Domestication of crop plants

and
Centre of Origin

Dhirendra Khare

Professor
Plant Breeding and Genetics
JN Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur
 Domestication

A plant is said to be domesticated when its native

characteristics are altered such that it cannot grow and
reproduce without human intervention.

Domestication is thought to be the result of the development

of a symbiotic relationship between the plants and humans,
called co-evolution, because plants and human behaviors
evolve to suit one another.

In the simplest form of co-evolution, a human harvests a

given plant selectively, based on the preferred characteristics,
such as the largest fruits, and uses the seeds from the largest
fruits to plant the next year.
 Agriculture and man

Man's interest in agriculture started about 10,000 years

ago with transition from 'gathering' to 'growing' of plants
occurred. In this process, a wide array of crop variability
got generated by natural means and through both
conscious or unconscious selection.

Historically, man has used only about 5,000 plant species

worldwide to meet food and other needs.

This number is just a fraction of the total world flora.

With population growth, we are increasingly dependent on

most productive plants.

Today, only about 150 plant species are important in

meeting the food (calories) needs of humans worldwide.
 Rubbish-Heap hypothesis for the origin of agriculture

It says that early humans gathered nutritious

roots and seeds for their food.

Such plants actively colonized the bare areas

around their dwellings, which were rich with
the discarded rubbish.

This natural process was obviously based on

man's known food gathering activities and
selection of only those useful plants which he
found most suitable in tune with local
habitats.
 Darwin’s theory of the origin of species

Charles Darwin was the first scientist to

convincingly and comprehensively propose
that all organisms descend from earlier forms
of organisms that have been modified during
the course of evolution (Darwin, 1859).

Groups of similar organisms would descend

from a common ancestor, and tracing this
evolution could bring us to the origin of
species.

The most important factors determining the

course of evolution were the variation in
organisms and natural selection, i.e. that
well-adapted organisms would propagate
more, less adapted ones would tend to go
under, and that offspring were able to
reproduce themselves.
 Stages of crop domestication

First stage the pre-adapted wild plants with weedy

tendencies and large reserves of food began to colonize the
open ground around man's house. Probably seeds were
dropped accidentally near the house from the natural habitats.

Second stage Seeds were regularly harvested as food from

the open ground around man's house, and fenced to protect
them from domesticated cattle and other herbivores.

At this stage, the man also select mutants for increased yields,
palatability and other desirable traits.

Third stage Man learnt sowing of seeds at the right time with
understanding of plant for required husbandry upto harvesting.
 ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE

Renowned Swiss botanist, son of a famous

botanist, Augustin-Pyramus de Candolle
(1778-1841), born in Paris took over his
father's botanic garden with a vast
collection.

de Candolle write a massive tome on plant

geography that assumed the derivation of
each species from a specially created
individual.

Alphonse de Candolle, in his 1882 book

Origine de Plantes Cultivées, was among
the first to indicate regions where plant
domestication may have taken place:
China, Southwest Asia including Egypt,
and Tropical Asia.
 Dynamics of plant domestication

Domestication is an evolutionary
process operating under the influence
of human activities.

it is a slow process.

It exhibits gradual progression from the

wild state to a state of incipient
domestication.

Diverse forms that differ more and more

from their progenitors develop.
 Cultivation practices adopted had a significant role in the
domestication process as the cultivated field presenting a
different environment from the wild habitat.

The crop evolutionary process obviously includes changes

as affected by changed environment of a cultivated field.

The selection pressure associated with cultivation

practices also results in production of weedy races.

Cross compatibility between the cultivated and wild leads

to a more potential variability.

This is one remarkably elegant evolutionary process

wherein barriers to gene flow maintain identity of the two
types and, at the same time, limited exchange of genes
releases variability.

Weed plants which are competitive with cultivated races but retain some
important characters of the wild races
Factors operate in the selection process during domestication

(i) selection of desirable traits by the cultivator while

sowing
(ii) Changed micro-environment through cultivation
practices
(iii) Differentiation - hybridization cycles between
crop-weed pairs and man's selection from them.

So the dynamics of domestication has resulted in

great morphological changes without substantial
change in the genetic background.

However, speciation rarely occurs under

domestication.

Under domestication, modifications induced

ultimately lead to the end products which are generally
radically different in appearance from their wild
progenitors.
The possible changes in plant species due to domestication

Reduction/loss Increase/improvement
Shattering Adaptability
Seed dormancy size of fruits
Seed viability Size of seeds
Protective coverings palatability
Sturdiness Chemical composition
Photoperiodic response Susceptibility to biotic
Number of seeds stresses
Resistance to abiotic Yielding ability
stresses

Different/specific ecological preference

Uniformly flowering and maturity
Change from a perennial to annual habit
Change in mode of pollination cross to self pollination
Developing of seedless fruits
 Chronological domestication of field crops

Plant Location of Domestication Date

Rice East Asia 9000 BC
Barley Near East 8500 BC
Bread wheat Near East 6000 BC
Einkorn wheat Near East 8500 BC
Emmer wheat Near East 8500 BC
Sorghum Africa 2000 BC
Pearl millet Africa 1800 BC
Chickpea Anatolia 8500 BC
Maize Central America 7000 BC
Cotton Southwest Asia 5000 BC
Cotton Peru 4000 BC
Sunflower Central America 2600 BC
To answer following questions on the domestication of plant
Vavilov proposed the theory for Centre of Origin of the plant

Where was the beginnings of agriculture to be sought?

