for proper disposition.

Monomers are then chemically bonded into chains called polymers.There are two basic mechanisms for
polymerization: addition reactions and condensation reactions. For addition reactions a special catalyst
is added, frequently a peroxide, that causes one monomer to link to the next and that to the next and so
on. Catalysts do not cause reactions to occur, but cause the reactions to happen more rapidly. Addition
polymerization, used for polyethylene and polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride among others, creates no
byproducts.

Some examples of material properties in plastic product applications are:

 Hot-filled packaging used for products such as ketchup

 Chemical-resistant packaging used for products such as bleach
 Impact strength of car bumpers

The Structure of Polymers

As we have discussed, polymers can be homopolymers or copolymers. If the long chains show a
continuous link of carbon-to-carbon atoms, the structure is called homogeneous. The long chain is called
the backbone. Polypropylene, polybutylene, polystyrene and polymethylpentene are examples of
polymers with homogeneous carbon structure in the backbone.

How the links in thermoplastics are arranged can also change the structure and properties of plastics.
Some plastics are assembled from monomers such that there is intentional randomness in the
occurrence of attached elements and chemical groups. Others have the attached groups occur in very
predictable order.

Types of Additives:

Antioxidants: for plastic processing and outside application where weathering resistance is needed

Colorants: for colored plastic parts

Foaming agents: for expanded polystyrene cups and building board and for polyurethane carpet
underlayment

Plasticizers: used in wire insulation, flooring, gutters, and some films

Lubricants: used for making fibers

Anti-stats: to reduce dust collection by static electricity attraction

Antimicrobials: used for shower curtains and wall coverings

Flame retardants: to improve the safety of wire and cable coverings and cultured marble

The Two Plastic Types, Based on Processing

A Thermoset is a polymer that solidifies or “sets” irreversibly when heated or cured. Similar to the
relationship between a raw and a cooked egg, a cooked egg cannot revert back to its original form once
heated, and a thermoset polymer can’t be softened once “set”. Thermosets are valued for their
durability and strength and are used extensively in automobiles and construction including applications
such as adhesives, inks, and coatings. The most common thermoset is the rubber truck and automobile
tire. Some examples of thermoset plastics and their product applications are:

Polyurethanes:

• Mattresses
• Cushions
 • Insulation

Unsaturated Polyesters:

• Boat hulls
• Bath tubs and shower stalls
• Furniture

Epoxies:

• Adhesive glues
• Coating for electrical devices
• Helicopter and jet engine blades

Phenol Formaldehyde:

• Oriented strand board

• Plywood
• Electrical appliances
• Electrical circuit boards and switches

A Thermoplastic is a polymer in which the molecules are held together by weak secondary bonding
forces that soften when exposed to heat and return to its original condition when cooled back down to
room temperature. When a thermoplastic is softened by heat, it can then be shaped by extrusion,
molding, or pressing. Thermoplastics offer versatility and a wide range of applications. They are
commonly used in food packaging because they can be rapidly and economically formed into any shape
needed to fulfill the packaging function. Examples include milk jugs and carbonated soft drink bottles.
Other examples of thermoplastics are:

Polyethylene:

• Packaging
• Electrical insulation
• Milk and water bottles
• Packaging film
• House wrap
• Agricultural film

Polypropylene:

• Carpet fibers
• Automotive bumpers
• Microwave containers
• External prostheses

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC):

• Sheathing for electrical cables

• Floor and wall coverings
• Siding
• Automobile instrument panels

Plastics Processing Methods: Thermoplastic and Thermoset Processing Methods

Extrusion - This continuous process is used to produce films, sheet, profiles, tubes, and pipes. Plastic
material as granules, pellets, or powder, is first loaded into a hopper and then fed into a long heated
chamber through which it is moved by the action of a continuously revolving screw. The chamber is a
cylinder and is referred to as an extruder. Extruders can have one or two revolving screws. The plastic is
melted by the mechanical work of the screw and the heat from the extruder wall. At the end of the
heated chamber, the molten plastic is forced out through a small opening called a die to form the shape
of the finished product.

Calendering – This continuous process is an extension of film extrusion. The still warm extrudate is
chilled on polished, cold rolls to create sheet from 0.005 inches thick to 0.500 inches thick. The thickness
is well maintained and surface made smooth by the polished rollers. Calendering is used for high output
and the ability to deal with low melt strength. Heavy polyethylene films used for construction vapor and
liquid barriers are calendered. High volume PVC films are typically made using calendars.

