§�

Grassmannians

The Grassmannian
The Grassmannian
Grassmannian
Projective space, by definition, parametrizes
The one-dimensional subspaces in affine space.

The Grassmann
Projective space, varieties
by definition,
definition, The Grassmannian
or Grassmannians
parametrizes parametrize higher-dimensional
one-dimensional subspaces in subspaces.
in affine
affine space.
Projective space, by parametrizes one-dimensional subspaces space.
Projective
TheV
Let be aspace,
Grassmann by definition,
finite-dimensional
varieties parametrizes
vector space. As
Grassmannians
or Grassmannians one-dimensional
a set, we define
parametrize subspaces in affine
higher-dimensional space.
subspaces.
The Grassmann varieties or parametrize higher-dimensional subspaces.
The G(k,
be aaV
VGrassmann
Let V ) = �U ⊂ V ∶ UorisGrassmannians
varieties
finite-dimensional a k-dimensional
vector subspace
As parametrize
space. As V�
ofhigher-dimensional subspaces.
Let be finite-dimensional vector space. aa set,
set, we
we define
define
G(k, n) = �U ⊂ K ∶ U is a k-dimensional subspace of K �.
n n
Let VG(k,
G(k,
be aVV �U ⊂⊂ V
)) == �U V ∶∶ U
finite-dimensional U is
isvector space. As asubspace
aa k-dimensional
k-dimensional V ��
set, we define
subspace of V
of
By definition,
G(k, V
G(k, n))===�U
n) �U
�U ⊂⊂⊂ KKVnn∶∶∶ UU
n Uisis
isaaak-dimensional
k-dimensionalsubspace
k-dimensional subspaceof
subspace ofVK
of �.
K�nnn�.
n) == P�U ⊂. K n ∶ U is a k-dimensional subspace of K n �.
G(�, n) n−�
By G(k,
By definition,
definition,
Since
By G(�,
definition, n) == P
a k -dimensional
n−�
Pn−�
n−� ..
subspace of K n can be identified with a k − �-dimensional subspace of
n−� G(�, n)
P , we will also use the notation
SinceG(�, n) = Pn−� . subspace
aaa kk-dimensional
-dimensional subspace of K nnn can
of K can be
be identified with aaa kk −
identified with − ��-dimensional
− -dimensional subspace
subspace of
of
= + +
Since
Since -dimensional subspace of can be identified with -dimensional subspace of
n−� G(k, n) G(k �, n �)
P , we will also use the notationof K n can be identified with a k − �-dimensional subspace of
notation
P n−�
Pn−�,, we
Since a k will
we will also
also use
-dimensionaluse thethe notation
subspace
when
P wedealing
G(k, will
n) ==with
G(k
also
G(kuse +
+
subspaces
G(k, n) = G(k + �, n + �)
n−�,G(k, n) �,
the
�, n
n +
+ �)
notation
�)
of Pn .

