Table of Contents

Introduction 2

Carbon Steel Making 3

Carbon Steel Finish 6

Methods for determining chemical composition of alloys 10

Aluminium Making 12

Aluminium Alloy 15

References 16

1
Introduction
Steel is such a common commodity that it is used from the smallest of things; a sewing pin to the biggest of
land removing machines. Steel has been in use from around 17th Century and it was the commodity that
gave the rise to Industrial revolution. When Iron and Carbon are mixed together the product we get is called
Carbon Steel also a very common category of Steel. The carbon content is in the 0-2% range and gives the
metal carbon-like properties due to the influence of carbon on the microstructure. Other elements such as
Manganese, Silicon and Copper are added to the steel to ensure the desired requirements are met by the
product. These alloying elements provide the necessary qualities desired of the alloyed carbon steel. Steel
containing low carbon steel is also known as Mild steel. The carbon content of such steels is around 0.04 –
0.03% range.

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Carbon Steel Making
The process of manufacturing laid below has been sourced from Reliance Foundry.
Carbon steel and mild steel are manufactured in three stages:
1. Primary steelmaking
2. Secondary steelmaking
3. Casting
These are followed by various finishing techniques that have a direct effect on the final product
characteristics.

Steel is produced in a blast furnace, and then the

molten steel is tapped from the furnace into ladles
or steel baths for further processing.

1. Primary steelmaking
Using 100% reused material, steel may either be made or from a combination of reused material and new
steel. In a shoot heater, virgin steel is delivered from iron mineral, coke (created from coal), and lime. The
crude materials are applied to the heater head that operates at 3000 ° F. Carbon is delivered into the liquid
entity as the iron mineral melts and blends in with the absorbing coke. Contaminations are consumed at a
superficial level by lime into a slag that can be skimmed from the fluid steel. At this point, the item contains
around 4% carbon and still has a few contaminants. Liquid virgin steel is transferred to the essential oxygen
heater (BOF), which uses reused rescue material as of now. To oxidize the excess of carbon,
unadulterated oxygen is blown through the fluid steel, framing a finished object with up to 1.5 percent
carbon content.
Without the expansion of virgin steel in an electric curve boiler, reused scrap steel can be reprocessed. At
temperatures of up to 3000 ° F, high-power electric bends liquefy the metal. As the steel piece dissolves, it
is possible to add additional bunches of scrap to the heater up to its size. Oxygen is blown through in a
similar fashion to the BOF when a degree shower of liquid steel is reached. In both cases, for additional
preparation, liquid steel is tapped from the heater into spoons or steel showers, while the surface slag
containing polluting influences is removed.
2. Secondary steelmaking
Market demands for higher-quality steel products and consistent properties have fuelled the development
of secondary steelmaking processes.

