Name : Sherina Salsabilla Samudra

NIM : 1914026080
Class : 3C
English Literature
Thinking Skills Articles
(Meeting 1 & 2)
THINKING SKILLS

Definitions on thinking skills Thinking is a mental process in which sorting and

organizing of information takes place. It is a not a method that can be learned but is a process of
the mind. It is an ability to consider various descriptions of problem and situations. Thinking
includes different perspectives of others to frame ideas. Thinking aspect of the mind considers
individual assumptions and past experiences to expand perspectives by continual questioning
(Sharon L.Edwards). Thinking is “the search for meaning … thinking is a mental process in
which something is turned over in the mind in order to make sense out of experience” , “(Beyer
Practical strategies for the teaching of thinking 16). Presseisenn defined thinking skills as “the
mental manipulation of sensory input to formulate thoughts, reason about or judge (98).
Ruggerio observed thinking skills as “ a purposeful activity over which a person exercises some
control”(1). Lacounte calls thinking as “abstract mental 27 manipulation;…is not reading,
writing, speaking, acting, listening, sensing etc. which are concrete or physical acts . Thinking
process enable the acts” (250). Perkins (Thinking Frames) said that intelligence could be
improved if thinking skills are developed. Halpern defined thinking skills as the best ability to
form new combinations of ideas to fulfill the needs. David Moseley et al. says “Thinking is a
human activity that involves cognition (knowing), affect (feeling) and conation(wanting and
willing)”(372). Few theories insisted that language of thinking is important for the learners to
enhance association of thinking with relevant cognitive process (Beyer Planning a thinking skills
curriculumKey questions for principals to consider) ; Costa, Marzono (Teaching the Language of
Thinking); Fisher (Teaching Thinking); Kirkwood ; McGuiness (ACTS II sustainable thinking
classrooms) ;Tishman & Perkins (The Language of Thinking );Tishman, Perkins and Joy (The
Thinking Classroom: Learning and Teaching in a Culture of Thinking); Wertime). De Bono said
that thinking should never be a matter of providing that “you are right in a desperate way. It
should not be imposing your ideas on others”. De Bono (Thinking Course) defined thinking in
two ways, a) Thinking as a matter of intelligence determined by the inborn talent. b) Thinking as
a skill could be improved by training and learning. Bono differentiated thinking skill with
intelligence by comparing them to operating skill and the horse power. “Thinking is the
operating skill through which intelligence acts upon experience” (11). Establishing new ideas
enables an individual to comprehend life experience in different ways.
 Types of thinking skills Some of the literature classifies thinking into two as critical
thinking and creative thinking. Rugiero explained that critical thinking skills could be explored
by teaching 28 learners how to construct arguments to apply logically and to avoid fallacies in
their reasoning. Ennis defined critical thinking as “reasonable reflective thinking that focused on
deciding what to believe or do”(sec. Marzano 146). De Bono (Lateral Thinking: Creativity Step
by Step; Critical Thinking is not enough) said that creative thinking is productive and lateral. It is
opposite to critical thinking. Creative thinking is reactive and vertical. Halpern defines creative
thinking as “the ability to form new combinations of ideas to fulfill a need” (sec. Marzano 146)
Ruggiero said that the creative thinking is meant for production of ideas whereas critical thinking
meant for evaluation of ideas. Harris says that creativity is the ability to generate new ideas by
combining, changing and reapplying existing ideas in the suitable context. Chuska discovered
twenty seven thinking skills. They are “comparing, classifying, estimating, summarizing,
hypothesizing, synthesizing, sequencing, predicting, evaluating, translating, reorganizing,
prioritizing, setting criteria, goal setting, problem solving, decision making, justifying, making
assumptions using analogies, imagining, logical deducing, identifying pros/cons, identifying
propaganda, identifying consequences, observing, creating/designing and interpreting (11).
Creative inventive thinking skills “enable students to produce original ideas, processes and
products” (George C Grice, M. Anway Jones 281). Paul mentioned about scientific thinking. He
said that the scientific thinking process undermines independent thoughts. Altshuller and Sharpio
says that inventive thinking proficiency is the ability to solve creative problems in various
domains by avoiding trails and errors. De Bono (The Mechanism of Mind) says that natural way
of thinking depends on the behavior of the memory surface of the mind. “The flow sequence
follows the contours of the surface…but it is also liable to very considerable error” (223).
Natural 29 Thinking (NT) has the tendency of dichotomy. It leads information in parallel firm
patterns. It tends to avoid alternatives and doubts. It always uses preferred concretes and extreme
absolutes. NT cuts the excess of information by blocking the natural paths to provide clear cut
information. In the case of mathematical thinking, rules determine the information. Information
fails to control rules whereas rules control the provided information (De Bono The Mechanism
of Mind 220-223). In mathematical thinking attitude also the input is rejected so intake would be
less. Vertical thinking attitude expects every step to be correct in the process of information.
Shlomo Waks says “…every single step has to be correct and justified before moving to