Were they independent in different regions, in different
continents?
How is the geographical localization of primitive agriculture to be
explained?
Which plants were first brought into cultivation?
Where shall we find the primary sources of cultivated plants?
How are modern domesticated held cultivated plants connected
with their wild related types?
How did the evolution of cultivated plants proceed?
How are primary agricultural civilizations connected?
Which implements were used by primitive agriculturists in
different regions?
 Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov

(1887-1943)

The Outstanding Gene Hunter and

Investigator of
Plant Genetic Resources
One of the most
outstanding Russian
scientists of the twentieth
century.

An Agronomist

Specialization in

Plant Genetic Resources

&
Evolution
 Objectives

The vigorous, worldwide plant exploration

program was planned for genetic resource
management to fulfil the following
objectives

• To collect and assemble all the useful

germplasm of all the crops that had potential
in the Soviet Union

• To study and classify the material

• To utilize it in a national plant breeding

programme
November Born in a wealthy family of a
25,1887 merchant in Moscow.

Eldest among two brothers

and two sisters.
His father
1906 Graduated from the Moscow
Commercial College

1906 - 1910 Graduated from Moscow

Agricultural Institute
(At present Timiryazev Agricultural
Academy in Moscow)
Scientific interests that determined his
future
1908 Participated in the student
expedition to the Caucasus

1909 Made a report on Darwin's

Theory

1910 Completed diploma on

Protection of agricultural
plants from pest

1912 Explained application of

genetics in crop
improvement in his paper
"Genetics and Agronomy"
Scientific interests that determined his
future
1910- lecturer - Moscow Agricultural
1917 Institute

1911- Training courses of the

1912 Agricultural Scientific
Committee, Saint- Petersburg With W.Bateson
on
Bureau for Applied Botany
Bureau of Mycology and
Phyto-pathology

1913- Training at
1914 Great Britain with W. Bateson
France with Vilmorin
Germany with Ernst Haeckel
 The duties and titles

National Geographic Society President

Institute of Genetics Director
All-Union Institute of Plant Industry Director
Lenin All-Union Academy of First President
Agricultural Sciences
USSR Academy of Sciences Member
British Royal Society Foreign Member
Soviet Government Member
Academy of Sciences of India Member
Scientific interests that determined his
future
1916 First International Mission

Frequent illnesses of the Russian

troop during the war with Turkey
on the territory of northern Iran

Sent by the Tzar to solve the

problem.

Distribution of disease Fusariosis Fusariosis

and symptoms of drunkenness. tissue breakdown as caused
by trauma, severe burns or
foreign body.
Found that to prepare bread for
the troop wheat was collected
from the local area
Scientific interests that determined his
future
Wheat collected from local area was
exceptional infested with
• A poisonous weed Darnell
ryegrass (Lolium temulentum)
• Pathogen Fusaria

Bread made from the contaminated

wheat caused intoxication known
as bread drunkenness.

Prohibition of local wheat to prepare

bread checked the illness of
soldiers.

Collection of local cultivated crops.

Scientific interests that determined his
future

1917-1920 Took a teaching post at

Saratov University,
faculty of agronomy, a
chair of plant breeding.

1918 Title of Professor in the The region of Saratov

Saratov University was famous for wheat
production with great
1920 The Law of diversity and presence of
Homologous Series in wild relatives.
hereditary Variation
1926 Centre of origin
The Law of Homologous Series in hereditary Variation (1920)

Genetically closely related species and

genera are characterized by similar
series of hereditary variation with such a
regularity that, knowing the series of
forms within one species, one can
predict the existence of parallel forms in
other species and genera.

All the plants of a family are generally

characterized by a definite pattern of
variation that penetrate in all the genera
and species of that family.
The Law of Homologous Series in hereditary Variation (1920)

Characters found in one species may be

found in another depending on the
relationship.

Genomics, the science of gene mapping

has provided the scientific underpinning
for Vavilov’s “Law of Homology.”
Law of homologues series

Species and genera, genetically

related to each other, possess
identical series of genetic variation
with regularity, allowing prediction
of identical forms for other species
and genera with known forms for
one species.