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  Electric arc furnace
In an electric arc furnace, the composition of steel is altered by adding or removing individual components
or adjusting the temperature.
 Stirring
To induce turbulent currents within the ladle, electromagnetic fields are used. Non-metallic inclusions that
float to the surface are easily extracted by this process, thus maintaining a homogeneous mixture and steel
composition.
 Ladle furnace
The ladle functions as a secondary electrode furnace that allows accurate temperature control and
measured alloy part injection.
 Ladle injection
Inert gas is pumped into the steel bath 's rim. A stirring effect is achieved as the gas heats up and rises
through the molten steel.
 Degassing
It eliminates hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, thus reducing the product's sulphur content. Various methods,
including vacuums, inert gas injection, and temperature control, are used for degasing molten steel.
 Composition adjustment (sealed argon bubbling with oxygen blowing – CAS-OB)
By injecting argon gas into the sealed steel bath, stirring is accomplished. A snorkel arrangement stops the
slag from being disrupted thus reducing the quality of hydrogen and floating to the surface with oxide
inclusions. Oxygen is fed through a lance into the bath and aluminum is applied through the snorkel to the
bath, offering an improved temperature regulation degree and specific final composition.
Deoxidizing steel
The absorption of oxygen is a vital part of secondary steelmaking. The presence of oxygen in molten steel
as it starts to solidify results in the release of carbon monoxide gas in a reaction with carbon. To change the
characteristics of the finished product and thus the suitability of the steel to be used for various
applications, deoxidation control may be used.
 Rimming steels
Rimming steels are steels that are non-deoxidized or partly deoxidized. During solidification, high levels of
carbon monoxide are formed, resulting in good surface quality but with many blow holes present.
 Capped steels
Capped steels initially adopt the same pattern as rimming, but after about a minute, the mold is capped to
suppress carbon monoxide formation.
 Semi-killed steels
Until pouring into the mold, semi-killed steels is partially deoxidized and typically have a carbon content of
between 0.15 and 0.3 percent.
 Killed steels
The killed steels have been fully deoxidized so that during solidification there is no formation of carbon
monoxide at all. There is a homogeneous structure and no blowholes in the finished product. Aluminum is
incorporated as a primary deoxidizer into the ladle or mold to "destroy" the development of carbon
monoxide; however, there are applications where it is undesirable to add aluminum to the finished product.
Ferroalloys made of manganese and silicon or calcium silicide are alternatives to aluminum.
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3. Casting
Customary casting techniques include the lifting of the spoon by crane with the goal that liquid steel can be
abounded into singular moulds mounted on rail vehicles. Ingot moulds are tightened marginally to
encourage expulsion of the ingots after hardening. Ingots are moved to drenching pits where they are
warmed for hot rolling.
Casting machines empower ceaseless projecting of liquid steel into shapes more reasonable for
downstream preparing. Scoops are lifted to a raised stage where they release the liquid steel into a tundish,
which takes care of the casting machine. Liquid steel is taken care of from the tundish into a water-cooled
shape with a mobile base plate. As the steel skin cements, the plate is gradually brought permitting more
liquid steel down to enter the form. Steel is framed into chunks, sprouts, or billets in a nonstop casting
machine. The set item is pulled by rollers before being fixed and cut toward the finish of the machine. This
cycle can proceed for quite a long time or weeks without interference.

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Carbon Steel Finish
After the manufacturing process of carbon steel is complete, it is finished using rolling, heat treatment,
surface treatment, or downstream secondary processing.
Product rolling
It is important to roll solid cast ingots into more usable shapes and sizes, such as those created by
continuous casting. Steel is forced into spinning rolls and dragged. As it hits the unit, the rolls spin at a
quicker speed than the steel, thus moving the steel forward and compressing it.

Steel is formed into slabs,

blooms, or billets in a continuous
casting machine.

Hot forming
Steel is heated above the recrystallization temperature to break up the as-cast microstructure. This yields a
more uniform grain size and even distribution of carbon within the steel.

Carbon steel is hot rolled

into steel strips.

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Cold forming
Cold shaping is carried out below the temperature of recrystallization. This method improves the strength
by up to 20 percent by strain hardening, thus enhancing the finish and enabling tighter tolerances.
Depending on the final measurements, steel emerges from the rolling process as semi-finished items in the
form of blooms, billets, or slabs. A flower is a very thick rectangular slab, a billet has a similar thickness but
a smaller width, and a thinner and broader product is a slab.

Cold forming increases the strength of carbon

steel while improving the finish and allowing
tighter tolerances.

Semi-finished products are further processed to intermediate products in a rolling mill to make them ready
for manufacturing and final processing by downstream companies.
COLD FORMING PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS

Products Applications
Blooms Structural Application

Railings Guard rails, Hand rails, Custom railings

Rolled bars Machine building, Construction

Plates (thickness above Heavy manufacturing, Boilers, Bridges, Tanks,

¼ inch) Ships
Sheets (thickness below Car bodies, Office equipment, Beverage cans
¼ inch)
Round/ Square rods Construction framework, Braces, Axles, Shafts

Once steel leaves the rolling mill, downstream companies use different secondary processing techniques to
prevent corrosion and improve the properties of the metal. The predominant technique to do this is heat
treatment.
Heat treating
The purpose of heat treating steel is to manipulate its mechanical properties by changing the distribution of
carbon in the product and the internal microstructure. When manipulating the mechanical properties of
steel, an increase in ductility results in a reduction of hardness and strength and vice versa.
Normalizing
Steel is heated to a temperature approximately 130°F above the upper critical temperature. The
temperature is held until the entire product is uniformly heated, after which it is air-cooled. This is the most
common form of heat treatment and gives steel high strength and hardness.