The
when
when
when G(k,
first goal
dealing
dealing
dealing =with
n) is G(k
with
with + �, that
to show n + �)
subspaces
subspaces
subspaces
the
of
of Pnnn...
of Grassmannians
P
P can be realized as projective varieties.
when dealing
Grassmannians
The first
first iswith
goal is to subspaces
areshow
named
show thatafter
the Pn .
of Hermann Graßmann
Grassmannians be(����-����),
can be realized as the father varieties.
as projective
projective of linear algebra.
varieties.
The
The first goal
goal is to
to show that
that the
the Grassmannians
Grassmannians can
can be realized
realized as projective varieties.
The first goal is to
Grassmannians areshow
named thatafter
the Hermann
Grassmannians can be(����-����),
Graßmann realized as projective
the father varieties.
father of
of linear
linear algebra.
algebra.
Grassmannians
Grassmannians are
are named
named after Hermann
after Hermann Graßmann
Graßmann (����-����),
(����-����), the
the father of linear algebra.
Grassmannians are named after Hermann Graßmann (����-����), the father of linear algebra.
 The Grassmannian
The Grassmannian
To
To turn the Grassmannian into a variety, we need aa coordinate system for subspaces.
To turn
turn the the Grassmannian
Grassmannian into into aa variety,
variety, we we need
need a coordinate
coordinate system system for for subspaces.
subspaces.
[Z
[Z �� ,,, ... ... ... ,,, Z n ]] represents
[Z ]
For
For projective space, aa homogeneous coordinate-tuple Z an equivalence
For projective
projective space,
space, n+� a homogeneous
homogeneous coordinate-tuple
coordinate-tuple � Z n
n
represents
represents an
an equivalence
equivalence
class of points in A n+� , namely all points on the
class of points in An+�, namely all points on the same line through the origin.same line through the origin.
class
This
of points in A
This equivalence
equivalence can be
can
, namely
be seen as
seen asallcoming
points from
coming on the
from
same line
group
a group
a
through
action.
action.
the origin.
The multiplicative
The multiplicative group K
group K ∗∗∗ acts
acts
� {�}
{�} by scalar
This equivalence can be seen as coming from a group action. The multiplicative group K acts
on An+� �
A n+� n
P corresponds to
� {�} by
on A n+� scalar multiplication and and each point point ofof P n an orbit of
to an of this
on by scalarnnmultiplication
multiplication and each of Pn corresponds to an orbit
orbit of this
(A � {�})�K ∗
each point corresponds this
space (A (An+� � � {�})�K
P n+� ∗
{�})�K ∗..
action, in other words, is the quotient space n+� .
action,
action, in in other words, P
other words, Pn is the quotient
is the quotient space
We can try the same for the Grassmannian: A k -dimensional subspace of K n
n is spanned by kk
We
We can
can try try the
the same
same for for thethe Grassmannian:
Grassmannian: A A kk -dimensional
-dimensional subspace subspace of of K
K n is
is spanned
spanned by by k
vectors.
vectors. So
So we
we look
look at
at the
the space
space of
of all
all kk -tuples
-tuples of
of linearly
linearly independent
independent vectors,
vectors, which
which we
we think
think
of kk ×
vectors. So we look at the space of all k -tuples of linearly independent vectors, which we think
of
of as
as the
the rowsrows of ×n n-matrices.
× n-matrices.
-matrices.
of as the space (K) acts
GLkk (K)
of rows
actsofon onk this
The group GLk (K) acts on this space
The group
The group GL this space by by multiplication from from the left: left:
space by multiplication
multiplication from the the left:
� �,� �
� λλλ�,� � λ�,k � � � � aaa�,�
�,� a �,� � � a�,n � �
� � λλ�,k � �
aa�,� � aa�,n
� ⋮⋮ �
� �,�
� ⋮⋮ ��,k
� ⋮⋮
� ⋅⋅⋅ � �,� ⋮⋮ �
�,�
� �,n ⋮⋮ � �
�
�
�
� ⋮ �� ⋮ �
�
� �
�
� ⋮ ⋮ �
� ⋮ �
�
λ k,� � λ k,k
� λλ k,� λ k,k � � a k,� a a k,� � a k,na k,n � �
k,� � λ k,k a k,� a k,�
a
k,� k,� � a k,n
and
and
and two × n-matrices
two kk -tuples
two k -tuples
of vectors
of vectors havespan the same
span
the same
the same
subspace
row span if andif
subspace
andifonly
ifonly
and only theyif they
ifare in are
they the in
are same
in
the orbit
same orbit
the sameunderorbit
under
this this group
group action. action.
So we So we
can can identify
identify G(k, G(k,
n) with n)thewith the quotient
quotient space space
under this group action. So we can identify G(k, n) with the quotient space
(k)
Mat(k) (K)�GL (K).
(k) (K)�GL (K).
k×n (K)�GLkkk (K).
Mat
Matk×n k×n
Mat(k)(k) is the set of matrices of rank k .
Mat(k) is
where
where Mat
where is the
the set
set of of matrices
matrices of rank kk ..
of rank