Vavilov points out necessity of

genetic analysis for those
characteristics, which show parallel
variation for different species and
genera, and in 1935, when he gets
enough facts, the scientist
concludes that closely related
species and genera possess many
common genes together with some
specific ones.
 The Law of Homologous Series in hereditary Variation
Triticum aestivum Triticum durum Hordeum vulgare
2n=42 2n=28 2n=14

A B C D A B C D A B C D

A :Long awned B: Short awned C: Inflatum D:Awnless

 Vavilov’s Expeditions in search of gene

1921-1934: 180 expeditions of the institute

around the world including 65 countries, he
himself visited 52 countries.

Vavilov’s collected the plant resources

throughout the world with his original
phyto-geographic method.

His know-how was the basis to determine

where to go.
Routes of the Vavilov’s main expeditions 1916–1940
 Vavilov’s Expeditions
1916 Iran
Hamadan and Khorasan
Pamir
Khorog Rushan Shungan
1921 Canada (Ontario) and USA
Arizona, California, Colorado,
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky,
Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, New
York, North and South Carolina,
North and South Dakota, Oregon,
Pennsylvania, Virginia, Wisconsin
and Wyoming
1924 Afghanistan
Afghan, Badakhshan, Bamian,
Baquia, Farakh, Gaimag, Helmand,
Herat, Hindu Kush, Jalalabad,
Kabul, Kafiristan, Kandahar,
Sehistan and Turkestan
 Vavilov’s Expeditions
1925 Khoresm
Gurlen, Khiva, Novyi Urgench and Tashauz
1926-1 Mediterranean country
927 Algeria, Cyprus and Crete, Egypt, France,
Greece, Italy, Morocco, Palestine, Portugal,
Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Syria, Transjordan and
Tunisia
Abyssinia
Addis Ababa, Banks of Nile, Djibouti, Tsana
Lake
Eritrea Massena
Yemen Hedjas, Hodeida, Jeddah
1927 Germany
Mountainous regions in Würtemberg
 Vavilov’s Expeditions

1929 China
Aksu, Hotan, Kashgar Kucha,
Kulja, Uch-Turfa, Urumchi,
Xinjiang Yarkand
Taiwan
Japan Honshu, Kyushu and
Hokkaido
Korea
 Vavilov’s Expeditions

1930 USA
Arizona, California, Florida,
Louisiana, Texas
Mexico
Guatemala
1932-1933 Canada
Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba,
Ontario, Saskatchewan,
USA
Arizona, Arkansas, California,
Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Louisiana,
Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New
Mexico, North and South Dakota,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Utah,
Washington
 Vavilov’s Expeditions

1932-1933 Argentina
Bolivia (Cordilleras)
Brazil (Rio de Janeiro, Amazon)
Chile (Panama River)
Cuba
Ecuador (Cordilleras)
Mexico (Yucatan)
Peru (Lake Titicaca, Puno Mt.)
Porto Rico
Trinidad
Uruguay
 Vavilov’s Expeditions

1921-1940 European part of Russia

Whole regions of the Caucasus
Whole Middle Asia
 Collection of germplasm
Before the Second World War the collections of
All-Union Institute of Plant Industry numbered

Over 36,000 accessions of wheat

Over 10,000 of maize

Over 23,000 of legumes

Around 18,000 of vegetables

Over 12,000 of fruit and small fruit crops

Over 23,000 of forages.

The total of accessions reached 2,50,000 in the times of N.I. Vavilov.

All this rich diversity was thoroughly studied at experiment stations in different
geographical zones of the country
 Centre of Origin (1926)

Plant domestication was not at random.

Specific regions for start of domestication.

These are the center of origin.

Presence of wild relative is the basis for centre of

origin.

These are the reason where wild relatives of the

plant showed maximum adaptiveness.

These conclusions were summarized in The Origin,

Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated
Plants, a work that was translated into English in
1951.
 Primary Centre of Origin

All the cultivated species of the world Steps of Evolution

have their origin in these primary
centre of origin and later they spread Wild
to different places of cultivation.
Main features are
Weed
The number of wild species present
Diversity of wild species
Number of endemic species present Cultivated
Sources of dominant genes
 Procedure adopted for determining the centre of
origin
Differentiating plants into specific and
intra-specific taxa on morphological and
genetic basis.

Determining the area of distribution of such

species and groups of species.

Establishing the distribution of genetic

diversity and determining the geographical
centres where this is at its maximum,
especially those centres with endemic
forms/characters.

Correlating the above distribution/diversity

with the areas of concentration of nearest
wild relatives
The criteria for determining the centre of origin

Comparing centres of origin of group of

cultivated plants with certain
specialized parasite.

Support the above, seek

linkages/evidences from archaeology,
linguistics and history.

In later stage, the presence of wild

relatives was considered an essentiality
in designating a centre as 'a centre of
origin'.
 Primary Centre of Origin

The centre comprises of

a small portion (2–3% of
the land area) of the
earth

These small portions are

isolated by deserts or
mountain ranges.

