Republic of the Philippines

Region I
SDO 1 Pangasinan I
LYCEUM NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
Dagupan City, Pangasinan
Graduate Studies in Education

The Science and Ethics of Genetic Engineering:

Designer Babies

In partial requirement
for
Advance Genetics

Submitted to:

DR. ESMIE T. AGAPALO

Submitted by:

GABRIELA N. FERNANDEZ

March 25, 2020

Designer Baby –
a baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered, often to include a
particular gene or to remove genes associated with a disease. This process
usually involves analyzing a wide range of human embryos to identify genes
associated with particular diseases and characteristics, and selecting embryos
that have the desired genetic makeup; a process known as preimplantation
genetic diagnosis. Other potential methods by which a baby's genetic information
can be altered involve directly editing the genome – a person's genetic code –
before birth. This process is not routinely performed and only one instance of this
is known to have occurred as of 2019, where Chinese twins Lulu and Nana were
edited as embryos, causing widespread criticism.
Genetically altered embryos can be achieved by introducing the desired genetic
material into the embryo itself, or into the sperm and/or egg cells of the parents;
either by delivering the desired genes directly into the cell or using the gene-
editing technology. This process is known as germline engineering and
performing this on embryos that will be brought to term is not typically permitted
by law. Editing embryos in this manner means that the genetic changes can
be carried down to future generations, and since the technology concerns editing
the genes of an unborn baby, it is considered controversial and is subject to
ethical debate. While some scientists condone the use of this technology to treat
disease, some have raised concerns that this could be translated into using the
technology for cosmetic means and enhancement of human traits, with
implications for the wider society.
Three (3) technologies used; Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis, Transcription
Activator-like Effector Nucleases and Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short
Palindromic Repeats.

1. Preimplantation Genetic Testing –

is a technique used to identify genetic defects in embryos created through in
vitro fertilization (IVF) before pregnancy. Preimplantation
genetic diagnosis (PGD) refers specifically to when one or both genetic parents
has a known genetic abnormality and testing is performed on an embryo to
determine if it also carries a genetic abnormality. In contrast, preimplantation
genetic screening (PGS) refers to techniques where embryos from presumed
chromosomally normal genetic parents are screened for aneuploidy.
Because only unaffected embryos are transferred to the uterus for implantation,
preimplantation genetic testing provides an alternative to current post conception
diagnostic procedures (ie, amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling), which are
frequently followed by the difficult decision of pregnancy termination if results are
unfavorable. PGD and PGS are presently the only options available for avoiding
a high risk of having a child affected with a genetic disease prior to implantation.
It is an attractive means of preventing heritable genetic disease, thereby
eliminating the dilemma of pregnancy termination following unfavorable prenatal
diagnosis.
2. Transcription Activator-like Effector Nucleases (TALEN) –
are restriction enzymes that can be engineered to cut specific sequences of
DNA. They are made by fusing a TAL effector DNA-binding domain to a DNA
cleavage domain (a nuclease which cuts DNA strands). Transcription activator-
like effectors (TALEs) can be engineered to bind to practically any desired DNA
sequence, so when combined with a nuclease, DNA can be cut at specific
locations. The restriction enzymes can be introduced into cells, for use in gene
editing or for genome editing in situ, a technique known as genome editing with
engineered nucleases. Alongside zinc finger nucleases and CRISPR/Cas9,
TALEN is a prominent tool in the field of genome editing.
Applications
TALEN has been used to efficiently modify plant genomes, creating economically
important food crops with favorable nutritional qualities. They have also been
harnessed to develop tools for the production of biofuels. In addition, it has been
used to engineer stably modified human embryonic stem cell and induced
pluripotent stem cell (IPSCs) clones and human erythroid cell lines, to generate
knockout C. elegans, knockout rats, knockout mice, and knockout zebrafish.
Moreover, the method can be used to generate knocking organisms. Wu et al.
obtained a Sp110 knocking cattle using Talen nickases to induce increased
resistance of tuberculosis. This approach has also been used to generate
knocking rats by TALEN mRNA microinjection in one-cell embryos.
TALEN has also been utilized experimentally to correct the genetic errors that
underlie disease. For example, it has been used in vitro to correct the genetic
defects that cause disorders such as sickle cell disease, xeroderma
pigmentosum, and epidermolysis bullosa. Recently, it was shown that TALEN
can be used as tools to harness the immune system to fight cancers; TALEN-
mediated targeting can generate T cells that are resistant to chemotherapeutic
drugs and show anti-tumor activity.
In theory, the genome-wide specificity of engineered TALEN fusions allows for
correction of errors at individual genetic loci via homology-directed repair from a
correct exogenous template. In reality, however, the in situ application of TALEN
is currently limited by the lack of an efficient delivery mechanism, unknown
immunogenic factors, and uncertainty in the specificity of TALEN binding.
Another emerging application of TALEN is its ability to combine with other
genome engineering tools, such as meganucleases. The DNA binding region of a
TAL effector can be combined with the cleavage domain of a meganuclease to
create a hybrid architecture combining the ease of engineering and highly
specific DNA binding activity of a TAL effector with the low site frequency and
specificity of a meganuclease.

