Lyceum Northwestern University

Tapuac District, Dagupan City

Institute of Graduate Studies
Masters of Education - Biology

POSITION PAPER
The Limiting Factors Affecting
Range of Tolerance among
Organisms

SEAN KLEIN NICOLAY C. AUSTRIA

Owner of the Paper

Submitted to:
DR. ESMIE T. AGPALO
 TEMPERATURE, pH, AND SALINITY AS LIMITING FACTORS
AFFECTING RANGE OF TOLERANCE

I. ABSTRACTION
My position paper is about the species extinction which is aligned to the
MELCS under the K-12 Curriculum: relating species extinction to the failure of populations of
organisms to adapt to abrupt changes in the environment (S9LT-Ie-f-30) under the Grade 9
competencies. This paper shows how I see the limiting factors affect the organisms’ tolerance.
Due to the human activities that may cause changes to the earth, some animals migrated, adapted,
and luckily survived. The main question is; “How about the organisms that can’t adjust to the
new environment? Will it be the cause of death leading to species extinction?”

II. INTRODUCTION

A limiting factor is any physical, chemical, or biological entity or structure which exerts
a critical impact on the growth, development, and survival of living organisms. In their natural
habitat, organisms show certain tolerance limits to variations in each of these limiting factors. At
optimum levels, organisms tend to exhibit high growth rate and peak abundance. However,
beyond the critical limits of tolerance, they become ecologically inviable leading to decreased
growth rate and low abundance. Three of such universally-significant limiting factors are
temperature, pH, and salinity. Changes in the degree or level of these factors may lead to
alteration in the morphology, physiology, and behavior of the organisms affected. Fortunately,
almost all organisms are endowed with the ability to modify or lessen the effect of these changes.
This process is called factor compensation.

III. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Table 1. The observed effects of temperature on opercular movement

Temperature is one of the factors that limits the activity of organisms. This table shows how
temperature affects the activity of catfish through the observance of their opercular movement.

Temperature Rate of opercular movement per 3 minutes

10-15˚C Slow
Normal/Control Normal
35-40˚C Fast

As what we can see on the table, the opercular movement of catfish in higher temperature is faster
and they are more active than on lower temperature. On water temperature ranging from 10-15 ˚C, the
catfish is sluggish, the opercular movement is slow and it is hardly recognizable while on the water
temperature ranging from 35-40˚C, it is very active and restless and the opercular movement is very
obvious. The fishes seemed to gasp because of oxygen deprivation. On the normal temperature or the tap
water, the fish is very calm. Fishes are cold blooded creatures, they can take on the temperature of their
surroundings. According to the website cool cosmos, cold-blooded animals are much more active in
warm environments and are very sluggish in cold environments. This is because their muscle activity
depends on chemical reactions which run quickly when it is hot and slowly when it is cold. At first, they
can tolerate the water temperature, both on high and low, but after several minutes, they die. This is not
because the water is too warm or too cold but because the fish lose all of its energy in regulating its
temperature.

Table 2. The observed effects of pH changes on the morphology and behavioral responses in
guppies.

One of the limiting factors for organisms is pH or the Power of Hydrogen. Living organisms must
maintain a certain pH in order to survive.  The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a solution is and it
ranges from 0-14.  The Table below shows the responses of guppies in different pH levels.

pH Levels

Responses
2.0 3.0 6.0 7.0 10.0

Breathing
FAST FAST FAST NORMAL SLOW
Responses

SLOWER
Swimming LIGHT NORMAL
VERY FAST FAST (than in tap
Movements (SLOW) (AVERAGE)
water)

CRYSTALLI
Body Color GRAY PRISMATIC NORMAL NORMAL NE (in the
head part)

Size Changes NONE NONE NONE NONE NONE

As what we can see on the table above, the guppies respond differently for each pH level. At 2.0,
the guppies breathe and move very fast, they are being so much irritated by the strongly acidic
environment. Same response happened to guppies at 3.0 pH level but this time, they move a little bit
slower compared to that in 2.0. After several seconds, the guppies on both container die. Discoloration
happened wherein the guppies on 2.0 turned to gray while on 3.0, they become prismatic. At 6.0 pH level,
the guppies breathed fast and swam slower than normal but not too much, it doesn’t change in body color.
At 7.0, the neutral and our controlled variable, all responses are in normal condition. At the pH of 10.0,
the guppies breathed slowly and swam slower than on tap water (7.0), they change in color but only in the
head part which turned to be clearer or crystalline. All guppies doesn’t change in size. The guppies seem
to tolerate basic environments longer than acidic ones and they are very sensitive to pH changes.