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Annealing
The temperature of steel is raised into the solid solution state for one hour before cooling at a rate of 70°F
per hour. A soft and ductile steel results with no internal stresses.
Quenching
A similar process to normalizing, but cooling is accelerated by quenching the steel in water, brine, or oil.
The resulting product is very hard—up to four times harder than normalized steel—but very brittle, making it
susceptible to breaking and cracking. For this reason, quenching to a predetermined temperature is
normally followed by a controlled cooling rate down to room temperature in a process called tempering or
stress relieving. By designing the temperature and cooling rate parameters during heat treatment, the
properties of steel can be precisely controlled.
Surface treating
Approximately one third of steel produced is treated with a surface coating to inhibit corrosion, improve
weldability, and paintability.
Hot dip galvanizing
Galvanizing is a process of applying a zinc surface coat to steel. The steel is heated before entering a zinc
bath, where liquid zinc layers the surface of the product. The thickness of the coating is controlled with gas-
knives. To prevent the zinc coating from cracking, a small amount of aluminum is added to the zinc
solution.
Electrolytic galvanizing
Another process for applying a zinc coat to steel products is through electrolytic galvanizing. Zinc is
deposited onto the surface of the steel by controlling the current in an electrolyte solution. This technique
allows for better control of the coating thickness. It can also be used to apply differential coatings with
different thicknesses on either side of a product, or zinc alloy coatings to optimize the desired
characteristics.
Downstream secondary processing
Downstream companies further process their steel raw materials into finished products. Different
processing techniques are used such as machining, which involves uniformly removing surface metal with
machine tools. Joining steel is also common and uses various welding techniques.
CARBON STEEL CATEGORIES
Carbon steel can be categorized depending on the chemical composition and characteristics of the product.
Mild steel also falls under the low carbon steel category as it is comprised of similar carbon content. Plain
carbon steel is free from alloys and can be placed in four categories:
1. Low carbon steel or mild steel
Low carbon steel is the most typical form of carbon
steel with a carbon content of 0.04–0.3 percent. Mild
steel, as it is described as having a low carbon content
of 0.05-0.25 percent, is often called low carbon steel.
Mild steel is ductile, extremely formable and can be
used for parts, plates, and wire components of the
vehicle body. Mechanical properties are sufficient for
stampings, forgings, smooth tubing, and boiler plates at
the higher end of the low carbon content spectrum, and

8
with the inclusion of manganese of up to 1.5 percent. Mild steel is extremely formable and suitable for body
parts, plates and wire goods for vehicles.
2. Medium carbon steel
The carbon amount of medium carbon steel is 0.31-0.6 percent and the manganese amount is 0.6-1.65
percent. To further change the microstructure and mechanical properties, this steel can be thermally
treated and quenched. Shafts, axles, gears, tracks, and railway wheels are common applications. Heat-
treated and quenched medium carbon steel can be used for applications such as shafts, axles, gears, rails
and railway wheels.

3. High carbon steel

With a 0.3–0.9 percent manganese content , high
carbon steel has a carbon scale of 0.6–1 percent. High-
carbon steel qualities make them ideal for use as
springs and wires of high strength. It is not possible to
weld these materials unless a comprehensive heat
treatment package is used with the welding process.
Edged machines, high-strength cables, and springs are
used with high carbon steel. The high carbon steel
qualities make them suitable for springs and high-
strength cables.
4. Ultra-high carbon steels
The carbon level in ultra-high carbon steel is 1.25-2
percent and is regarded as an unconventional alloy.
Tempering may create a steel with a high degree of
hardness that is advantageous for applications such as
blades, axles, or punches. Ultra-high carbon steels have
high levels of hardness and can be used in applications
such as blades, axles, or punches.