The Grassmannian
Looking further
Looking further at at the
the group
group action
action
� λλ�,�
� � λλ�,k
�,� � � �
�,k � � aa�,�
�,� aa�,� � aa�,n
�,� � �
�,n �
� ⋮⋮ �
� � ⋮⋮ � � ⋮⋮
� ⋅⋅ � ⋮⋮ � � ⋮⋮ � � ,,
�
� λλk,� � λλk,k
k,� �
�
k,k� � a
� ak,�
k,� a � aak,n
k,� �
ak,� k,n�
�
we see
we see that
that ifif the first kk ×
the first × kk-minor
-minor ofof the
the matrix
matrix on
on the
the right
right is
is non-zero,
non-zero, the
the orbit
orbit contains
contains aa
unique element
unique element of of the
the form
form
� ��
� �� �� �� bb�,�
�,� � bb�,n−k
�,� �
bb�,� �,n−k�� �
���
� � �� bb�,� � �,n−k� ��
�,n−k
� �� � �,� � b�,n−k �
� ��
b
b�,� b
�⋮ �.
�,�
� ⋮⋮ ⋮⋮ ⋮⋮ � �
�,n−k
�⋮
� ���
���
� �� �� �� bbk,�
k,� b � k,n−k .��
k,� � b k,n−k
b k,� b . �
Conversely, we
Conversely, we obtain
obtain aa matrix
matrix of rank kk for
of rank for any ×(n −
any kk ×(n − k)
k)-matrix B on
-matrix B on the
the right.
right. In
In other
other words,
words,
the row
row spans
spans of
of matrices
matrices of
of this
this form
form are
are in
in bijection
bijection with
with an
an affine
affine space
space AA k(n−k)
the k(n−k) ..

But this
But this involved
involved aa choice
choice coming
coming from
from the
the assumption
assumption thatthat the
the first × kk-minor
first kk × -minor is
is non-zero.
non-zero. In
In
general, we have to permute columns first. So we see in this way that the Grassmannian
general, we have to permute columns first. So we see in this way that the Grassmannian G(n, k) G(n, k)
is covered
is covered byby ��nnk�� copies
copies of
of affine
affine spaces
spaces
space AA
k(n−k). (Note the analogy with projective space!)
Ak(n−k)
k(n−k)
. .(Note
(Notethe
theanalogy
analogywith withprojective
projectivespace!)
space!)
k

In particular,
In particular, whatever
whatever the
the Grassmannian
Grassmannian is
is as
as aa variety,
variety, it
it must
must be
be of
of dimension
dimension k(n − k)
k(n − k)..
 The
The Grassmann algebra
The Grassmann
Grassmann algebra
algebra
While the above description of the Grassmannian in terms of matrices works fine for understand-
While
While the
the above
above description of of the
the Grassmannian in terms of matrices works fine for understand-
ing it as a set, it isdescription
not very convenient Grassmannian
for the goal in of terms
finding ofan matrices
embeddingworksof fine thefor understand-
Grassmannian
ing it as a set,
ing itprojective it
as a set, it is is not
not very very convenient
convenient for the
for the goal of finding
goal of finding an embedding
an embedding of the Grassmannian
of the Grassmannian
into space. Instead, it is better to employ some multilinear algebra.
into
into projective
projective space. space. Instead, Instead, it it isis better
better to to employ
employ some some multilinear
multilinear algebra.
algebra.
The Grassmann algebra or exterior algebra is the algebra of antisymmetric tensors.
The Grassmann
The Grassmann algebra algebra or or exterior
exterior algebraalgebra is is the
the algebra
algebra of of antisymmetric
antisymmetric tensors. tensors.
Let V be a vector space of finite dimension n. The tensor algebra is the non-commutative
V n. The tensor algebra
) = �space
space ⊗k
V ⊗k
Let V be aa vector of
of , finite dimension is the
the non-commutative
Let beT(V vector finite
wheredimension is thenk. -th tensor
Thetensor algebra
of Vis, spanned non-commutative
) =
V ⊕k ⊕k
�
algebra power by all tensors
) = � ⊕k ⊕k
k��
algebra T(V
v� ⊗ � ⊗ v k with v� ,k��
algebra T(V k�� V
V ⊕k ,
, where
where V
V ⊕k is
is the
the k
. . . , v k ∈ V . The product in T(V ) is given by the tensor product,
k -th
-th tensor
tensor power
power of
of V
V ,
, spanned
spanned by
by all tensors
alli.e.
tensors
vv� ⊗ � ⊗ ∈ )
it the
⊗ � ⊗ ∈ )
v v , k��
. . . , v V T(V
V × ⊗k ⊗ℓ → ⊗k+ℓ the bilinear extension of (v� ⊗ � ⊗ v k , w� ⊗ � ⊗ w ℓ )the �
v k with
with v � , . . . , v k V .
. The
The product
product in
in T(V is
is given
given by
by the
the tensor
tensor product,
product, i.e.
i.e. it
it is
is the
� V ⊕kkk , defined
× ⊕ℓ →
⊕ℓ
⊕k+ℓ,, (σ � σσ ⊗
map
�� kk V � as⊕k+ℓ
⊗ � ⊗
bilinear extension
vbilinear
� ⊗
extension
v k w � ⊗
of
of �
V
V ⊗
⊕k
⊕k w ×
ℓ .
V
V ⊕ℓ → V
V ⊕k+ℓ (σ ,, τ)
τ) � ⊗ ττ ..