Table 3. Effects of pH changes on the mortality rate of guppies after a 15 minute exposure to
various pH levels.
 The mortality rate of fishes, specifically guppies for this experiment, depends on the pH level of
their surroundings. The table below shows the number of dead guppies and the percent of mortality. We
use 3 guppies in each of the test solutions.

pH Levels Number of dead guppies % Mortality

2.0 3/3 (ALL) 100%

3.0 3/3 (ALL) 100%
6.0 0/3 (NONE) 0%
7.0 0/3 (NONE) 0%
10.0 0/3 (NONE) 0%

Effects of pH changes on the mortality rate of guppies

3.5
33 3
Number of Dead Guppies

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0 0 0 0
2 3 6 7 10
pH Levels

Guppies can tolerate both basic and acidic environment but not highly basic ones. In the data
given above, we can see that all guppies are still alive in 7.0 and 10.0 pH level and these are considered as
basic environment. Although 6.0 pH is already considered as acidic, all guppies are still alive after the 15
minute exposure. But they cannot endure strongly acidic environment, like the 2.0 and 3.0 pH level in this
experiment. When the guppies are put into the strongly acidic solute, they move very fast as if they are
very irritated and after some moment, they die. Out of 5 pH levels, 3 are bearable by the guppies so we
can say that they are euryecious.

Table 4. Effects of salt stress on freshwater snails after 3-4 days exposure

Salinity is also a limiting factor affecting the range of tolerance of organisms. The table below
shows how salinity affects the mortality of freshwater snails.

Salt Solutions (ppt) Number of dead snails

0.0 0
2.5 1
5.0 1
 10.0 3
20.0 3

From the given data above, we can see that as the salt concentration increases, mortality rate also
increases. In a distilled water, all snails are still alive; on 2.5 ppt (parts per thousand), as well as on 5.0
ppt, 1 snail die. All snails exposed to 10.0 ppt and 20.0 ppt solution died within few days. Freshwater
snails are stenohaline. Meaning, they have a narrow tolerance to salinity and tend to die in environments
with high salinity level such as the ocean. That is why, obviously, freshwater snails live in freshwater and
can only survive in environments with no or limited salinity.

Table 5. Effects of salinity on percentage germination of corn seeds

Plants can also be affected by these limiting factors. In the data below, we can see how salinity
affects the germination of corn seeds.

Salt Solutions (ppt) Number of germinated seeds % Germination

0.0 10 100 %
2.5 10 100 %
5.0 10 100 %
10.0 5 50 %
20.0 1 10 %

EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON PERCENTAGE

GERMINATION OF CORN SEEDS
120
100 100 100 100
% Germination

80
60
50
40
20
10
0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
Salinity Levels (ppt)

Computation:
no . of seeds germinated
Formula: % Germination = X 100
10
A) 0.0 ppt
10
X 100= 100%
10
B) 2.5 ppt
10
X 100= 100%
10

C) 5.0 ppt
10
X 100= 100%
10

D) 10.0 ppt
5
X 100= 50%
10

E) 20.0 ppt
1
X 100= 10%
10

It is obvious, as we can see on the graph, that corn seeds are stenohaline. The salinity and rate of
germination is inversely proportional. Strong salt concentration caused a decrease in germination. All
seeds germinated on the salinity of 0.0 ppt, 2.5 ppt, and 5.00 ppt but on 10.0 ppt, only 5 seeds germinated
and there is only 1 to germinate on 20.0 ppt. Salinity affects the seed’s imbibition wherein the higher the
salinity, the more difficult for the seed to imbibe water because water potential is lower.