In comparison to other genome editing techniques TALEN falls in the middle in

terms of difficulty and cost. Unlike ZFNs, TALEN recognizes single nucleotides.
It's far more straightforward to engineer interactions between TALEN DNA
binding domains and their target nucleotides than it is to create interactions with
ZNFs and their target nucleotide triplets.[40] On the other hand, CRISPR relies
on ribonucleotide complex formation instead of protein/DNA recognition. gRNAs
can target nearly any sequence in the genome and they can be cheaply
produced, thus making CRISPR more efficient and less expensive than both
TALEN and ZFN. TALEN is ultimately 200 times more expensive than CRISPR
and takes several months more to perform.
3. Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPS)

CRISPR technology is a simple yet powerful tool for editing genomes. It allows
researchers to easily alter DNA sequences and modify gene function. Its many
potential applications include correcting genetic defects, treating and preventing
the spread of diseases and improving crops. However, its promise also raises
ethical concerns.

In popular usage, "CRISPR" (pronounced "crisper") is shorthand for "CRISPR-

Cas9." CRISPRs are specialized stretches of DNA. The protein Cas9 (or
"CRISPR-associated") is an enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors,
capable of cutting strands of DNA.

CRISPR technology was adapted from the natural defense mechanisms of

bacteria and archaea (the domain of single-celled microorganisms). These
organisms use CRISPR-derived RNA and various Cas proteins, including Cas9,
to foil attacks by viruses and other foreign bodies. They do so primarily by
chopping up and destroying the DNA of a foreign invader. When these
components are transferred into other, more complex, organisms, it allows for the
manipulation of genes, or "editing."

Until 2017, no one really knew what this process looked like. In a paper
published Nov. 10, 2017, in the journal Nature Communications, a team of
researchers led by Mikihiro Shibata of Kanazawa University and Hiroshi
Nishimasu of the University of Tokyo showed what it looks like when a CRISPR
is in action for the very first time.
PREIMPLANTATION GENETIC DIAGNOSIS (PGD) BENEFITS & CONCERNS
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) is a procedure used prior to
implantation to help identify genetic defects within embryos. This serves to
prevent certain genetic diseases or disorders from being passed on to the child.
The embryos used in PGD are usually created during the process of in vitro
fertilization (IVF).
How is the PGD performed?
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis begins with the normal process of in vitro
fertilization that includes egg retrieval and fertilization in a laboratory. Over the
next three to five days, the embryos will divide into multiple cells.
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis involves the following steps:
First, a couple/few cells are microsurgically removed from the embryos, which
are about 5 days developed. After this cell collection, the embryos are safely
frozen.
The DNA of the cells is then evaluated to determine if the inheritance of a
problematic gene is present in each embryo. This process takes at least one full
week.
Once PGD has identified embryos free of genetic problems, the embryo(s) will be
placed in the uterus (usually by an IVF procedure), and the wait for implantation
and a positive pregnancy test begins.
Any additional embryos that are free of genetic problems are kept frozen for
possible later use while embryos with the problematic gene(s) are destroyed.
This testing process may take weeks.
Getting from the egg retrieval process to the final results of PGD can take several
weeks. If you think about it, this process includes collection, fertilization, 3-5 days
of development, 1-2 weeks of testing, and scheduling an appointment to discuss
results with your doctor. It is important to keep this in mind if you plan to pursue
IVF with PGD so that you know what to expect!
Who can benefit from PGD?
A preimplantation genetic diagnosis can benefit any couple at risk for passing on
a genetic disease or condition.

The following is a list of the type of individuals who are possible

candidates for PGD:
1. Carriers of sex-linked genetic disorders
2. Carriers of single-gene disorders
 3. Those with chromosomal disorders
4. Women age 35 and over
5. Women experiencing recurrent pregnancy loss
6. Women with more than one failed fertility treatment
PGD has also been used for the purpose of gender selection. However,
discarding embryos based only on gender considerations is an ethical concern
for many people.

What are the benefits of PGD?