subsequent stages-it is hierarchical”(p.146). Critical thinking (Alfaro Lafevre) is a purposeful
outcome of directed thinking. It is based on the principles of scientific method. Critical thinking
is associated with knowledge, complex reasoning, argumentation, beliefs, action, problem
identification, evidence and envisioning of alternative frames of references and possibilities
(Daly). Strategies and maximum human potentialities are needed to access critical thinking
skills. De Bono (Thinking Course) compared critical thinking skills with front wheels of the car.
He called it inadequate on its own and argued that it has no part in forming better hypothesis. He
said that it is “creativity that produces better hypothesis” (15). Divergent thinking is a process of
generating thoughts that involves thinking in multiple directions seeking changes and
investigations (Guilford). All the above mentioned skills are based on linear way of thinking
process. They bother about changing the patterns of the mind. The thinking attitude that has the
potential to change the pattern of the mind is needed. Effective second language communication
is possible when learners change the established patterns of the mind. An appropriate thinking
attitude is needed to change the mindset of the learners.
(https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/10116/10/10_chapter%202.pdf)
 (Meeting 3&4)
WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?
1. Defining the Problem
The key to a good problem definition is ensuring that you deal with the real problem –
not its symptoms. For example, if performance in your department is substandard, you might
think the problem is with the individuals submitting work. However, if you look a bit deeper, the
real issue might be a lack of training, or an unreasonable workload.
At this stage, it's also important to ensure that you look at the issue from a variety of
perspectives. If you commit yourself too early, you can end up with a problem statement that's
really a solution instead. For example, consider this problem statement: "We have to find a way
of disciplining of people who do substandard work." This doesn't allow you the opportunity of
discovering the real reasons for under-performance. The CATWOE  checklist provides a
powerful reminder to look at many elements that may contribute to the problem, and to expand
your thinking around it.
2. Understanding Complexity
When your problem is simple, the solution is usually obvious, and you don't need to follow
the four steps we outlined earlier. So it follows that when you're taking this more formal
approach, your problem is likely to be complex and difficult to understand, because there's a web
of interrelated issues.
The good news is that there are numerous tools you can use to make sense of this tangled mess!
Many of these help you create a clear visual representation of the situation, so that you can better
understand what's going on.
Affinity Diagrams  are great for organizing many different pieces of information into common
themes, and for discovering relationships between these.
Another popular tool is the Cause-and-Effect Diagram . To generate viable solutions, you must
have a solid understanding of what's causing the problem. Using our example of substandard
work, Cause-and-Effect diagrams would highlight that a lack of training could contribute to the
problem, and they could also highlight possible causes such as work overload and problems with
technology.
When your problem occurs within a business process, creating a Flow Chart , Swim Lane
Diagram  or a Systems Diagram  will help you see how various activities and inputs fit together.
This will often help you identify a missing element or bottleneck  that's causing your problem.
Quite often, what may seem to be a single problem turns out to be a whole series of problems.
Going back to our example, substandard work could be caused by insufficient skills, but
excessive workloads could also be contributing, as could excessively short lead times and poor
motivation. The Drill Down  technique will help you split your problem into smaller parts, each
of which can then be solved appropriately
 3. Problem-Solving Processes
The four-step approach to solving problems that we mentioned at the beginning of this article
will serve you well in many situations. However, for a more comprehensive process, you can use
Simplex, Appreciative Inquiry or Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). These provide detailed
steps that you can use to solve a problem effectively.
Simplex  involves an eight-stage process: problem finding, fact finding, defining the problem,
idea finding, selecting and evaluating, planning, selling the idea, and acting. These steps build
upon the basic process described earlier, and they create a cycle of problem finding and solving
that will continually improve your organization.
Appreciative Inquiry  takes a uniquely positive approach by helping you solve problems by
examining what's working well in the areas surrounding them.
Soft Systems Methodology  is designed to help you understand complex problems so that you
can start the process of solving them. It uses four stages to help you uncover more details about
what's creating the problem, and then define actions that will improve the situation.
(https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_00.htm)
 (Meeting 5)
DECISION MAKING
Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information, and assessing alternative resolutions.
Using a step-by-step decision-making process can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful
decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives. This approach increases
the chances that you will choose the most satisfying alternative possible.