Table 6. Effects of salinity on R/S ratio in corn seeds

Even the emergence of roots and shoots from the germinated seeds are affected by the salt
concentration of solute. The table below shows the average root and shoot length of corn seeds
germinated with different salinity of water.

Salt Solutions (ppt) Average Root Length Average Shoot Length R/S Ratio
0.0 114 cm 98.2 cm 1.2
2.5 67.1 cm 62 cm 1.1
5.0 50.1 cm 44.3 cm 1.1
10.0 2.6 cm 2.6 cm 1.0
20.0 0.4 cm 0 cm 0
 EFFECTS OF SALINITY ON R/S RATIO IN CORN
SEEDS
1.4
1.2 1.2
1.1 1.1
R/S Ratio 1 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
Salinity Levels (ppt)

Computation:

∑ root length
Formula: Ave. Root Length =
10
∑ shoot length
Ave. Shoot Length =
10
ave .root length
R/S Ratio =
ave . shoot length
A) 0.0 ppt
179+ 89+111+ 130+129+110+110+77+72+103
Ave. root length = = 114 mm
10
151+133+ 87+96+ 82+89+82+98+ 80+84
Ave. shoot length = = 98.2 mm
10
114
R/S ratio = = 1.2
98.2

B) 2.5 ppt
31+ 41+30+100+100+51+27+ 69+125+97
Ave. root length= = 67.1 mm
10
34+71+30+78+ 85+70+36+71+65+ 80
Ave. shoot length= = 62 mm
10
67.2
R/S ratio= = 1.1
62
C) 5.0 ppt
2+ 62+ 54+76+ 80+75+56+51+10+35
Ave. root length= = 50.1 mm
10
10+51+ 51+ 65+47+ 59+47+52+26 +35
Ave. shoot length= = 44.3 mm
10
50.1
R/S ratio= = 1.1
44.3

D) 10.0 ppt
11+3+3+ 4+5+ 0+0+0+ 0+0
Ave. root length= = 2.6 mm
10
10+7+2+ 4+3+0+ 0+0+ 0+0
Ave. shoot length= = 2.6 mm
10
2.6
R/S ratio= =1
2.6

E) 20.0 ppt
4+ 0+0+ 0+0+0+ 0+0+0+ 0
Ave. root length= = 0.4 mm
10
0
Ave. shoot length = = 0 mm
10
0.4
R/S ratio= =0
0

As what we can see on the graph, the average root and shoot length of germinated seeds
decreases as the salinity level increases. The emergence of root and shoot is directly affected by the
concentration of salt in the solute. On 0.0 ppt, the average root length is 114 cm and average shoot length
is 98.2 cm; on 2.5 ppt, the average root length is 67.1 cm and average shoot length is 62 cm; for 5.0 ppt,
we measured 50.1 cm as average root length and 44.3 cm as average shoot length; the same average root
and shoot length is recorded for 10.0 ppt which is 2.6 cm; while for 20.0 ppt, average root length is 0.4
cm and the shoot has failed to emerge. Even the seeds germinated at different salinity levels, there’s a
significant difference on the emerged length of root and shoot compared to the control (0.0 ppt). On an
article published by PubMed.gov, they pointed out that salinity reduces substrate water potential, thereby
restricting water and nutrient uptake by plants. This is the reason why the shoot and root of corn seeds on
higher salinity tend to look unhealthy than the controlled.
IV. CONCLUSION

Limiting factors such as temperature, pH and salinity restricts the organisms’ capacity to grow,
develop and survive. Each species has their own range of tolerance to these factors and when it exceeded
the limit, it might hinder the capacity of the organism to function well or worse, it might cause death. It
may sound not that valid but the evidences I did above are just supporting details to my claim.

GUIDE QUESTIONS

1.Outline and briefly discuss the cellular and physiological effects of temperature change on living
organisms.