�V T(V )) modulo
algebra �
exterior algebra
T(V ) modulo
The is the residue class ring of the ideal generated by all
The exterior
The exterior algebra
vv ⊗ � V
V is is the
the residue
vv ∈∈ V
residue class class ring
ring ofof T(V modulo the the ideal
vv� ⊗
ideal generated
generated by by all
all
tensors of the
the form
form ⊗ vv for
tensors of the form v ⊗ v for v ∈ V . The residue class of a basis tensor v��� ⊗ . . . v⊗kkkvisk denoted
tensors of for V .. The
The residue
residue class
class of
of aa basis
basis tensor
tensor ⊗ .. .. .. vv k is
is denoted
denoted
is denoted
vv� ∧ �∧
v�� ∧
∧� �∧
v .
∧ vv kkkk..
�V
of �
We call the elements of multivectors. The exterior algebra inherits the grading from the
We
We call
call the
the elements
elements of � V
V multivectors.
multivectors. The
a decomposition � V
The exterior
=
algebra
algebra inherits the
the gradinggrading from from the
� � �
exterior inherits the
=
k k
decomposition � � � �
kk V kk V
=
tensor algebra, i.e. it has ,, where is spanned by all multi-
v for vv� ,, .. .. .. ,, vv� �particular,
� � � = V and � V = K .
tensor
tensor algebra,
algebra, i.e. i.e. itit hashas aa decomposition V V where V is spanned by all multi-
form vv� ∧ �∧ ∈ V .. In � �
V V , where V is spanned by all multi-
form v��� ∧ ∧� �∧ for v���, . . . , v kkk ∈∈ V
∧ vv kkk for V=
��� V =V ��� V V= =K
vectors of the
vectors
vectors of of thethe form V . In particular, �
In particular, V V andand � K ..