The following are considered benefits of PGD:
1. PGD can test for more than 100 different genetic conditions.
2. The procedure is performed before implantation thus allowing the couple
to decide if they wish to continue with the pregnancy.
3. The procedure enables couples to pursue biological children who might
not have done so otherwise.

What are the concerns of PGD?

The following are considered concerns or disadvantages associated with the use
of PGD:
1. Many people believe that because life begins at conception, the
destruction of an embryo is the destruction of a person.
2. While PGD helps reduce the chances of conceiving a child with a genetic
disorder, it cannot completely eliminate this risk. In some cases, further
testing is needed during pregnancy to ascertain if a genetic factor is still
possible.
3. Although genetically present, some diseases only generate symptoms
when carriers reach middle age. The probability of disorder development
should be a topic of discussion with the healthcare provider.
4. Keep in mind that preimplantation genetic diagnosis does not replace the
recommendation for prenatal testing.

Mitochondrial Transfer: The making of three-parent babies

The question, “where do babies come from?” used to have a simple answer. A
man and woman have sex, the male sperm fertilizes the female egg, and 9
months later a baby is born. But in today’s world, medical advances have
complicated this answer. For example, a new technique called mitochondrial
transfer has recently emerged to prevent the transmission of a certain class of
genetic disorders. This technique is highly controversial, as it combines DNA
from three individual to generate a so-called “three-parent baby”.
What are Mitochondrial Disorders?
Just as our bodies have organs that perform particular functions, each cell within
the body has small structures, aptly termed organelles, which have specific, life-
sustaining jobs. For example, one of the primary organelles in each cell is the
nucleus, which contains our DNA, or genetic information. Another type of
organelle is mitochondria, which function to provide our cells, and thus our
bodies, with energy. Interestingly, mitochondria also contain a very small amount
of DNA, making them the only organelle other than the nucleus to house genetic
information.
Similar to nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA serves an important purpose, namely
providing the genetic blueprint for molecular machines called proteins that carry
out cellular functions. However, this capacity of mitochondria to carry DNA also
makes them a genetic liability of sorts. Specifically, just like nuclear DNA,
mitochondrial DNA is susceptible to mutations in the DNA code that can cause
disease. If these DNA mutations lead to the production of damaged mitochondrial
proteins, they can cause a class of diseases termed mitochondrial disorders.
Mitochondrial disorders are fairly common, affecting at least 1 in 5,000 births in
the United States, and they exhibit a very unique inheritance pattern. Unlike
nuclear DNA, which is passed in equal parts to a child from both parents,
mitochondria are inherited solely from mothers. As such, if a mother has
damaged mitochondrial DNA, she will pass this on to all of her children causing
disease of a varied severity depending on the proportion of healthy and damaged
mitochondria the child randomly inherits.
What is Mitochondrial Transfer?
Mitochondrial disorders can be devastating for couples trying to conceive. For
example, one couple experienced several miscarriages and lost two children
under the age of seven to Leigh’s Syndrome, a mitochondrial disorder that
causes severe neurodegeneration. While the mother was a carrier for the
disease, she did not have neurological symptoms herself because only a fraction
of the mitochondria in her cells carried damaged DNA. Determined to have a
child, the couple turned to Dr. John Zhang, an infertility expert at the New Hope
Fertility Center in New York City. For the first time in humans, Dr. Zhang and his
team attempted to use technology that has been around since 1983–
mitochondrial transfer.
Mitochondrial transfer works by replacing the damaged mitochondria in the
mother’s egg with healthy mitochondria from another woman’s donor egg (Figure
2). The developing embryo now has nuclear DNA from the mother and father, as
well as mitochondrial DNA from the donor egg. Dr. Zhang describes his work in a
peer-reviewed article. In the case of his patient, this procedure resulted in the
birth of a son without Leigh’s syndrome – seemingly curing an incurable disease.
This first child was referred to in the press as a “three-parent baby” when he was