Early domesticate of
wild, weedy and its
related forms are
present in these centres
 Confirmation of wild relative as ancestor

Taxonomic affinities from morphological comparisons

Crossability estimates

F1 fertility determination

Chromosome pairing analysis

Phylogenetic relationship between cultivated and weedy

and wild) forms

Allozyme variation
 Centre of Diversity

The place with maximum amount of variability

of a plant species without presence of wild
relatives represents its centre of diversity.

It was also considered as Secondary Centre of

Origin

Crop diversity – the variation between and within crops and

between crops and wild relatives
 Sources of Diversity

According to Vavilov diversity was

primarily a function of
spontaneous mutation.
Over a long period of time it was
accumulate through selection.

Strong selection pressure

Isolation

Inbreeding
 Secondary Centre of Origin

Primary Centre
Maximum variability

Presence of
MANGO
Weed form

and

Cultivated form

but

No wild relatives

Only recessive
genes are present in
large number.
Secondary Centre
 Secondary Centre of Origin

Primary Centre
Abyssinian Centre of
origin

Cultivated form of
wheat, barley, peas,
flax and lentils are
present in enormously
rich variability.
Tetrapolid wheat is
present in widest form.
But for none of these
crops wild relative
exists.
Secondary Centre
 Secondary Centre of Origin

Primary Centre
Rubber

It was
originated in
Amazon river
basin but
maximum
diversity in
cultivated
form exist in
Malaya

Secondary Centre
 Centre of Diversity = Centre of Origin

Presence of both

Wild relatives

and

Variability under the control of dominant

genes
 Micro centre of origin

The exact centres were located in several

comparatively small geographic areas on the
globe, especially in the mountain areas of
Asia, Africa, along the Mediterranean coast
and in South, Central and North America.
Vavilov felt that the maximum amount Recessive
of variability is present at the
periphery and the maximum
concentration of dominant gene in the
form of wild relatives is present at the
Dominant
centre of the distribution.
The concentration of the dominant
gene decreased towards the periphery
with the increase in concentration of
recessive gene mainly due to
Strong selection pressure
Isolation
Inbreeding
Exceptional type are often present in the margin

He reported a progressive increase in the size of the fruit

from
Himalaya to the Mediterranean
 New and Old World

New World

American
Continent was
designated as
New World. The
roots and tubers
and tropical fruit
trees are
concentrated in
the Central
American and Old World
Andean centers. Asia, Europe and Africa continent were designated as
Old World.
Species listed
Almost one third of the world's species originated in
533 from Old World Southeastern Asia.
107 from New World
Most of the main fruit and vegetable crops come from
Total 640 the east and west Asiatic centre and Mediterranean
centre of origin.
 On the basis of analysis from hundred of thousands of
collections, Vavilov proposed eight primary centers
Old World
1 China Chinese cabbages, soybean
2 India
2a Indo - Burma Cucumbers, eggplant, pigeon pea
2b Siam Malaya- Java Coconut, rice, sugar cane
3 Central Asiatic Wheat, barley, oats, figs, pea, vetch
4 Near Eastern
5 Abyssinian
6 Mediterranean Almonds, cabbage, olives
New World
7 Central American Maize, tomato
(Mexico/Central America) -
8 South American
8a Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia Peppers, potato, rubber
8b i Chile
8bii Brazil, Peraguan
Primary Centre of Origin
Centre of Origin
 900 North

60 0 N

30 0 N
Tropic of Cancer 23.5 0 N

00 Equator

Tropic of Capricorn 23.5 0 S

30 0 N

60 0 S

900 South
 900 North

60 0 N

30 0 N
23.5 0 N

Tropical
00
23.5 0 S
30 0 N

60 0 S

900 South
 900 North

60 0 N
40 0 N
30 0 N Sub Tropical
23.5 0 N

Tropical
00
23.5 0 S
30 0 N Sub Tropical
40 0 S
60 0 S

900 South
 Indian Centre of Origin

It has two parts

Indo Burma Siam-Malaya-Java
Indo-Burma Centre of Origin

117 species were originated

Indo-Burma Centre of Origin
Include major part of
India
(except Northwest India,
Punjab and Northwest
Frontier Provinces)
Burma, Nepal, Bhutan,
Bangladesh and
Srilanka
 Indo-Burma Centre of Origin
Cereals Rice
Minor millet little millet, kodo millet
Legumes Chickpea, pigeon pea, urid bean, mung bean,
rice bean, cowpea, moth bean, horsegram
Vegetables Eggplant, cucumber, radish
Gourd –ridge, smooth, round, pointed, little
Tubers Taro, yam, tares/arbi (Colocasia esculenta),
yams (Dioscorea spp.), jimi-kand
(Amorphophallus campanulatus),
Stimulants Hemp, sandalwood, tea
Dyes Indigo
Spices Black and long pepper, gum Arabic, cinnamon
tree, turmeric, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon
 Indo-Burma Centre of Origin
Fruits Mango, orange, tangerine, citron, tamarind,
banana, jamun (Syzygium cumini), jack fruit
(Artocarpus heterophyllus), Citrus group -
lime and others, karonda (Carissa congesta),
khirni (Manilkara hexandra), phalsa (Grewia
sub-inaequalis/G. asiatica), bael (Aegle
marmelos), wood apple (Feronia limonia),
kokam (Garcinia indica)
Sugar Sugarcane
Fiber Plants Tree cotton, oriental cotton, jute, kenaf, Sun
hemp
Oil Coconut, palm, sesame, safflower, Brassica
Other Croton, bamboo, betel leaf
 Indo-Burma Centre of Origin