 Temperature and cell:

The minimum and maximum temperatures have lethal effects on the cells and their components.
If too cold, cell proteins may be destroyed as ice forms, or as water is lost and electrolytes become
concentrated in the cells; heat coagulates proteins (Lewis and Taylor, 1967).

 Temperature and metabolism:

Most of metabolic activities of microbes, plants and animals are regulated by varied kinds of
enzymes and enzymes in turn are influenced by temperature, consequently increase in temperature, upto a
certain limit, brings about increased enzymatic activity, resulting in an increased rate of metabolism.
For instance, the activity of liver arginase enzyme upon arginine amino acid, is found to increase
gradually and gradually, with the simultaneous increase in the temperature from 17°C to 48°C. But an
increase in temperature beyond 48″C is found to have an adverse effect on the metabolic rate of this
enzymatic activity which retards rapidly.
In plants, the absorption rate is retarded at low temperature. Photosynthesis operates over a wide
range of temperature. Most algae require lower temperature range for photosynthesis than the higher
plants. The rate of respiration in plants, however, increase, with the rise of temperature, but beyond the
optimum limit high temperature decreases the respiration rate. The rate of respiration become doubled
(like in animals) at the increase of 10°C above the optimum temperature, provided other factors are
favourable (Vant Hoff’s law).
However, optimum temperature for photosynthesis is lower than that for respiration. When
temperature drops below the minimum for growth, a plant becomes dormant even though respiration and
photosynthesis may continue slowly. Low temperatures further affect the plant by precipitating the
protein in leaves and tender twigs and by dehydrating the tissues.

 Temperature and reproduction:

The maturation of gonads, gametogenesis and lib.-ration of gametes takes place at a specific
temperature which varies from species to species. For example, some species breed uniformly throughout
the year, some only in summer or in winter, while some species have two breeding periods, one in spring
and other in fall. Thus, temperature determines the breeding seasons of most organisms.
Temperature also affects fecundity of animals. Fecundity of an animal is defined as its reproductive
capacity, i.e., the total number of young ones given birth during the life time of the animal. For example,
females of the insect, acridid Chrotogonus trachyplerus became sexually mature at 30°C and 35°C than at
25°C, and the highest number of eggs per female was laid at temperatures of 30°C. The number of eggs
decreased from 243 to 190 when the temperature was raised to 30—35°C (Grewal and Atwal, 1968).
Likewise, in grasshopper species—Melanoplus sanguinipes and Camnula pellucida when reared
at 32°C produce 20—30 times as many eggs than those reared at 22°C (see Ananthakrishan and
Viswanathan, 1976). On the other hand, the fecundity of certain inseets such as cotton stem weevil
(Pempherulus affinis) was found to decline with an increase in temperature beyond 32.8°C (A Jyar and
Margabandhu, 1941).

 Temperature and sex ratio:

In certain animals the environmental temperature determines the sex ratio of the species. For
example, the sex ratio of the copepod Maerocyclops albidu is found to be temperature dependent. As the
temperature rises there is a significant increase in number of males. Similarly in plague flea, Xenopsylla
cheopis, males outnumbered females on rats, on days when the mean temperature remains in between 21
—25°C. But the position becomes reverse on more cooler days.

 Temperature and ontogenetic development:

Temperature influences the speed and success of development of poikilothermic animals. In
general complete development of eggs and larvae is more rapid in warm temperatures. Trout eggs, for
example, develop four times faster at 15°C than at 5°C. The insect, chironomid fly Metriocnemus
hirticollis, requires 26 days at 20°C for the development of a full generation, 94 days at 10°C, 153 days at
6.5°C, and 243 days at 20°C, (Andrewartha and Birch, 1954).
However, the seeds of many plants will not germinate and the eggs and pupae of some insects
will not hatch or develop normally until chilled. Brook trout grows best at 13°C to 16°C, but the eggs
develop best at 8°C. In the common forest ground beetle Pterostichus oblongopunctatus development
from egg to mature beetle takes 82 days at 15°C, whereas at 25°C it takes only 46 days. In pine lappet,
Dendroliniuspini rate of development and mortality of various developmental stages are effected by
temperature.