Methods for Determining the Chemical

Composition of Alloys
Determining the exact chemical composition of alloys is extremely important due to a number of reasons,
for example it may be necessary to verify that a critical component is made from the correct alloy when a
mill test certificate is unavailable or the validity of said certificate is in question. The following information
regarding deduction of the alloying elements in steel is provided by matmatch.com.
There are hundreds of mixtures of different alloys, each with its own set of distinctive properties.
Sometimes, such alloys may have very different property sets with the same base metal composition. One
example of this is the resistance of stainless-steel alloys to acid corrosion; some steel alloys are highly
resistant to some acids, while others are not. Selecting the wrong rating will result in sudden and
unforeseen failures.
Positive identification of material (PMI) is referred to as the method of identifying an alloy accurately. This is
a blank term for distinct technologies and techniques used to determine the structure of an alloy. PMI can
measure both the chemical composition (quantitative) and the alloy grade (qualitative). There are several
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different techniques used for determining alloy composition, but the two main techniques used in the PMI
industry, XRF and OES, are discussed below.
Chemical composition of alloys using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF)
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, or XRF, is a method of PMI that uses low-energy X-rays to scan the
chemical composition of alloys. A handheld instrument is used and can determine the composition of the
alloy within seconds.
The X-rays excite the atoms in the sample, which then fluoresce, producing secondary X-rays that are
reflected to the detector. The energy (or wavelength) of these reflected X-rays can be used to precisely
determine which elements are contained in the sample. The composition of the alloy can thus be
determined by the device.
It should be remembered that X-rays rarely achieve a distance of about 100 microns in light alloys because
of the high dispersion of X-rays with metal atoms. As the alloys get denser, this depth diminishes.
Therefore, it is important that the material 's surface is reflective of the bulk substance. The effect of the
scan will drastically alter some form of surface coating, such as galvanized coatings, paint or surface
corrosion.

Advantages Disadvantages

Can only measure a few hundred microns into

The unit is light and easy to use the surface of the sample for light alloys and a
few tens of microns for heavier alloys

Very little surface preparation is required on the Not all elements can be detected with this
sample technique

Can sample small pieces of material such as wire

Chemical composition of alloys using optical emission spectroscopy (OES)

Optical emission spectroscopy, or OES, is a PMI process that in the presence of argon gas produces a
flame on the sample. Inside the sample, the flame excites the atoms. At particular wavelengths, these
excited atoms emit light, which is then used to specifically determine the structure of the alloy.
Measurements may be obtained at the cost of consistency in the results without the use of argon gas.
One of the major advantages of OES is its ability to measure the light elements that are not detectable by
XRF. As such, OES is a very versatile method to determine the chemical composition of alloys.

Advantages Disadvantages

The system is bulky and requires argon gas for

Can detect light alloying elements
accurate results

A burn mark is left on the material

 
Significant surface preparation is required

Materials identifiable by PMI

XRF can identify up to 90 % of the elements on the periodic table, i.e. elements heavier than magnesium.
Some of the typical alloys that can be identified by PMI are indicated below.

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  Copper alloys
 Aluminium alloys
 Titanium alloys
 Bronze & brass alloys
 Chrome – molybdenum alloys
 Stainless-steel alloys
 Nickel & cobalt alloys
XRF is not able to identify the exact composition of the alloys containing elements lighter than magnesium
(including lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen), such as the following:
 Aluminium alloys containing lithium
 Copper alloys containing beryllium
 Low-carbon steel
It should be remembered that the alloy can still also be recognised by recognizing the other alloying
elements, despite XRF being unable to detect these components.
All the above, including alloys comprising light elements such as carbon, lithium, boron and beryllium, can
be described by OES.
In aerospace applications, nickel chromium steel is used because the components impart high power,
ductility and shock-resistance and power. The XRF approach can be used to describe certain metals and
will also have a percentage of the same composition.