Kenaf Taro Sweet potato Gum Arabic

Hibiscus cannabinus Colocasia esculenta Ipomea batata Acasia senegal
Family Araceae Dioscoreaceae

Rice bean Citron

Tangerine
Vigna umbellata Citrus medica

orange-colored citrus fruit

 Indo-Burma Centre of Origin

Hemp
Canabis sativus

Hemp is one of the earliest

domesticated plants known

Stimulant Tetra hydro

cannabinol (THC) is secreted
in a resinous mixture by
epidermal hairs called
glandular trichomes

Hemp is one of the faster

growing biomasses known,
producing up to 25 tonnes of
dry matter per hectare per
year
 Indo-Burma Centre of Origin
The precursor to indigo is indican, a colorless,
Indigo
Indigofera tinctoris
water-soluble derivative of the amino acid
Family Leguminoaceae tryptophan.

Indican readily hydrolyzes to release

β-D-glucose and indoxyl.

Oxidation by exposure to air converts indoxyl to

indigo.

leaves, contain as much as 0.2 – 0.8 % Indican

To extract leaves are soaked in water

Fermented to convert the glycoside indican to
the blue dye indigotin.

The precipitate from the fermented leaf solution

is mixed with a strong base, pressed and dried .
 Rich floristic wealth of Indian subcontinent

Eight phyto-geographical/
agro-ecological zones

(1) Western Himalayas

(2) Eastern Himalayas
(3) Central Himalayas
(4) Assam
(5) Gangetic plain
(6) Indus plain
(7) Deccan
(8) Malabar
Rich floristic wealth of Indian subcontinent

It has already been stressed that the Indian

subcontinent possesses rich floristic
wealth. Of this 3,000-5,000 species are of
economic value which include about 1,000
wild food plants.

The diversity in plant genetic resources

numbers around 166 species and the wild
genepools of direct or indirect utility,
around 320 species, distributed in eight
phyto-geographical/agro-ecological zones.
Rich floristic wealth of Indian subcontinent

A primary centre of diversity for crops, such

as rice, black gram, moth bean, pigeonpea,
cucurbits like smooth gourd, ridge gourd and
pointed gourd, tree cotton, capsularis jute,
jack fruit, banana, mango, Syzygium
cumini/jamun, large cardamom, black pepper
and several minor millets and medicinal plants
like Rauvolfia serpentina and Saussurea lappa.

A secondary centre of diversity for African

crops, such as finger millet, sorghum,
cowpea, cluster bean, okra, sesame, niger and
safflower; tropical American types like maize,
tomato, pumpkin/Cucurbita spp., chayote or
chou chou, chillies and Amaranthus
Rich floristic wealth of Indian subcontinent

Regional (Asiatic) diversity, for crops like

maize, barley, amaranth, buckwheat,
prosomillet, foxtail millet, mung bean/green
gram, chickpea, cucumber, bitter gourd,
bottle gourd, snake gourd and Brassicae.

Geographical contiguity with the Far-East

and/or the Indo-Malayan (South/South-East
Asian region) belt is largely responsible for
more regional diversity in mung bean, rice
bean, sword bean, tomato, citrus, small
cardamom, Saccharum, ginger, turmeric,
tuber crops, particularly taros and yams, and
bamboos.
Indo-Malayan Center (Siam-Malaya-Java)

55 species were originated

Indo-Malayan Center (Siam-Malaya-Java)
 Indo-Malayan Center (Siam-Malaya-Java)

Cereals Job's tears

Legumes Velvet bean
Spices Candlenut, clove, nutmeg, black pepper
Fruits Pummelo, banana, breadfruit, mangosteen
Sugar Sugarcane
Fiber Plants Manila hemp
Oil Coconut, palm
 Indo-Malayan Center (Siam-Malaya-Java)

Manila hemp Job's tears Breadfruit Candlenut

Musa textilis Coix lacryma Artocarpus altilis Aleurites moluccana

Relative of Vyjanti When cooked smell

banana Seed is used to make like potato
necklace
Indo-Malayan Center (Siam-Malaya-Java)