 Temperature and growth:

The growth rates of different animals and plants is also influenced by temperature. For example,
the adult trouts do not feed much aid do not grow until the water is warmer than 10°C. Likewise, in the
oyster Ostraea virginica, the length of the body increase from 1.4 mm to 10.3 mm when temperature is
increased from 10°C to 20°C. The gastropod Urosalpinx cinerea and sea urchin Echinus esculcntus show
maximum size in warmer waters. Corals flourish well in those waters which contain water below 21°C.

 Temperature and colouration:

The size and colouration of animals are subject to influence by temperature. In warm humid
climates many animals like insects, birds and mammals bear darker pigmentation than the races of some
species found in cool and dry climates. This phenomenon is known as Gioger rule.
In the frog Hyla and the horned toad Phrynosoma, low temperatures have been known to induce
darkening. Some prawn (crustacean invertebrates) turn light coloured with increasing temperature. The
walking stick Carausius has been known to became black at 15 C and brown at 25°C.

2.What is meant by van’t Hoff’s rule? Is this true for both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems?
Explain.

Van’t Hoff’s rule is defined by the medical-dictionary as the velocity of chemical reactions is
increased twofold or more for each rise of 10°C in temperature; it is generally true when temperatures
approximate those at which the reaction normally occurs. Van’t Hoff’s rule can also be stated in reverse
saying that the reaction rate is halved with the decrease of every 10 C°.
This relationship holds only over the temperature range of normal activity, which for most
organisms lies between 0°and 40°C (Thompson 1942, Schmidt-Nielsen 1997). Normal operating
temperature varies among species and taxonomic or functional groups. Any given species usually
operates over some subset of this temperature range, although there are exceptions. For example, most
aquatic organisms do not experience temperatures above 25°-30°C, endothermic birds and mammals
maintain relatively high and constant temperatures (36°–40°C), some ectotherms can tolerate only a very
narrow range of temperatures, and some microbes from extreme environments such as hot springs and
hydrothermal vents can live at temperatures that approach or exceed 100°C.

3.Differentiate the following terms: ectotherms, endotherms, poikilotherms, homeotherms,

osmoconformers, osmoregulators, eurytopic, and stenotopic.

 Ectotherm, Any so-called cold-blooded animal; that is, any animal whose regulation of body
temperature depends on external sources, such as sunlight or a heated rock surface. The
ectotherms include the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates. The body temperatures of
aquatic ectotherms are usually very close to those of the water. Ectotherms do not require as
much food as warm-blooded animals (endotherms) of the same size, but most cannot deal as well
with cold surroundings.
 Endotherm, so-called warm-blooded animals; that is, those that maintain a constant body
temperature independent of the environment. The endotherms primarily include
the birds and mammals; however, some fish are also endothermic. If heat loss exceeds heat
generation, metabolism increases to make up the loss or the animal shivers to raise its body
temperature. If heat generation exceeds the heat loss, mechanisms such as panting or perspiring
increase heat loss. Unlike ectotherms, endotherms can be active and survive at quite low external
temperatures, but because they must produce heat continuously, they require high quantities of
“fuel” (i.e., food).
 A poikilotherm is an organism whose internal temperature varies considerably. Usually the
variation is a consequence of variation in the ambient environmental temperature. Many
terrestrial ectotherms are poikilothermic.
 Homeotherms maintain constant body temperatures through behavioral mechanisms alone i.e.
behavioral thermoregulation but not necessarily endothermic. Many reptiles use this strategy. One
of the three types of warm-blooded animal species.
  Osmoconformers match their body osmolarity to their environment actively or passively. Most
marine invertebrates are osmoconformers, although their ionic composition may be different from
that of seawater.
 Osmoregulators tightly regulate their body osmolarity, which always stays constant, and are
more common in the animal kingdom. Osmoregulators actively control salt concentrations
despite the salt concentrations in the environment.
 Eurytopic organism is an animal or plant able to tolerate a wide range
of habitats or ecological conditions. 
 Stenotopic organism is an animal or plant able to tolerate only a restricted range
of habitats or ecological condition