Aluminium Making
Aluminium is a very important element in our life nowadays. There is aluminium in everything we use and
need today. Metallic aluminium is lightweight, strong, nonmagnetic and nontoxic. It conducts heat and
electricity and reflects heat and light. Aluminium can easily and economically be recycled into new
products.
The production method of Aluminium is sourced from aluminiumleader.com and is as follows:
Raw Materials
In both forms of clay, aluminum compounds exist, but bauxite is the mine that is most suitable for
processing pure aluminum. Along with numerous impurities, such as sand, copper, and other metals,
bauxite consists of 45-60 percent aluminum oxide. While hard rock is some of the bauxite deposits, most
consist of comparatively soft soil that is quickly excavated from open-pit mines. Australia provides more

11
than one-third of the bauxite production worldwide. 1 lb (0.5 kg) of aluminum metal requires about 4 lb (2kg)
of bauxite to be made.
To dissolve the aluminum compounds present in bauxite, caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) is used,
removing them from the impurities. Relatively small quantities of other chemicals may be used for
extraction, depending on the composition of the bauxite ore.

The Bayer process of grinding the bauxite ore to extract aluminum oxide and the Hall-Heroult process of
smelting the aluminum oxide to release pure aluminum are produced in two phases: aluminum.
In the smelting process, cryolite, a chemical compound consisting of sodium, aluminum and fluorine, is
used as the electrolyte (current-conducting medium). Cryolite, which occurs naturally, was once extracted
in Greenland, but the compound is now synthetically manufactured for use in aluminum processing. To
lower the melting point of the electrolyte solution, aluminum fluoride is applied.
Carbon is the other main component used in the smelting process. Via the electrolyte, carbon electrodes
carry the electric current. Any of the carbon is processed during the smelting process, when it mixes with
oxygen to create carbon dioxide. In fact, for every pound (2.2 kg) of aluminum produced, approximately half
a pound (0.2 kg) of carbon is used. Some of the carbon used in aluminum smelting is a byproduct of oil
refining; additional carbon is obtained from coal.
Because aluminum smelting requires passing an electrical current through a molten electrolyte, large
quantities of electrical energy are necessary. On average, 15 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of energy is needed to
generate 2 lb (1 kg) of aluminum. Electricity prices constitute approximately one-third of the cost of
aluminum smelting.
The Manufacturing Process
Aluminum manufacture is accomplished in two phases: the Bayer process of refining the bauxite ore to
obtain aluminum oxide, and the Hall-Heroult process of smelting the aluminum oxide to release pure
aluminum.