born in Mexico in 2016. This term is slightly misleading, as the child does not
have an equal proportion of DNA from each parent. Rather, the majority of the
child’s DNA is from his parents, with only a small fraction coming from the
mitochondria of the donor egg or third parent.
Biological Concerns
Mitochondrial transfer and other assisted reproductive technologies have opened
the door to a series of biological, ethical, and legal concerns in a world where
designer babies could be just around the corner.
The use of mitochondrial transfer is controversial as there are still several safety
concerns. For example, there are concerns that some mutant mitochondria may
accidentally get carried over from the mother. If this carry-over occurs, many
question if the child will develop a mitochondrial disorder later in life or pass on
mitochondrial disorders to their offspring. Additionally, there are concerns about
the side effects of having DNA from three parents in one person. Research in cell
culture or in primates suggests that these issues do not affect the health of the
child; however everything could change when this technique is used in humans.
The scientific community will closely follow any child conceived using
mitochondrial transfer to determine if it is safe to continue using.
The medical community is also concerned about the rapid expansion of this
technology before these safety concerns have been addressed. This is especially
true in places like the Ukraine, where this technology is not regulated; this is in
contrast to the United States, where it is banned, or the United Kingdom, where it
is conditionally allowed only to treat mitochondrial disorders. Dr. Valery Zukin,
director of the Nadiya Clinic, leads a Ukrainian team that uses mitochondrial
transfer to treat infertility. He has successfully helped at least 4 couples have
seemingly healthy children using mitochondrial transfer, as these couples had
failed to conceive through conventional in vitro fertilization (IVF). Before the birth
of these children, it was unclear if the technique would work for general fertility
issues, and it remains unknown what aspect of the treatment helps overcome
these issues. Some speculate the donor mitochondria help overcome
undiagnosed metabolic problems, but more research must be done before the
medical community expands the technique.
Ethical Concerns
Ethicists are also concerned about the potential misuse of mitochondrial transfer.
With the recent rise in genome editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9,
bioethicists worldwide are calling for bans on alterations to genetic information
passed on from parent to child. But this is exactly what happens when a daughter
is born as a result of mitochondrial transfer; the daughter will carry mitochondrial
DNA from a third unknown donor, which she will pass on to all of her future
children. And if she has daughters, they will continue to pass on this donor DNA,
affecting the genetic information of many generations to come in ways we cannot
fully predict. This dilemma brings up an interesting question: should parents of
mitochondrial transfer select only male embryos to prevent potentially changing
the course of their blood line, or do parents have the right to have children of
either sex despite the effect potential future generations?
As biology and safety concerns become better understood, the ethics and legal
implications of this new technology will likely be debated and argued in
courtrooms worldwide for years to come.
The Pros and Cons of Having a Designer Baby
You have a sharp nose that you want your future child to have, as well as your
partner’s beautiful eyes. Thanks to advances in modern medical technologies,
these wishes can now turn into realities in the form of a designer baby. A
“designer baby” is a baby whose genetic makeup has been artificially selected in-
vitro by genetic engineering to ensure the presence or absence of particular
genes or characteristics.
The term “Designer Baby” was taken from “Designer clothing” which describes
the disapproving implication of the transformation of babies. Liberal technophiles,
Libertarians, and transhumanists are the people who support it. This process of
creating a “designer baby” is often questioned because of ethical reasons.
As with all novel technologies, there are some pros as well as cons of having a
designer baby. So, here is a list of the designer babies pros and cons that you
should know:
Pros of Designer Babies
Even though there are many questions about genetically modifying babies for
being ethical and for moral reason, there are many pros to this type of treatment.
(Genetic Engineering of Babies)
Pros of genetically engineered baby