Mango steen Velvet bean Pummelo

Garcinia mangostana Mucuna pruriens Citrus grandis

Itching due to serotonin Tamil pompous

Agamosaprmy
(5-hydroxytryptamine) lemon
Chinese Centre of Origin

136 species were originated

Chinese Centre of Origin

Mountainous
region of
central and
western China
Magnolia
 Chinese Centre of Origin

Cereals Broomcorn millet, Italian millet, Japanese barnyard

millet, Fox tail millet, Proso millet, Koaliang,
hull-less barley

Legumes Soybean, Adzuki bean, velvet bean

Vegetables Radish, Chinese cabbage, onion, cucumber

Tubers Chinese yam

Stimulants Opium poppy, hemp, tea, ginseng

Spices Camphor, ginger

Fruits Pear, Chinese apple, peach, apricot, cherry, litchi,

Persimmon
 Chinese Centre of Origin

Ginseng Velvet bean Adzuki bean

Panax ginseng
 Chinese Centre of Origin

Camphor Cinnamomum camphora

Quince
Persimmon Disophyrus kaki (The fruit of the god) Cydonia oblonga
 Chinese Centre of Origin

Broomcorn millet Koaliang Japanesae Barnyard millet

Panicum miliaceum a variety of grain sorghum Echinochloa frumentacea

Italian millet Proso millet

Fox tail millet Setaria italica
Soybean Domestication
Central Asiatic centre

43 species were originated

 Central Asiatic centre

Includes
Northwest India, Punjab, Northwest Frontier Provinces & Kashmir
Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Western Tian-Shan
 Central Asiatic centre
Cereals Common wheat, club wheat

Legumes Peas, lentil, horse bean, chickpea,

mung bean

Oil Mustard, flax, sesame

Fruits Pistacio, pear, almond, grape, apple

Fiber Hemp, cotton

Vegetables Onion, garlic, spinach, carrot

Spices Asafetida
 Near Eastern centre

83 species were originated

 Near Eastern centre

Includes
Interior of Asia Minor, all of Transcaucasia, Iran, and
highlands of Turkmenistan
 Near Eastern centre
Cereals Einkorn wheat, durum wheat, pollard wheat,
common wheat, oriental wheat, Persian wheat,
two-row barley, rye, Mediterranean oats, common
oats
Legumes Lentil, lupine, Faba bean, Garbanzo, Pea
Fodder Persian clover, vetch, hairy vetch
Fruits Fig, pomegranate, apple, pear, quince, cherry,
hawthorn, walnut, date palm, almond, grape, plum,
pistachio
Stimulants Poppy, digitalis, belladonna, licorice
Oil seed Flax, olive, safflower
Spices Fenugreek, saffron
Vegetables Onion, lettuce, parsley, turnip, carrot, radish, garlic,
beet root
 Near Eastern Centre
Harlan et al. (1976b) refer
this as the
“center of agricultural innovation”
other as
The Fertile Crescent

Lupinus perennis Faba bean

Hawthorn Licorice Digitalis purpurea Belladonna

Crataegus species Glycyrrhiza glabra Atropa belladonna
 Mediterranean Center

84 species were originated

Mediterranean Center
 Mediterranean Center

Cereals Durum wheat, Emmer (triticum dicoccum), Polish

wheat, Spelt (triticum spelta) a hexaploid wheat.
Mediterranean oats, Sand oats, Canary grass

Legumes Grass pea, Pea, Lupine

Fodder Egyptian clover , White clover, Crimson clover,

Serradella

Oil seed Flax , Rape, Black mustard, Olive

Spices Caraway, Anise, Thyme, Peppermint ,Sage, Hop

Vegetables Garden beet, Cabbage, Turnip, Lettuce,

Asparagus, Celery, Chicory, Parsnip, Rhubarb
 Mediterranean Center

Caraway Serradella Canary grass

Carum carvi Ornithopus compressus
Medcinal fennel
 Mediterranean Center

Anise
Pimpinella anisum
Peppermint

Thyme

Hop
Sage
Humuls lupulus
Salvia apiana
 Mediterranean Center
Rhubarb

Perennial plants growing

from short, thick rhizomes

Chicory Parsnip
Asparagus Celery Pastinaca sativa
Cichorium intybus
Root vegetable
Abyssinian Centre of Origin

38 species were originated

Abyssinian Centre of Origin

Abyssinia
Eritrea
Somaliland
 Abyssinian Centre of Origin
Cereals African rice (O. glaberrima), pearl millet (P. glaucum),
sorghum (S. bicolor), fonio (Digitaria exilis), Barley,
Eleucine, teff (Eragrostis abyssinica)

Legumes Cowpea, hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus), bambara

groundnut, Kerstin's groundnut (Macrotyloma
geocarpa)

Fruits Baobab (Adansonia digitata), watermelon, muskmelon

Oil seed Sesame, oil palm, castor, niger, safflower

Stimulant Coffee

Fibre Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus)

Vegetables Okra, eggplant, drumstick, onion

 Abyssinian Centre of Origin

Hyacinth bean
(Lablab purpureus)