The Grassmann
The Grassmann algebra
algebra
The
The Grassmann
Grassmann algebra
algebra
The algebra �
The algebra �V
� V has has the
the following
following properties
properties for
for all all ω,
ω, η,η, �� ∈∈ � �V ,, α
Vall ∈∈ K
αω, K..� ∈ � V , α ∈ K :
The
The ω∧ ∧ (η
algebra
algebra
(�) ω (η ∧ ∧��) �) =
V
V = (ω
is
has (ω ∧
the η) ∧
characterized
∧ η) ∧ ���
following byproperties
the following for properties
all ω, η, � ∈ �
for V , α ∈ η,
K .
∧ (η ∧ = (ω ∧ ∧
(�) (Associativity)
(Associativity)
(�)
(�)
(�) ω
ω
ωω∧ ∧
∧ (η(η
(η + ∧
+
+ �)
�)
�) == ω
�) = (ω
ωω∧ ∧ ∧ η +
η)
∧ ηη +
η)+ω ω∧
ω∧ ∧
∧ ��,, (ω
� � , (ω
(ω + +
+ η)
η)
η) ∧∧
∧ �� == ω
� = ω
ω∧ ∧ ∧ �� +
� +
+ ηη ∧
η ∧
∧ �� �
(Associativity)
(Associativity)
(Bilinearity)
(Bilinearity)
(�)
(�) ω
α(ω ∧ (η
∧
∧ η)+ �) =
== (αω)
(αω)ω ∧ ∧
∧ η +
ηη == ωω ∧ ∧∧� (αη)(ω
(αη)
, + η) ∧ � = ω ∧ � + η ∧ � (Bilinearity)
(Bilinearity)
(�) α(ω ∧
(�) α(ω η) =
η) (αω) ∧ η = ω ∧ (αη)
ω
�∧
(�) �α(ω
(�) ∧∧ω ωω∧===η)ω ω =∧
∧(αω)
�� == �� ∧ η = ω ∧ (αη)
(�) � ∧ ω = for
(�) ω ω ∧all
� �= vv ∈�∈ V = �have
� V , we have (Antisymmetry)
(�) � ∧ ω = ω ∧ � = �
Futhermore,
Futhermore, for all V we
∧
Futhermore,∧ vv == ��for
(�) vv(ω+η)∧(ω+η) . all v ∈ V we have
= , it follows that ω∧η = −η∧ω (which is equivalent to (�)(Antisymmetry) if char(K) ≠ �)
(�) (Antisymmetry)
(�) v(v
From
∧+w)∧(v
(v v = � +w)
+w)∧(v +w) == ��,, itit follows
�
vv ∧w
∧w == −v −v ∧w
∧w ≠ �)
∈ S k . ≠ �)
(Antisymmetry)
and by induction ω� ∧ � ∧ ω k = sgn(σ)(ω σ(�) ∧ � ∧ ω σ(k)) for all permutations σchar(K)
From
From follows that
that (which
(which is
is equivalent
equivalent to
to (�)
(�) ifif char(K)
(v +w)∧(v
induction vv�� ∧ +w) ∧� =
�∧ ∧ vvkk == sgn(σ)(v ∧w =
∧�∧v −v ∧w ) for all permutations σ ∈ S . ≠ �)
σ(�) ∧ � ∧ vσ(k) σ(k)) for all permutations σ ∈ Skk .
From
and
and byby induction � , it follows that
sgn(σ)(vσ(�) v (which is equivalent to (�) if char(K)
and
Nowby v� , . . . , v nvbe
letinduction � ∧ a�basis∧ v k of = sgn(σ)(v
V . Then σ(�) we can ∧ �use ∧ v σ(k) ) for allto
bilinearity permutations
expand every ∈ Sk.
σ multivector in
Now let vv��,, .. .. .. ,, vvnn be aa basis of V .. Then we can use bilinearity to expand every multivector in
�
Now let be
V in terms of this basis. Explicitly, we obtainbasis of V Then we can use bilinearity to expand every multivector in
�
� V in terms
V
Now let v , . . . , v be a basis of V . Then we can use bilinearity to expand every multivector in
� a i� ,k ����
in terms of this basis. Explicitly, we obtain
� V in terms of this basis. Explicitly, we obtain ���� aa i� ,� �
� of this n basis. Explicitly, we obtain
� a ,k ��
�� a i,�v i � ∧ � ∧ �� a i,k v i � = � ���� aii⋮��,�,� � aii⋮��,k ��� v i� ∧ � ∧ v i
��� � ∧
� a i,�v i � ∧ � ∧ �� ai,k � ∧ � � � = � �
� ⋮⋮ �
� k �n �� a i � ,� � a i � ,k ���� vvii�� ∧⋮⋮ ∧� �∧
i,k v i � = ��i�<�<i ∧ vviikkk
a v a v a i ,� a
�n ��� a �� v ∧ � ∧ v i
i,� i i i ,k
�� a i,�v i � ∧ � ∧ �� a i,k v i � = ��i � kk�n
��i��<�<i
<�<i
� aii⋮kkk,�,� �� aaii⋮kkk,k,k ��� i�
for k � n. In particular, we see that every ��i�<�<i k �n �
�
��� a i k ,�in��nan iVk ,kis����a multiple of v� ∧�∧v n , with the
n
k