1. Installing a better understanding of genetics for biologists.

2. It increases human lifespan for up to 30 years.
3. Helps to keep up with modern technologies
 4. It might help prevent genetic diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s
Disease, down syndrome, Spinal Muscular Atrophy, and many others.
5. It reduces the risk of inherited medical conditions such as anemia, obesity,
diabetes, cancer, and much more.
6. Enhancement of children.
7. It allows parents to give their child a healthy life.
8. Genetically engineering babies is an option, not a requirement for all
parents. For those that disagree with it, they don’t have to engineer their
child.
9. Taking folate during pregnancy will reduce the risk of a child developing
autism. It is an example of medically altering a child and it is considered
ethically acceptable.
10. It helps to eliminate mitochondrial disorders.
11. Parents can set their own limits for genetically engineering their baby.
12. The government does not have the right to control means of reproduction.
13. It allows parents to give the child genes that they do not carry.
With all scientific and technological advancements, there is ethical
disparagement, the ethical viewpoints should not cease the advancement of
technology.
1. It will help increase the life expectancy
By editing out an unborn baby’s defective genes and only retaining the healthy
genes, the baby will grow up healthier. Therefore, you may increase their overall
life expectancy by up to 30 years.

2. Positive Influence on the Baby

A designer baby will have an overall positive take on various parts of life. Some
aspects of your baby’s life that you can surely create a positive impact on are
your baby’s health, your baby’s intelligence, your baby’s looks and more.
3. Altering the lifestyle earlier
You might influence the child’s thinking and life by adding various influences to it.
Instead of influencing the child later in life, designing a baby may help you create
some similar types of influences but even before the baby is born. Like instead of
pushing the baby to study hard and do well in the academic field, you can
already enhance your baby’s mental capabilities before your baby is even born.
4. It reduces the chances of genetic disorders
When you use the genetic modification technology to create a designer baby, it
will help to reduce the chances of various genetic disorders in your baby. In
many instances, these are not only a means to reduce your baby’s chances of
getting affected with certain health conditions, but are also a way of increasing
your baby’s chances of survival.
5. You call the shots
As a parent, you have the say in what all parts of your baby’s life you want to
change for the better. You will be able to set all the limits and keep a check on
what all changes your baby will go through and how much of the same you want
to be done.
6. Other Benefits
a. Fewer chances of getting genetic diseases
b. Provides a better understanding of genetics for biologists and medical
professionals
c. Eliminates the occurrence of known diseases in future generations
Cons of designer babies
Although there are some positive things which can be obtained from using
genetic engineering used on unborn babies, it is often wondered if parents will
have the “right” reasons to genetically modify their baby, or if reasoning will
become more superficial. Here are some of the cons associated with the genetic
engineering of babies.
Cons of genetically engineered baby

Genetic engineers are not perfect people and cannot 100% properly evaluate
every gene. They are more than likely mistakes will be made.
If the process is not done carefully, the embryo could be accidentally terminated.
The technology used is not 100% safe yet. It is only in the experimental stages at
this point.
A baby cannot consent to have its body altered; therefore some do not believe
it’s right as parents do not “own” their children
Parents may use this technology for superficial purposes, such as purposely
seeking out a blonde-haired, blue-eyed baby for appearance concerns only.
They could create a gap in society. “Designer” babies would most likely be better
looking, smarter, etc. This would create “classes” between designer and
nondesigner babies.
Because the technology is so new, it is unknown whether the babies will affect
the gene pool. This can cause difficulties later on throughout the baby’s family
tree.
Because most people will seek out good-looking, intelligent babies with other
optimum characteristics, everyone will be relatively similar.
This procedure is not cheap, and not everyone would be able to afford it. Could
create prejudice between “Designer” and “nondesigner” babies.
1. Not error-free
The process of genetic modification to create designer babies is still in its
nascent experimental stage, and it needs time and research to progress forward.
Genetics are not always a hundred percent sure, which means that it is very
likely possible that error may come up at some point in the future in the case of
designer babies. Researchers worry that when they will do everything possible to
eradicate any illness in the baby while modifying the genes, an accidental error
could give rise to some new form of illness, something they may not be aware of
how to treat.
2. Ethical and Moral Issues
It is almost the same as carrying out an abortion when you have plenty of
choices to eliminate the unwanted ones. In some cases, the parents have also
gone ahead and aborted the baby, depending on their reasons for creating the
baby in the first place. Sometimes parents do it for money they will get as
compensation for donating the stem cells and have no thought whatsoever of the
baby.
3. Violation of Your Baby’s Rights
When you go ahead with the process of creating a designer baby, you essentially
change the life and mind of a living human being without taking the person’s
permission or choice in regard. In this case, you will alter your baby’s mental,
emotional and physical makeup for life, without your baby having any say in
whether or not it is something your baby wanted or not. It is a process in which
your baby will be used as a scientific experiment, instead of being treated more
like a human being.
4. Can Create A Marked Gap in Society
If more parents decide to go in for designer babies, the world will soon be divided
into a class of babies who are designer babies as compared to non-designer
babies. As a result, those babies who are created as part of the designer baby
series will feel more superior to those who are born naturally without any form of
genetic manipulation. Those who follow social norms believe that it could lead to
a hostile environment in the future.
5. Other Shortcomings
a. Not completely error-free and could lead to the death of the unborn baby.
b. May accidentally give rise to new forms of illnesses that scientists are not yet
aware of
c. Is not affordable by all and will create a class divide where only the rich can
afford designer babies
d. Takes away from the child’s individual personality
e. May remove certain genes that could have been good for the baby’s overall
development and growth

“Our desire to control every aspect of nature could potentially lead to our
downfall” – Unknown
REFERENCES

https://www.livescience.com/designer-babies-far-from-reality.html
https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/10/22/139478/are-we-designing-
inequality-into-our-genes/
https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/ethics-designer-babies
https://www.asm.org/Articles/Cultures-Magazine/Volume-4,-Issue-4-2017/The-
Designer-Baby-Distraction
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1751721415300063
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UC-YwiB_FFg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1a2larfMIA