Nervous System - Anatomy of the Brain

Scope: This is the first of seven lectures on the nervous system. In it we examine the anatomy of the brain—its
principal components (the outer coverings, the cerebrospinal fluid, and the vessels that supply blood to the
brain) and its main anatomical divisions (the brain stem, cerebellum, diencephalon, and cerebrum). Next we
examine the divisions of the cerebrum (two hemispheres, each with four lobes) and the functional areas of the
cerebral cortex.

I. Introduction
A. The brain is among the largest organs in the body, weighing about 3 pounds and
containing more than 100 billion cells. It constitutes just 2% of the body's weight but
consumes 20% of the body's blood supply.
B. Virtually all of the activities of the rest of the body are devoted to the care and protection
of the brain. Brain death is the modern definition of death.
C. Who are you when you receive a brain transplant?
D. The brain is covered and protected by a rigid, bony case—the skull.
E. The skull is composed of two layers of bone with air spaces between them. This makes
the skull lighter and more protective than solid bone.
II. Principal components of the brain
A. The meninges are the coverings of the brain.
I. The dura mater (”hard mother”) is the outer and toughest covering. It also
separates most of the two halves of the brain.
II. The arachnoid (”spiderlike”) is the middle layer. It circulates cerebrospinal fluid
and blood.
III. The pia mater (”delicate mother”) is the innermost covering. It adheres to the
brain.

B. The arachnoid villae secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain's sinus (open

spaces). CSF covers the brain and spinal cord.
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexuses, located in the walls of the ventricles.
2. It is reabsorbed through the arachnoid villae in the dural venous sinuses.
3. CSF has the following functions:
a. It provides mechanical protection for the brain and spinal cord, and it
provides buoyancy.
b. It provides chemical protection: It is the optimal environment for neuron
function,
c. It circulates nutrients to parts of the brain, and it is an exchange area for
wastes.
C. The brain requires a slightly different operating environment than the body. The
blood-brain barrier separates the two systems.

D. Clinical application: Skull fractures almost always tear the dura mater, resulting
in three typical clinical situations:
1. A subdural hematoma is a pool of blood under the dura that puts pressure on the
brain. Subdural hematoma is common in the elderly, because the brain shrinks
with age and a large hematoma can develop without symptoms.
2. An epidural hematoma is a pool of blood between the dura and skull.
3. A subarachnoid hematoma is functionally an intracerebral hemorrhage and is
usually untreatable once it occurs, because draining it would cause more brain
trauma.
 E. The ventricles of the brain are reservoirs of CSF
1. Two lateral ventricles are located in the cerebral hemispheres.
2. The third ventricle is in the midline between the halves of the thalamus.
3. The fourth ventricle is between the cerebellum and brain stem.
F. Blockage of CSF circulation can lead to hydrocephalus, which can be corrected with
mechanical shunts and valves.

G.Blood is supplied to the brain through the internal carotid artery and the basilar artery
(formed by the junction of the right and left vertebral arteries).

1. The internal carotid and basilar arteries join to form the circle of Willis, from which
branch the anterior cerebral artery, the middle cerebral artery, and the posterior
cerebral artery.
2. The circle of Willis provides anastomoses for the two sides of the brain and
backup for failure of one or more arteries.
3. Vertebral arteries join in the head to form the basilar artery.
4. An incomplete circle of Willis exposes parts of the brain to possible damage in
the case of occlusion of a vessel.
5. Interruption of blood flow to the brain for seconds causes loss of consciousness.
An interruption for 1-2 minutes can cause brain damage. An interruption of more
than 4 minutes can cause death.
6. Glucose stores in the brain are limited; thus a drop in blood glucose can cause
confusion, convulsions, loss of consciousness, and death.
7. The diving reflex shuts off circulation to unneeded parts of the body upon
immersion in very cold water. This can lead to survival for periods much longer
than 4 minutes without brain damage.
8. Certain unlearned reflexes may have come from ancient conditions and may
have been ”hardwired” into the brain during evolution.

III. Anatomical divisions of the brain

A. The brain is almost fully developed at birth, lacking mostly insulation.
B. The brain stem connects the spinal cord to the diencephalon.
1. The medulla oblongata starts at the foramen magnum (”the big hole”).
a. It controls cranial nerves VIII, IX, X, XI, XII.
b. It contains the cardiovascular center (heart rate) and the respiratory center
(sneezing, coughing, hiccoughing).
c. Motor and sensory nerves cross sides in the medulla oblongata.
d. Within it are all ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts.

2. The pons (”bridge”) controls the nuclei for cranial nerves V, VI, VII, and VIII.
a. The motor and sensory tracts converge.
b. Fibers connecting the right and left sides of the cerebellum.
c. The pneumotaxic and apneustic centers.
3. The cerebellum coordinates input from the sensory organs of proprioception and
movement and ensures that intention and actual movement are the same. It
makes possible coordinated complex motor function, such as dancing, playing
the piano, and engaging in sports.
 4. Recent research indicates that the cerebellum may perform many more functions
than previously thought.

C. The diencephalon is found between the midbrain and the cerebrum.

1. The thalamus is the major center for receiving input to the brain from the
periphery and the brain stem. It is the center for acquisition of knowledge,
awareness, emotion, and memory.
2. The pineal gland secretes melatonin, a sleep inducer, and sets the internal
biologic clock.