for kk � in � of vv� ∧�∧v

multivector
� nn.. In � V ∧�∧vnn,, with
� ∧ � ∧ w n givenn by the determinant� of the coefficient
for Inofparticular,
particular, we
we see see that everyeverywmultivector in V is is aa multiple
multiple of with the
of that multivector the
� ∧ � ∧ � ∧�∧v
coefficient a multivector the form
for k
coefficient
coefficient n .
of wof
In of aa multivector of the form w� ∧ � ∧ wn given by the determinant� of the coefficient
multivector
particular, we see of the
that form
every wmultivector w given
in V
by the
is a determinant
multiple of v of the coefficient
n , with the
� , . . . , w n in terms of the basis �v� , . . . , v nn.
∧ � ∧
matrix
matrix
coefficient
matrixthat,of w of
of wbecause , .a . . , w
multivectorin
� , . . . , w nofin(�),
� n terms
terms of of
thethe form
of theneed basisw �v , . . . , v
w
v� , . . . , v nbasis
basisrepeated
� n
n .
. given by the determinant of the coefficient
Note
Note that, because ofin(�), we never
we never need repeated basis elements. In
elements. In particular,
particular, we we findfind
matrix of w � , . . . , w n terms of the basis v ,
Note that, because of (�), we never need repeated basis elements. In particular, we find
� . . . , v n .
nof (�), we never need repeated basis elements. In particular, we find
dim � V= =� �nn �
�k V k ��
Note dimthat, because kk
dim � V = �n k
dim � V = �kk k�
k
for all k �
for all k � n and n and � � kV V= = �� for
for allall kk > >n n..
 The
The Plücker
Plücker embedding
embedding
The
The Plücker
Plücker embedding
embedding
The
We now use the Grassmann algebra toPlücker embedding
realize the
We now use the Grassmann algebra to realize the
Grassmannian as a projective variety.
Grassmannian as a projective variety.
We now use the Grassmann algebra to realize the Grassmannian as a projective variety.
v� ∧ � ∧ v k ∈
We now use the Grassmann algebra to realize the Grassmannian as a projective variety.
v� ∧ � ∧ v k ∈
Let
We nowW beuse a k -dimensional
Grassmannsubspace V with basis
ofrealize v� , . . . , v k . The as a multivector
W be a kthe algebra to of V withthe Grassmannian projective variety.
v� ∧basis,
� ∧ vthe k ∈
Let -dimensional subspace basis v� , . . . , v k . The multivector
�
Letk Wisbe a k -dimensional subspace of Vby with wevvjust
basis . , v k . IfThe
� ,, .. .. saw: we multivector v�� ∧basis,
� ∧ vthe ∈
� kV
Let W bedetermined
a k by W up
-dimensional to a scalar,
subspace of V what
with basis . , v . The pick a different
multivector
� kV
v� ∧ � ∧ base
v kkk ∈
is determined by W up tok a scalar, by what we just saw:kk If we pick a different
�
��
V W
�k is determined
Let W be a k -dimensional
is determined by up to
subspace a of V withby
scalar, by what we
basis v� , . . . , v kwith
just saw: If
. Thewe pick a
multivector different basis, the
in �tok V
corresponding
kk V multivector
by W up in k V is obtained
a scalar, by what multiplying
we just saw:with If wethe determinant of the
thepick a differentofbasis, the
� V is determined in �tokk V
corresponding multivector is obtained by multiplying determinant the base
in �k V map
corresponding
change. So we have multivectorW up
abywell-defined is obtained
a scalar,
map by multiplying
by what we just saw:with If wethepick
determinant
a differentofbasis,
the base
the
k in � V map
change.
correspondingSo we have a well-defined
multivector is obtained by multiplying with the determinant of the base
change.
correspondingSo we have a well-defined
multivector is obtained by multiplying with the determinant of the base
change. So we ) →
have a� ).
well-defined map
V )have→ P( k V ).
ψ∶ G(k, V ) → P(�
ψ∶ G(k, V P( k V
kk V ).
change. So we a well-defined map
�
ψ∶ G(k,
ψ∶ G(k, ofV ψ)is→the �kof
P(set ).
V totally decomposable multivectors of �kk V . (While general mul-
ofVkψ)is→the � of ). decomposable multivectors of � k V . (While general mul-
The image
ψ∶ G(k, P(set V totally
of �kk V . (While general mul-
The image
The image �
in of ψVis are set ofoftotally
thesums totallydecomposable
decomposable multivectors
of �k V . (While general mul-
�
tivectors k ones.)
�
ψVis are
of � V . (While general mul-
tivectors
The image in of k set ofoftotally
thesums totallydecomposable
decomposable multivectors
ones.)
ψVis are
tivectors in �k V are sums of totally decomposable ones.)
tivectors
The image inof k
k thesums
set ofof totallydecomposable
totally decomposable multivectors
ones.)
ψ is�injective.
The map
tivectors ψ is injective.
V are sumsTo see this, let
The map in To see of totally
this, letdecomposable ones.)
The map ψ is injective. To see this, let
The map L ω =ψ {vis ∈injective.
V ∶ ω ∧ Tov =see �} this, let
L ω =ψ{v is ∈injective.
V ∶ ω ∧ Tov =see
L ω = {v k∈ V ∶ ω ∧ v = �}
The map �} this, let
Lω ω=∈{v�k∈∈ V V. ∶This
ω ∧isv a= linear
�} subspace of V . For ω = v� ∧ � ∧ v k as above, we find L ω = W
ωω=∈{v � V. ∶This
ω ∧isv a= linear
�} subspace of V . For ω = v� ∧ � ∧ v k as above, we find L ω = W
for any Lω
∈ �lemma So ωof�VL. ωFor the= inverse
v� ∧ � ∧ofvψk as we find L ω = W
for any k
alsoωthe kk V . This
�lemma is ω
So ωof�VL. ωFor
for any isthea linear subspace (onabove,
∈ the= inverse �� ∧ � ∧ =W
(see on next slide). its image).
∈ �lemma So ωof�VL. ω the= inverse
v� ∧ � ∧ofvψk as =W
(see
for anyalsoωthe V onisthe
. This next slide).
a linear subspace is ω v ofvψkk as
(onabove, we find L ω
its image).
k we find L ω
(see also the lemma on the next slide). So ω � L ω
(see
for anyalsoωthe V . This
onisthe next slide).
a linear subspace is ω
For (onabove,
its image). ω
V )inverse
is the inverse of ψ (on its image).
In
(see conclusion,
also the lemma we identified
on the next the slide). So ω � LG(k,
Grassmannian ω
V ) with the
ω is the with the of set
ψ (on of its
totally decomposable
image).
)
In conclusion, we identified
k V ). Thisthe Grassmannian G(k, set of totally decomposable
In conclusion,inwe �
identified the Grassmannian G(k,
V ) with the
V with the set of )
totally decomposable
P(� V ). Thisthe ).
multivectors P( k is called the Plücker
G(k,embedding of G(k, V .
V ). Thisthe V ) with the ).
In conclusion,inwe identified Grassmannian ofset of Vtotally decomposable
P(�
multivectors k is called the Plücker embedding G(k,
multivectors in P(�k V ). This is called the Plücker embedding of G(k, V ).
multivectors
In conclusion,inwe identified
k is called the Plücker
Grassmannian G(k,embedding G(k,
ofset of Vtotally decomposable
P( kk V )
k
in P(� ). This V ). subset of of P(� V)
multivectors form a closed subset of P(�
It remains to show that the totally decomposable multivectors form a closed subset
multivectors thatVthe is called the Plücker embedding of G(k,
�kkk V )
It remains to show totally decomposable multivectors form a closed
�k V )
It remains
and to findto theshow that thethat
equations totally decomposable
describe it. P(
It remains to show that the totally decomposable multivectors form a closed subset of P(� V )
It remains to show that the totally
and to find the equations that describe it. decomposable multivectors form a closed subset of
and to find the equations that describe it.
and to find the equations that describe it.
and to find the equations that describe it.

