SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY

CATANAUAN EXTENSION

Catanauan, Quezon

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM

(GMO)

Introduction

Living things that have had their genetic makeup altered intentionally in a lab setting are
referred to as genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This results in gene combinations of
bacteria, viruses, plants, and other organisms that do not happen naturally or as a result of
conventional crossbreeding techniques. Genes are referred to as genetic. DNA, a set of
instructions for how cells develop and thrive, makes up genes. Modified is Second. This
suggests that a modification or adjustment has been done. The term "organism" comes last.
Many people only consider crops when they think of GMOs. However, the term "organism"
refers to all living creatures, including bacteria and fungus in addition to plants.

Objectives

At the end of this topic, listeners should be able to:

1. Determine the significance of Genetically Modified Organism

2. Identify the impact of GMO in our environment and economy
3. Differentiate the advantages and disadvantages of GMO
4. Enable to analyze the impact of GMO in human health and,
5. Determine the significance of GMO in food Quality and quantity.

Discussion

A. Regulatory Procedure

Production of GMOs is a multistage process which can be summarized as follows:

1. identification of the gene interest;

2. isolation of the gene of interest;

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3. Amplifying the gene to produce many copies;

4. associating the gene with an appropriate promoter and poly A sequence and insertion into
plasmids;

5. multiplying the plasmid in bacteria and recovering the cloned construct for injection;

6. transference of the construct into the recipient tissue, usually fertilized eggs;

7. integration of gene into recipient genome;

8. expression of gene in recipient genome; and

9. inheritance of gene through further generations.

Choice of target genes

Cold water temperatures are often a major problem in aquaculture in temperate climates when
an unusually cold winter can severely damage both production and brood fish stocks of fish.
Some marine teleost has high levels of serum anti-freeze proteins (AFP) or glycoproteins
(AFGP) which reduce the freezing temperature by preventing ice-crystal growth. 

Isolation of the gene of interest

Usually, the gene of interest will already be available as an element of a “library” of short
sections of the total genome of the donor strain or species. If this is the case the procedure
followed is to multiply the gene using the PCR reaction. If, however, the gene is to be taken
from a genome not previously investigated, a more complex procedure will need to be followed.
The use of the technique of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) enables the gene in both the
cases noted above to be multiplied to the level of several million copies needed for the
generation of the construct.

Cloning the gene of interest

When many copies of the target gene have been

generated, the gene is placed in a “construct”. Once
the gene of interest has been ligated enzymatically into
the construct, this whole complex is ligated into
bacterial plasmids, which act as “production vectors”
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CATANAUAN EXTENSION

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and enable the gene to be replicated many times within the bacterial cells. The bacteria are then
plated out. It is possible to tell from reporter genes (see below) whether the vector has been
taken up by the bacterial cells. This usually involves some color change in the colonies
containing inserted DNA. The many times amplified DNA construct is then enzymatically cut out
of the plasmids (after these have been removed from the bacterial cells) and it is ready to be
used for insertion into eggs of the host species.

The construct

A construct is a piece of DNA which functions as the vehicle or vector carrying the target gene
into the recipient organism. It has several different regions. There is a promoter region which
controls the activity of the target gene, a region where the target DNA is inserted, usually some
type of reporter gene to enable one to ascertain whether the target has combined successfully
with the construct and a termination sequence.

Techniques for inducing transgenics

More recently the use of embryonic stem cells (ESC) as a

method for inducing transgenesis has been advocated. These
cells are undifferentiated and remain totipotent, so they can be
manipulated in vitro and subsequently reintroduced into e arly
embryos where they can contribute to the germ line of the host.
In this way genes could be stably introduced or deleted
(Melamed et al., 2002). Despite the early success of ESC technology in mice, the uptake of the
technology for fish has been slow, although early precursor cells have been cultivated from
Medaka and show many of the same features as mouse ESC.

Integration sites

The factors determining sites of integration are still poorly understood though research in this
direction is increasing. It is particularly important to gain greater accuracy in controlled site of
integration because of the unpredictable effects of uncontrolled integration on resident genes.
Caldovic and Hackett (1995) tested the ability of special sequences called transposable border
elements from other species to confer position-independent expression of transgenes or
enhance integration of transgenic constructs into fish chromosomes. Early results indicate that
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such elements from some species do not act as enhancers and do not improve integration
frequencies.