4.Provide an explanation for the observed behavioral responses of fish to pH changes. In general,
what are the physiological effects of pH changes on living organisms? Would you say that your
observations typify the conditions on acidic lakes?
 All organisms have a range of pH levels that they can survive at. The main reason for this is that
the enzymes they use for their many metabolic reactions have an optimum pH level that they operate at. If
the pH is too far from this, the reaction may take considerably longer or field less than desirable results. 
Also, sudden changes in pH level can harm organisms. Most living things have trouble coping
with sudden change. For this reason, many have buffer solutions in their cell vacuoles, which are weak
acids or bases used to neutralize strong acids or bases to prevent sudden changes in the pH. 
Lastly, too severely basic or acidic solutions can wear away at their cellular structures. Fish eggs
cannot survive in anything more acidic than a pH of 5.5, and even that low often results in drastic
problems. Very basic mixtures can often destroy bacterial colonies because it weakens their cell
membranes. 
All organisms have their own set range of pH level that they need to stay in to survive. Deviate
from that value even but a little, and it will cause extreme problems for those organisms.
Yes, the experiment typify the condition on acidic lakes. On one article, they said that very acidic
lakes (i.e., pH below 4) often are devoid of fish, frogs, salamanders, crayfish, insects, and plankton. The
distribution of organisms are very low because very acidic surface waters can have toxic concentrations
of aluminum in solution, aquatic animals may be subjected to a potentially lethal double dose of
poisonous acid and metals.

5.Discuss the relationship between salinity and mortality among freshwater snails. Outline the
cellular mechanism that could possibly explain the observed snails.

The reason why there is an increase in mortality rate of snails as salinity increases is due to
osmosis. Osmosis is the tendency of a fluid, usually water, to pass through a
semipermeable membrane into a solution where the solvent concentration is higher,
thus equalizing the concentrations of materials on either side of the membrane.When the snails are treated
with increasing salt concentrations, the salt gradually dry out the snails body. Fresh water organisms like
snail have physiological limits to the amount of salt they can tolerate. To enable cellular function, aquatic
organisms need to maintain internal salt and water levels within an optimal osmotic range. Each species
displays a salinity threshold up to which they can maintain constant optimal osmolarity of their body
fluid. Above this threshold, more ions tend to be taken up increasing internal osmolarity. This leads to
cell hydration and eventually, death. (Hart et. Al. 1991)

6.Provide a feasible explanation for the observed effect of salinity on % germination and growth
rate in corn seeds.

Salinity reduces substrate water potential, thereby restricting water and nutrient uptake by plants.
As the salt concentration increases, it is more difficult for the seeds to take in and imbibe water making
some of it not to germinate. And on the case of germinated seeds, difference on the growth rate or on the
length of root and shoot can be easily observed physically. Germinated seeds on higher salinity look
sickly compared to the controlled one. The same explanation can be applied – because of the salt in the
water, the water potential is lower making absorption of nutrients difficult for the seeds and in turn, will
not grow ideally.

References:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11159127
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/environment/12-most-important-effects-of-temperature-on-
living-organisms/3794/
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/van't+Hoff's+rule
http://www.britannica.com/science/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/
http://futurescienceleaders.org/researchers2012/2012/10/how-does-ph-affect-living-organisms-why-
does-vinegar-destroy-our-fermentation/
https://ph.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080116152728AAnWntD
http://www.ask.com/science/ph-important-living-organisms-79cabee08dcbef04
https://pubs.ext.vt.edu/420/420-254/420-254.html
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/osmosis

Appendix A

Effects of salt stress on freshwater snails

(From left to right: 0.0 ppt, 2.5 ppt, 5.0 ppt, 10.0 ppt, 20.0 ppt)
 Day 1 of the salt stress on freshwater
snails experiment.

Freshwater snails after 4-day exposure to

solute of different salinity.