Film Blowing – This process continuously extrudes vertically a ring of semi-molten polymer in an upward
direction, like a fountain. A bubble of air is maintained that stretches the plastic axially and radially into
a tube many times the diameter of the ring. The diameter of the tube depends on the plastic being
processed and the processing conditions..

Injection Molding - This process can produce intricate three-dimensional parts of high quality and great
reproducibility. It is predominately used for thermoplastics but some thermosets and elastomers are
also processed by injection molding. In injection molding plastic material is fed into a hopper, which
feeds into an extruder. An extruder screw pushes the plastic through the heating chamber in which the
material is then melted.

Blow Molding - Blow molding is a process used in conjunction with extrusion or injection molding. In
one form, extrusion blow molding, the die forms a continuous semi-molten tube of thermoplastic
material. A chilled mold is clamped around the tube and compressed air is then blown into the tube to
conform the tube to the interior of the mold and to solidify the stretched tube.

Expanded Bead Blowing – This process begins with a measured volume of beads of plastic being placed
into a mold. The beads contain a blowing agent or gas, usually pentane, dissolved in the plastic. The
closed mold is heated to soften the plastic and the gas expands or blowing agent generates gas.

Rotational Molding - Rotational molding consists of a mold mounted on a machine capable of rotating
on two axes simultaneously. Solid or liquid resin is placed within the mold and heat is applied. Rotation
distributes the plastic into a uniform coating on the inside of the mold then the mold is cooled until the
plastic part cools and hardens.

Compression Molding – This process has a prepared volume of plastic placed into a mold cavity and then
a second mold or plug is applied to squeeze the plastic into the desired shape. The plastic can be a semi-
cured thermoset, such as an automobile tire, or a thermoplastic or a mat of thermoset resin and long
glass fibers, such as for a boat hull.

Casting – This process is the low pressure, often just pouring, addition of liquid resins to a mold.
Catalyzed thermoset plastics can be formed into intricate shapes by casting. Molten polymethyl
methacrylate thermoplastic can be cast into slabs to form windows for commercial aquariums. Casting
can make thick sheet, 0.500 inches to many inches thick.

Thermoforming – Films of thermoplastic are heated to soften the film, and then the soft film is pulled by
vacuum or pushed by pressure to conform to a mold or pressed with a plug into a mold. Parts are
thermoformed either from cut pieces for thick sheet, over 0.100 inches, or from rolls of thin sheet.
PROCESS OF MAKING RUBBER
What is rubber?
Rubber is a material which can stretch and shrink. It is a polymer. Sometimes the word means
only natural rubber (latex rubber). Natural rubber is made from the white sap of some trees
such as the Hevea brasiliensis (Euphorbiaceae). Other elastomers, called synthetic rubbers, are
made by chemical processes.
How do you manufacture natural rubber?
The natural rubber manufacturing process begins with harvesting latex from rubber trees.
Harvesting latex from rubber trees starts with scoring or cutting into the bark of the tree. Latex
flows into a cup attached to the bottom of the cut in the tree it flows about 5-6 hours filling the
cup.
After straining the pour rubber sap (latex) into a plastic container. They add formic acid, the
acid causes the sap to coagulate after 15 to 30mins. It thickens to the consistency of a tufo.
After a minute sap has a sticky structure that allows to be rolled like a dough. The rolling
machine squeeze out excess water then they rinse off formic acid.
They hang the rubber sheets to dry for 5hours as they dry, the rubber thickens and become
stronger and the color darkens. The coagulated rubber sap is transformed from liquid to solid.
They store the stack form the warehouse until the new stage of processing. When they ready to
move on, the workers pill the sheet from the stack and soap them from water about 20mins. It
washes away the surface contaminants. The rubber sheets go in the machine with many
brushes to remove more dirt.
They hang the sheet on the rack to dip dry. They build a fire in a brick oven and smoke the
rubber sheets in the chamber over head for 5days. Slow and low temperature of smoking that
preserve and to prevent the growth of molds. They grade the rubber sheet by examining them
against the bright light. Sheets with fewer remaining contaminants will receive higher rating
and will command in better price. They stack the sheets according to their grade.
They put the stack in hydraulic baler and press it in cube form. The dimension of the cube
confirm from the national packaging regulations. So they fit neatly in to container for shipping.
They spray the rubber cubes with mix of calcium carbonate and solvent. That prevents molds
and keeps them from sticking together.
Schematic Diagram Of Rubber