Expression of gene

The uptake and integration of a transgene does not guarantee that the gene will express itself in
the new genetic environment. Tests must be carried out to determine whether there is
expression and if there is expression, at what level this takes place. Clearly, in commercial
aquaculture only those transgenics expressing the target gene at a sufficiently high level will be
of interest.

Inheritance of gene

The high proportion of mosaic individuals is one reason why the proportions of progenies of
different genotypes resulting from parents that are putatively hemizygous for a transgene do not
necessarily conform to mendelian expectations. Another reason is the integration of two or more
copies of the transgene at different sites in the recipient genome. Further breeding tests will be
required in order to establish a pure breeding line of transgenic fish.

B. Regulatory Process

Genetically modified (GM) crops are subjected to greater

testing and oversight before they are released to the
public than any other agricultural product, including
conventional (or non-GM) crops. Bayer rigorously
examines its GM crop products for safety, including
environmental and food safety, from the beginning of their development.

Before a gene is used to develop a GM crop, the protein generated by that gene is tested for
food and feed safety to ensure it is not an allergy.

The gene is put into thousands of different types of the desired crop. Many tests are performed
on those thousands of plants in order to pick one type that has the best possibility of assisting
farmers. This one has advanced to the stage of additional development and safety testing.
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The chosen GM crop is thoroughly tested to ensure that it is as safe as its non-GM counterpart.
Regulators throughout the world carefully evaluate this data before deciding whether the new
items can be marketed to farmers for cultivation or whether grain from that crop may be
imported from other nations.

Protein, carbs, lipids, amino acids, fiber fractions, vitamins, and other components of each new
GM crop are tested to guarantee that the GM variety is just as safe and nutritious as the non-
GM counterpart.

Environmental assessments

Environmental assessments are also performed on GM crops

to examine potential unexpected consequences and
environmental implications. Field testing is carried out to
determine whether the plant is environmentally safe. This
means that safety testing is carried out to confirm that the crop is basically identical from its
conventional equivalent (save for the added trait) and will not have negative environmental
consequences. Agronomic evaluation, phenotypic evaluation, ecological interactions, and
impacts on non-target organisms (such as honey bees) are all carried out.

The safety rules that Bayer follows and that are recognized by regulatory authorities worldwide
were created over many years by international scientific organizations such as the Codex
Alimentarius Commission and the Organization for Economic Development (OECD).

The GM crop is only submitted to global regulatory bodies for evaluation when Bayer has
completed internal safety testing criteria using internationally recognized methodologies. In the
United States, for example, after comprehensive safety testing at Bayer, every genetically
modified product is subjected to regulatory approval as follows:

It is safe to eat.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collaborates with genetically modified crop developers
to guarantee that meals made from their novel varieties are safe for human consumption.

It is safe to grow.
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The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) has confirmed that a GM trait will not constitute a
plant pest concern.

Environmentally Friendly

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rigorously studies insect- and virus-resistant GM
crops to ensure that they do not pose unjustified dangers to human health or the environment.

C. Impact on Food quality and Quantity

Agricultural plants are one of the most frequently cited examples of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs). Some benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture are increased crop
yields, reduced costs for food or drug production, reduced need for pesticides, enhanced
nutrient composition and food quality, resistance to pests and disease, greater food security,
and medical benefits to the world's growing population.

GMO (genetically modified organism) technology uses

specific scientific innovation to genetically alter plants and
promote desired characteristics. For example, these
characteristics can help fruits and vegetables grow better
under environmental stresses like drought, ward off crop
diseases and pests and even forgo browning in fruits once
they are sliced.

This technology also decreases food waste, gives multiple populations reliable and
nutritious food options and helps farmers use less pesticides and grow crops even more
efficiently. In fact, this technology has been used for over 20 years and has been scientifically
been proven to be a safe and effective way to support agriculture.

Helping Farmers and Saving Natural Resources

GMO crops have significantly increase crop yields and simultaneously decreased use. By
doing these two things combined, we are producing more food with less inputs. Decreased use
of pesticides, means less pesticide production demand and also less energy use on the farmers’
end, too.
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Genetic characteristics in fruits and vegetables, such as insect- and disease-resistance, can
also help farmers use less pesticides. But, in instances where pesticides won’t eliminate the
presence of a pest, a genetic modification can make a crop
resistant to the disease caused by pests. Drought-resistance
is another trait that can be achieved through genetic
modification to help farmers stabilize their crop production.
In times of long periods of no rain, this characteristic can
save thousands of acres of food. Talk about avoiding food waste.