Teff
Baobab (Eragrostis abyssinica)
(Adansonia digitata) National cereal of Ethiopia
Abyssinian Centre of Origin
Abyssinian Centre of Origin
 Abyssinian Centre of Origin
Sorghum Domestication
China

India
Sudan
Ethiopia
Americas early Sorghum bicolor
 Abyssinian Centre of Origin
Sorghum Collections

ICRISAT
India
36,719
accessions
NPGS
USA
42,221 accessions

domestication
center
Abyssinian Centre of Origin
South Mexican and Central American Center

species were originated

South Mexican and Central American Center

Includes
Southern sections of Mexico
Guatemala
Honduras
Costa Rica
South Mexican and Central American Center

Cereals Maize
Legumes Common bean, lima bean, tepary
bean, jack bean, multiflorus bean
Vegetables Malabar gourd, winter pumpkin,
chayote grain amaranth, cherry
tomato
Fibre G. hirsutum, henequen (sisal)
Root crop Sweet potato, arrowroot
Fruits Pepper, papaya, guava, cashew,
wild black cherry, cacao
South Mexican and Central American Center

Chayote

Cacao
Henequen (sisal)
Agave fourcroydes Arrowroot
South Mexican and Central American Center

Multiflorus bean Jack bean Tepary bean Lima bean

South American Center

62 species were originated

 South American Center

8a
Peru
Ecuador
Bolivia

8c
8b Brazil
Chile Paraguay
 South American Center
Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia Chile Brazil-Paraguay

Tubers Potato, Canna Common

potato
Cereals Maize
Legumes Lima bean, common
bean
Vegetables Pumpkin, tomato, manioc purple
ground cherry, pumpkin, granadilla
pepper
Fibre G. Barbadense
Stimulant Tobacco
Medicine quinine
Oil Groundnut
Tree rubber
Fruits Cocoa, passion flower, Strawberry Pineapple Brazil
guava nut, cashew
 South American Center
granadilla

Manioc purple
Casava
Manihot esculenta

Passion flower Quinine

Strawberry Cichona pubescns
Passiflora caerulea
Fragaria Sp.
 End of Vavilov

He openly supported international cooperation

and the transmission of new knowledge from
the West, which was of great benefit to Russian
science, but did not comply with the regime
ideology.

During the regime of

Stalin, the agricultural
reform in Soviet Union as
per direction of
horticulturalist Trofim
Lysenko, with his
fraudulent claims and
speculative theories did
not really work out.
 End of Vavilov
Trofim D. Lysenko introduced the
discredited notion that acquired
characters could be inherited and
genetics and selection were not at
all needed to grow bigger crops.

The institute headed by Vavilov

resist the pseudo-scientific
concepts of Lysenko.

As a result of this controversy and

Stalin’s support to Lysenko, Vavilov
was arrested in August 7, 1940.

Encyclopedia Britannica described Lysenko as the 20th century’s

best-known pseudo-scientist.
 End of Vavilov

Vavilov was accused of

undermining the socialist
reforms in the field agriculture.

He refused to recant his beliefs

and, in the most cruel twist,
this humanitarian pioneer
scientist was starved to death
in the gulag. A chamber in Saratov’s prison

Vavilov died on 26th January

1943 in prison
and
Buried in a common prison
grave. Prison’s dossier, 1941
 After Vavilov

For many years his name was forbidden,

His works were forgotten…
But
His wife and scientists, including foreign
scientists, struggled for returning his honest
name.

Two years after death of Stalin, in 1955

posthumous rehabilitation came to Vavilov

In 1968 the Institute was renamed after

Vavilov.
 Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry (VIR)

More than 70% of

commercial varieties of
modern Russia have been
bred using material from
the VIR world collection.

In cereals, 95% of all

cultivars bred in the
recent period were based
on germplasm stored in
Its collection includes
the collection of VIR.
320 000 accessions of cultivated
Using plant materials
plants and their wild relatives
from VIR's collection the
breeders of the USSR
2539 botanical varieties of 304
have developed over
species of 155 botanical families
2,500 cultivars of various
agricultural crops.
Herbarium contains more than
250 000 specimens
 Elena Barulina – Vavilov’s wife
a specialist in genetic resources of
grain legumes (lentil)
It is better to be extra
economical now;
than to expose to
destruction
everything, that had
being created by
nature during
thousands and
millions years…»
 Zhukovsky 1965, Mega gene centres
A close associate of Vavilov, proposed 12 megagene
centres of crop-plant diversity.

The new areas added to Vavilov's eight were Australia,

whole Africa and Siberia followed by revision of the
boundaries to make 12 centres.

Microgene centres of wild growing species related to crop

plants, were demarcated.

in the 'Dictionary of cultivated plants and their centres of

diversity', listed species for different megagene centres,
and the range and extent of the distribution of
genetic/varietal/specific diversity, etc.