Step 1: Identify the decision

You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the nature of the decision you
must make. This first step is very important.

Step 2: Gather relevant information

Collect some pertinent information before you make your decision: what information is needed,
the best sources of information, and how to get it. This step involves both internal and external
“work.” Some information is internal: you’ll seek it through a process of self-assessment. Other
information is external: you’ll find it online, in books, from other people, and from other sources.

Step 3: Identify the alternatives

As you collect information, you will probably identify several possible paths of action, or
alternatives. You can also use your imagination and additional information to construct new
alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible and desirable alternatives.

Step 4: Weigh the evidence

Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be like if you carried out each
of the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need identified in Step 1 would be met or
resolved through the use of each alternative. As you go through this difficult internal process,
you’ll begin to favor certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential for reaching
your goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a priority order, based upon your own value system.

Step 5: Choose among alternatives

Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select the alternative that seems to be
best one for you. You may even choose a combination of alternatives. Your choice in Step 5 may
very likely be the same or similar to the alternative you placed at the top of your list at the end of
Step 4.

Step 6: Take action

You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the alternative you
chose in Step 5.
Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences
In this final step, consider the results of your decision and evaluate whether or not it has resolved
the need you identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met the identified need, you may want to
repeat certain steps of the process to make a new decision. For example, you might want to
gather more detailed or somewhat different information or explore additional alternatives.
 (Meeting 6)
WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?
Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally about what to do or what to
believe. It includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking. Someone with
critical thinking skills is able to do the following :

 understand the logical connections between ideas

 identify, construct and evaluate arguments
 detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
 solve problems systematically
 identify the relevance and importance of ideas
 reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values

Critical thinking is not a matter of accumulating information. A person with a good memory and
who knows a lot of facts is not necessarily good at critical thinking. A critical thinker is able to
deduce consequences from what he knows, and he knows how to make use of information to
solve problems, and to seek relevant sources of information to inform himself.

Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or being critical of other
people. Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning,
critical thinking can also play an important role in cooperative reasoning and constructive tasks.
Critical thinking can help us acquire knowledge, improve our theories, and strengthen
arguments. We can use critical thinking to enhance work processes and improve social
institutions.

Some people believe that critical thinking hinders creativity because it requires following the
rules of logic and rationality, but creativity might require breaking rules. This is a misconception.
Critical thinking is quite compatible with thinking "out-of-the-box", challenging consensus and
pursuing less popular approaches. If anything, critical thinking is an essential part of creativity
because we need critical thinking to evaluate and improve our creative ideas.

§1. The importance of critical thinking

Critical thinking is a domain-general thinking skill. The ability to think clearly and rationally
is important whatever we choose to do. If you work in education, research, finance, management
or the legal profession, then critical thinking is obviously important. But critical thinking skills
are not restricted to a particular subject area. Being able to think well and solve problems
systematically is an asset for any career.

Critical thinking is very important in the new knowledge economy. The global knowledge
economy is driven by information and technology. One has to be able to deal with changes
quickly and effectively. The new economy places increasing demands on flexible intellectual
skills, and the ability to analyse information and integrate diverse sources of knowledge in
solving problems. Good critical thinking promotes such thinking skills, and is very important in
the fast-changing workplace.

Critical thinking enhances language and presentation skills. Thinking clearly and
systematically can improve the way we express our ideas. In learning how to analyse the logical
structure of texts, critical thinking also improves comprehension abilities.

Critical thinking promotes creativity. To come up with a creative solution to a problem

involves not just having new ideas. It must also be the case that the new ideas being generated
are useful and relevant to the task at hand. Critical thinking plays a crucial role in evaluating new
ideas, selecting the best ones and modifying them if necessary

Critical thinking is crucial for self-reflection. In order to live a meaningful life and to structure
our lives accordingly, we need to justify and reflect on our values and decisions. Critical thinking
provides the tools for this process of self-evaluation.

Good critical thinking is the foundation of science and democracy. Science requires the
critical use of reason in experimentation and theory confirmation. The proper functioning of a
liberal democracy requires citizens who can think critically about social issues to inform their
judgments about proper governance and to overcome biases and prejudice.

(https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/critical/ct.php#:~:text=Critical%20thinking%20is%20the
%20ability,the%20logical%20connections%20between%20ideas)
 (Meeting 7)
WHY CRITICAL THINKING?
The Problem
Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased,
distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of
what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy
thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be
systematically cultivated.

A Definition
Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject, content, or problem - in which the
thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures
inherent in thinking and
imposing intellectual standards upon them.

The Result

A well cultivated critical thinker:

 raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
 gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it
effectively comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant
criteria and standards;
 thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as
need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
 communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.
Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective
thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their
use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to
overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.  
(Taken from Richard Paul and Linda Elder, The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts
and Tools,  Foundation for Critical Thinking Press, 2008)
Critical Thinking Defined by Edward Glaser
In a seminal study on critical thinking and education in 1941, Edward Glaser defines critical
thinking as follows “The ability to think critically, as conceived in this volume, involves three
things: ( 1 ) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and
subjects that come within the range of one's experiences, (2) knowledge of the methods of logical
inquiry and reasoning, and (3) some skill in applying those methods. Critical thinking calls for a
persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the
evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. It also generally requires
ability to recognize problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems, to gather and
marshal pertinent information, to recognize unstated assumptions and values, to comprehend and
use language with accuracy, clarity, and discrimination, to interpret data, to appraise evidence
and evaluate arguments, to recognize the existence (or non-existence) of logical relationships
between propositions, to draw warranted conclusions and generalizations, to put to test the
conclusions and generalizations at which one arrives, to reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on
the basis of wider experience, and to render accurate judgments about specific things and
qualities in everyday life. 
( Edward M. Glaser, An Experiment in the Development of Critical Thinking, Teacher’s College,
Columbia University, 1941
(https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766)