EXAMPLES:

Canola
Cotton
Golden Rice
Cavendish banana

The role of genetically modified (GM) crops for food

security is the subject of public controversy. GM crops could
contribute to food production increases and higher food
availability. There may also be impacts on food quality and
nutrient composition. Finally, growing GM crops may influence
farmers’ income and thus their economic access to food.
Smallholder farmers make up a large proportion of the
undernourished people worldwide.

Food security exists when all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe,
and nutritious food. Unfortunately, food security does not exist for a significant proportion of the
world population. Around 900 million people are undernourished, meaning that they are
undersupplied with calories. Many more suffer from specific nutritional deficiencies, often related
to insufficient intake of micronutrients. Eradicating hunger is a central part of the United Nations’
Millennium Development Goals. But how to achieve this goal is debated controversially.
Genetically modified (GM) crops are sometimes mentioned in this connection. Some see the
development and use of GM crops as key to reduce hunger, while others consider this
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technology as a further risk to food security. Solid empirical evidence to support either of these
views is thin.

There are three possible pathways how GM crops could impact food security:

GM crops could contribute to food production increases and thus improve the availability
of food at global and local levels
GM crops could affect food safety and food quality
GM crops could influence the economic and social situation of farmers, thus improving
or worsening their economic access to food

GM technologies could make food crops higher yielding

and more robust to biotic and abiotic stresses. This could
stabilize and increase food supplies, which is important
against the background of increasing food demand, climate
change, and land and water scarcity. Concerning the second
pathway, crops with new traits can be associated with food
safety risks, which have to be assessed and managed case by case. But such risks are not
specific to GM crops. Long-term research confirms that GM technology is not per se more risky
than conventional plant breeding technologies. On the other hand, GM technology can help to
breed food crops with higher contents of micronutrients; a case in point is Golden Rice with
provitamin A in the grain. The third pathway relates to GM crop use by smallholder farmers in
developing countries.

Of all the contentious issues in plant biology at present, few are more divisive than
genetically modified crops (‘plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified
using genetic engineering techniques’). To date, the sort of engineering that has been carried
out has largely been aimed at generating crops with resistance to damaging or disease-causing
‘pests’ such as insects (e.g., Bt. Cotton), or tolerance of herbicides so weeds that would
otherwise compete with the crops can be chemically controlled. In both cases the noble aim has
been to increase crop yields.

D. Impact on health and medicine

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It is known that the main concerns about adverse effects of GM foods on health are the
transfer of antibiotic resistance, toxicity and allergenicity.

As genetically modified (GM) foods are starting to intrude in our diet concerns have been
expressed regarding GM food safety. These concerns as well as the limitations of the
procedures followed in the evaluation of their safety are presented. Animal toxicity studies with
certain GM foods have shown that they may toxically affect several organs and systems. The
review of these studies should not be conducted separately for each GM food, but according to
the effects exerted on certain organs it may help us create a better picture of the possible health
effects on human beings.

The results of most studies with GM foods indicate that they may cause some common toxic
effects such as hepatic, pancreatic, renal, or reproductive effects and may alter the
hematological, biochemical, and immunologic parameters. However, many years of research
with animals and clinical trials are required for this assessment. The use of recombinant GH or
its expression in animals should be re-examined since it has been shown that it increases IGF-1
which may promote cancer. After genetically modified foods were introduced in the United
States a few decades ago, people independently reported toxic effects caused by GMOs.

Can GMOs change our genes?

Concern has also surrounded the idea that genetically

modified DNA would be unstable, causing damage (via
unintentional mutations) not only to the crop, but also to
whomever would consume it. Mutations in DNA are
closely tied to cancer and other diseases, and thus mutagenic substances can have dire effects
on human health. The creation of mutations, called mutagenesis, can be measured and
compared to known mutation-causing agents and known safe compounds, allowing researchers
to determine whether drugs, chemicals, and foods cause
increased mutation rates.

The Allergenicity of GMOs.

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People are concerned about the potential of GMO food to cause allergies. However, the
technology used for making GMO crops does not necessarily make us more vulnerable than
conventional breeding. Comprehensive evaluation for market approval, food safety surveillance,
and adequate labeling could minimize the health risks of food allergies. Moreover, further
development of technology might even enable us to remove the common allergens in our food.

GMOs could be used to remove allergens from food, allowing those with allergies to eat food
that they previously couldn’t. This technology is still in development, but it could be the future of
staying allergen-free.