Zhukovsky, P.M. 1965. Genetic and botanical irregularities in the evolution of cultivated plants.
Genetika Mosc. 1. 41-49
 Harlan, 1917-1998

Each crop may have been repeatedly

domesticated at different times in different
locations or may have been brought into
cultivation in several regions simultaneously.

One cannot pin point a single center of origin.

Harlan developed the idea of ‘Centre’ and

‘Non-Centre.

According to him ‘Centre’ means places of

agricultural origin and ‘non-centre’ where
agriculture has been introduced.
 Harlan
Centers and non centers

Centre
B1 North Chinese
A1 North East
C1 Meso American
Non-centre A1
B1
B2 South-East C1
Asian and South A2
B2
Pacific
A2 African C2
C2 South American
 Harlan, 1917-1998

Micro centre

Harlan also recognized smaller

areas/pockets of varietal and/or racial
diversity within a Vavilovian Centre, and
he termed these as 'Micro centres'.

Such small areas, as in Turkey and

Africa (Harlan, 1975), contain varietal
diversity of several crops in the plains
and/or mountains.

Harlan, J.R. 1975. Crops and man. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin. 295 p.
 Hawkes,1983

Agriculture began not once but several times, more or

less simultaneously and in different regions of the
world.

Proposed the name Nuclear centres and regions of

diversity for the centres of agricultural origin from
which farming spread into one or more regions

Linked the nuclear centres with the archaeological

evidence to provide strong proofs of agricultural
origins.

Hawkes, J.G. 1983. The diversity of crop plants. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
184 p.
 Hawkes,1983
Nuclear centres
A. Northern China
B. The Near East
C. Southern Mexico
D. Central to Southern Peru
Regions of diversity
I China
II India
III South-East Asia
IV Central Asia
V The Near East
VI The Mediterranean
VII Ethiopia
VIII West Africa
IX Meso-America
X Northern Andes
(Venezuela to Bolivia)
 Wilkes, 1984

On the global scene, the human population has

enormously increased such that we are held captive
by our domesticated food plants, that is we are
totally dependent on the high yields of these few
selective cultivated plants.

By and large, a dependent, though viable

relationship exists among plant domestication,
genetic diversity and human population growth.

Wilkes, G. 1984. Germplasm conservation towards the year 2000. Potential for new crops and
enhancement of present crops. In Plant genetic resources: a conservation imperative (Eds., C.
Yeatman, D. Kefton and G. Wilkes). American Assoc. for the Advancement of Sciences.
Washington D.C., USA.
 Wilkes, 1984

Increased human Increased demand for Expansion of

population food cultivation

Plant Dependence on highest Increased

domestication yield and elimination of genetic diversity
genetic diversity

Higher demand for

genetic diversity in Increased
future plant breeding production of
food
 Threat to genetic diversity
Genetic erosion
It is a gradual persistent loss of plant genetic diversity.

The technological drawback of improved varieties is that

they eliminate the resource upon which they are based.

Over the past 10,000 years, crop plants have proliferated

through an innumerable number of locally adapted
genotypes.

These landraces and folk varieties of indigenous

agriculture are the genetic reservoir.

The genetic diversity is replaced with a relatively small

number of varieties bred for high input agriculture.

The scarcity of land and agricultural practices resulting in

the disappearance of habitat which harbour the wild
progenitors and weedy forms of our basic food plants.
 Threat to genetic diversity

Genetic vulnerability

Genetic vulnerability is the use of a narrow genetic base.

Development of varieties with wider adaptability and

resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses with
response to management leads to widespread
monocultures.

The narrowness of the genetic base is responsible for

greater risk of crop failure.

The Irish potato famine in the 1840s is a classic example

of genetic vulnerability.

Monoculture Dense, uniform stands of billions of plants covering thousands of

acres, all genetically similar.
 Threat to genetic diversity

Genetic wipeout

The rapid and wholesale destruction of a wealth of

potential species constituting genetic resources.

Social disruptions/instability can eliminate such promising

diversity.

Quite literally, as Wilkes (1984) points out, the genetic

heritage of a millennium in a particular valley can
disappear in a single bowl of porridge if the seeds are
cooked and eaten instead of saved as seed stock.

Equally dramatic is the discarding of a genetic collection

because of
The retirement/transfer of curator
Or
The collection is no longer of use to the institution.
New classification of cultivated plants

He developed the ecological-geographic

classification of plants based on the
physiological and biological peculiarities of
plants.
Ecological-geographic classification of Cicer arietinum L.

Groups of botanical varieties (geographical branches)

indicum abyssinicum hispanicum

a number of dominant genes early high taste

determined some traits useful high seed protein large seeds
for synthetic breeding light seed coat
Ecologo-geographic classification of Cicer arietinum L.

bohemicum
montanum palestinicum (tall and compact,
most traits are resistant to Fusarium resistant to Ascohytha )
dominant