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The Bayer process
 The bauxite ore is manually crushed first. The crushed ore is then combined with caustic soda and
refined in a grinding mill to create a slurry containing very fine particles of ore (a watery
suspension).
 A digester, a tank that acts like a pressure cooker, is poured into the slurry. Under a pressure of 50
lb / in2 (340 kPa), the slurry is heated to 230-520 ° F (110-270 ° C). For a duration varying from half
an hour to several hours, these requirements are preserved. To ensure that all substances
containing aluminum are dissolved, additional caustic soda can be added.
 The hot slurry, which is now a solution of sodium aluminate, passes through a series of flash tanks
which reduce pressure and recover heat that can be reused in the process of refining.
 Through a settling bath, the slurry is pumped. Impurities that would not dissolve in the caustic soda
settle down to the bottom of the pipe while the slurry remains in this tank. This method is likened by
one maker to fine sand settling at the bottom of a bottle of sugar water; sugar does not settle unless
it is dissolved in the water, just as the metal stays dissolved in the caustic soda in the settling tank.
The debris (called "rust mud") that accumulates consists of fine sediment, iron oxide, and trace
element oxides such as titanium at the bottom of the tank.
 The residual liquid, which is much like coffee, is filtered into a series of fabric filters until the
impurities have settled out. The filters are stuck by some fine particles and impurities that exist in
the solution. To extract alumina and caustic soda that can be reused, this content is cleaned.
 A series of six-story-tall precipitation tanks pipe the concentrated liquid via. At the top of each
reservoir, seed crystals of alumina hydrate (alumina bound to water molecules) are added. As they
settle through the fluid and dissolved alumina binds to them, the seed crystals expand.
 The crystals precipitate and are withdrawn (settling at the bottom of the tank). They are moved to a
kiln for calcination after washing (heating to remove the water molecules chemically bound to the
alumina molecules). In a revolving, cylindrical kiln that is inclined to allow gravity to pass the
material via it, a screw conveyor carries a steady stream of crystals. A temperature of 2,000 ° F
(1,100 ° C) pushes the water molecules free, making the alumina crystals anhydrous (waterless).
The crystals move into a cooler after reaching the kiln.
 Alumina crystals are dissolved inside the reduction pot at a temperature of 1,760-1,780 ° F (960-970
° C) in molten cryolite to shape an electrolyte solution that conducts electricity from the carbon rods
to the pot's copper-lined bed. The solution is transferred into a direct current (4-6 volts and 100,000-
230,000 ampères). The subsequent reaction breaks the bonds in the alumina molecules between
the atoms of aluminum and oxygen. The released oxygen is drawn to the carbon rods, where
carbon dioxide is produced. Like molten metal, the liberated aluminum atoms settle at the bottom of
the jar.
 A crucible is pushed down the potline and 9,000 lb (4,000 kg) of molten aluminum is extracted,
which is 99.8% solid. The metal is transported to a holding furnace and then cast as ingots (poured
into molds). One popular technique is to pour a long, horizontal mold into the molten aluminum. The
surface is cooled with water as the metal passes into the mortar, allowing the aluminum to solidify.
The strong shaft emerges from the far end of the pot, where it is sewn to form ingots of the desired
length at acceptable intervals. This casting method is also ongoing, like the smelting process itself.
The Hall-Heroult process
In a steel vat called a reduction bath, smelting of alumina into metallic aluminum takes place. The bottom of
the pot is lined with carbon, serving as one of the system's electrodes (electric current conductors). A series
of carbon rods suspended above the pot consist of the opposite electrodes; they are lowered into an
electrolyte solution and placed around 1.5 in (3.8 cm) above the surface of the molten aluminum which
accumulates on the pot bottom. In order to form an electric circuit, reduction pots are arranged in rows
13
(potlines) consisting of 50-200 pots connected in string. Every potline will generate 66,000-110,000 tons of
aluminum per year (60,000-100,000 metric tons). Two or three potlines make up a standard smelting plant

The method of smelting is a constant one, with the cryolite solution adding more alumina to
substitute the decomposed compound. It retains a steady electric current. Heat produced at the
bottom electrode by the flow of electricity holds the contents of the pot in a liquid state, but atop
the molten electrolyte, a crust begins to form. Periodically, the crust is broken to allow the inclusion
of more alumina for refining. At the bottom of the jar, the pure molten aluminium accumulates and
is siphoned out. They run the pots 24 hours a day , 7 days a week.

Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium alloy can be identified as:

Code Major Alloying Element

1xxx Aluminium
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon
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 7xxx Zinc
8xxx Other Elements

The 6xxx group which combines Magnesium and Silicon as alloying elements makes the alloy heat-
treatable and with good forming and corrosion resistance properties. The materials are marked on the
exterior by stamping. XRF method is used to identify the elements and their % composition. The 6xxx
group metals are widely used on Aircraft’s because of the good forming and corrosion resistance
properties. They would not take heavy loads but would be placed in areas hitting the environment.

References

1) https://www.reliance-foundry.com/blog/carbon-steel-mild-steel#gref
2) http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Aluminum.html
3) https://www.basystems.co.uk/blog/2017/08/aluminium-manufacturing-basics/
4) https://matmatch.com/learn/process/composition
5) Mechanics of Flight, A. Kermode

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