Will GMOs Hurt My Body?

As the prevalence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) continues

to rise, there has been an increasing public interest for information
concerning the safety of these products. Concerns generally focus on how
the GMO may affect the environment or how it may affect the consumer.
One specific concern is the possibility for GMOs to negatively affect
human health. This could result from differences in nutritional content,
allergic response, or undesired side effects such as toxicity, organ
damage, or gene transfer.

Pharmaceutical products range from recombinant hepatitis B vaccine produced by GM

baker’s yeast to injectable insulin (for diabetics) produced in GM Escherichia coli bacteria and to
factor VIII (for hemophiliacs) and tissue plasminogen activator (tPA, for heart attack or stroke
patients), both of which are produced in GM mammalian cells grown in laboratory culture.

 An edible vaccine is an antigenic protein that is produced in the consumable parts of a plant
(e.g., fruit) and absorbed into the bloodstream when the parts are eaten. Once absorbed into
the body, the protein stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies against the pathogen
from which the antigen was derived. Such vaccines could offer a safe, inexpensive, and
painless way to provide vaccines, particularly in less-developed regions of the world, where the
limited availability of refrigeration and sterile needles has been problematic for some traditional
vaccines.
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Types of medicine:

vaccines
antivenoms
bacteria derived toxins
Immunoglobulins
monoclonal antibodies
allergens
blood products and clotting factors
hormones such as insulin, growth hormone,
enzymes such as pancreatin’s
heparins

Finally, genetic modification of humans via gene therapy is becoming a treatment option for
diseases ranging from rare metabolic disorders to cancer. Coupling stem cell technology with
recombinant DNA methods allows stem cells derived from a patient to be modified in the
laboratory to introduce a desired gene. For example, a normal beta-globin gene may be
introduced into the DNA of bone marrow-derived hematopoietic stem cells from a patient with
sickle cell anemia; introduction of these GM cells into the patient could cure the disease without
the need for a matched donor. 

Is GMO safe for human consumption?

Yes. There is no evidence that a crop is dangerous to eat just because it is GM. There could be
risks associated with the specific new gene introduced, which is why each crop with a new
characteristic introduced by GM is subject to close scrutiny. Since the first widespread
commercialization of GM produce 18 years ago there has been no evidence of ill effects linked
to the consumption of any approved GM crop.

E. Impact on the Environment

GMOs are one of the best tools farmers have to help protect and preserve water, air, land,
or even limit the impact of climate change.
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GMOs are one of several plant breeding technologies that help farmers grow more food
using less inputs like pesticides. During the last 20 years, GMOs have reduced pesticide
application by more than 8% and increased crop yield by 22%. This increased yield means
farmers kept 48M of acres of land from agricultural production. Decreasing deforestation and
harm to ecosystems.

Genetically modified crops are thoroughly evaluated for environmental effects before they
become commercially available.  They are assessed not only by the developers of GM crops but
also by a variety of regulatory bodies.  In the United States, these regulatory agencies include
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The risk assessment includes
considerations for interactions with the environment and unintentional effects.  Despite these
safeguards, the use of GM technology in crop production has incited much debate regarding its
impact on the environment.

Research indicates that GM crop technology can

result in a net increase in herbicide use and can foster
the growth of herbicide resistant weeds. In addition,
there is concern that the use of GM crops may
negatively impact the agriculture ecosystem.  While
these negative impacts are of concern, conflicting
research studies abound making it difficult to interpret results.  By considering the aggregate
global impact of GM technology on the environment, the overall trend of GM crop use can be
more clearly deciphered.  When looking on a global scale since the widespread adoption of GM
technology in 1996, research indicates that GM technology is not inherently dangerous to the
environment. In fact, GM technology has positively impacted the environment in several ways
making it a useful tool in the development of a sustainable food system. 

As with any environmental management tactic, there is

concern that GM crops may cause adverse effects on non-
target species.  Species of concern include parasitoids and
arthropod predators of crop plants. Of great significance to the
environment, changes in agricultural practices associated with
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GM crop use are associated with a reduction in fuel use and a concomitant decrease in
greenhouse gas emissions.  This impact is due primarily to a reduction in spray runs in GM IR
crops and a switch from conventional tillage to reduced or no tillage farming systems facilitated
by GM HT crops.  

The adoption of reduced tillage or no tillage practices

associated with GM crops has also contributed to a
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.  This effect is
due to the slower breakdown of plant residues associated
with less soil tilling.  Because the breakdown process is
less rapid, more carbon is sequestered in the soil instead
of being released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. The estimated amount of soil carbon
sequestered as a result of GM crops since 1996 is equivalent to 302,364 million kg of carbon
dioxide.  In addition to reducing gas emissions and improving soil carbon content, research
indicates that reduced tillage practices also reduce soil erosion.

Without GMO seeds we need to convert the equivalent of almost all US national parks to
farmland to get the same amount of yield. GMOs also help improve air quality. It also allows
farmers to till their field less often, using less tractor fuel and releasing less trapped CO2 in the
soil, reducing carbon emissions by 58% billion lbs. GMOs also help reduce water run-off, saving
more than 6,400 bodies of water from clogging. GMOs benefit not only the environment, but
also our daily lives.

Benefits of GMOs:

Improve air quality

Protect land
Conserve water
Sustainable food production
F. Impact on the Economy

Agricultural plants are one of the most frequently cited examples of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs). Some benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture are increased crop
yields, reduced costs for food or drug production, reduced need for pesticides, enhanced
nutrient composition and food quality, resistance to pests and disease, greater food security,
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CATANAUAN EXTENSION

Catanauan, Quezon

and medical benefits to the world's growing population. Economic benefits of GM crops-Higher
yielding crops, better returns for farmers especially in developing countries, Excellent
investment returns for farmers and Reduced pressure on scare land resources and contribution
to global food security

Worldwide economic benefits of GM crops have reached $150 billion, according to the report,
“GM Crops: Global Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts 1996-2014.” A study by U.K.-
based PG Economics finds that farmers around the world who use genetically modified (GM)
seeds reaped economic benefits averaging more than $100 per hectare (about 2.5 acres) in
2014 while at the same time improving the environmental sustainability of their operations. Two-
thirds of these benefits derive from higher yields and extra production, with farmers in
developing countries seeing the highest gains,”

In the nineteenth year of widespread adoption, crop biotechnology has continued to provide
substantial economic and environmental benefits, allowing farmers to grow more, with fewer
resources, whilst delivering important environmental benefits for all citizens

GM technology has had a significant positive impact on farm income derived from a combination
of enhanced productivity and efficiency gains. In 2014, the direct global farm income benefit
from GM crops was $17.7 billion. This is equivalent to having added 7.2 percent to the value of
global production of the four main crops of soybeans, maize, canola and cotton. Since 1996,
farm incomes have increased by $150.3 billion, divided almost equally between farmers in
developing and developed countries.

The insect resistant (IR) technology used in cotton and corn has consistently delivered yield
gains from reduced pest damage. The average yield gains over the 1996-2014 period across all
users of this technology has been +13.1 percent for insect resistant corn and +17.3 percent for
insect resistant cotton relative to conventional production systems.

The herbicide tolerant (HT) technology used has also contributed to increased production;
improving weed control and providing higher yields in some countries and helping farmers in
Argentina grow “second crop” soybeans after wheat in the same growing season.

Crop biotechnology continues to be a good investment for farmers around the world. The cost
farmers paid for accessing crop biotechnology in 2014 ($6.9 billion payable to the seed supply
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chain) was equal to 28 percent of the total gains ($24.6 billion). Globally, farmers received an
average of $3.59 for each dollar invested in GM crop seeds.

GM crops are allowing farmers to grow more without using additional land. If crop biotechnology
had not been available to the (18 million) farmers using the technology in 2014, maintaining
global production levels at the 2014 levels would have required additional plantings.

References:

https://foodinsight.org/one-of-our-food-systems-helping-handsgmos/#:~:text=GMO%20crops%20have%20significantly
%20increased,the%20farmers'%20end%2C%20too.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3674000/

https://www.montana.edu/hhd/graduate/dietetics/blog_posts/GMO_environment.html#:~:text=Research%20indicates%20that
%20GM%20crop,growth%20of%20herbicide%20resistant%20weeds.&text=In%20addition%2C%20there%20is
%20concern,negatively%20impact%20the%20agriculture%20ecosystem.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18989835/

https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/will-gmos-hurt-my-body/

https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/how-gmos-are-regulated-united-states

https://www.fao.org/3/y4955e/y4955e06.htm

GROUP 1

DONGON, JANELOU HIZOLA, EMEROSE

ISLETA, JHON JERICO LAVARNEZ, MARK DENZEL

LOZANO, ANGELICA MENDOZA, ARRABELE