The Plücker embedding

Lemma �.�. Let ω ∈ �k V , ω ≠ �. The space L ω = {v ∈ V ∶ ω ∧ v = �} has dimension at most k ,

with equality occuring if and only if ω is totally decomposable.

Proof. Pick a basis v� , . . . , vs of L ω and extend to a basis v� , . . . , v n of V . We express ω in this basis:

For any choice of indices I = {i� , . . . , i k } with � � i� < � < i k � n let ω I = v i�� ∧ � ∧ v i k . Then ω
k
can be written as
ω= � cI ωI
I⊂{�,...,n},�I�=k

for some scalars c I ∈ K . For j ∈ {�, . . . , n}, we find

ω ∧ v jj = � c II ω II ∧ v jj = � I ωI I∧∧vvj .j .
�c Icω
I∶j∉Ij∉I

Now for j �� ss, ,the have v j ∈ωL∧ω vand

we equation j = �the c I = �ωfor
equation
shows ∧ all
v j I=with I =other
j ∉ I .cIn
� shows all I with
� forwords, ∉ I.
all Ijwith
In ≠ � must
c I other words,containall I {�,
with ≠ . �If must
. . .c,I s} there is {�,
s > k ,contain . . , s}I. of
no .such > k , there
If slength is no such I the
k , contradicting of length
fact that k,
ω ≠ �. If s = kthe
contradicting fact
, then there ≠ �. If s one
that isω exactly = k , such
then Ithere I = {�,one
is exactly
, namely . . .such
, k}, hence ω isI a=multiple
I , namely {�, . . . , k}
of,
�∧�∧
vhence ω visk a. Conversely,
multiple of vif� ω ∧�∧v k . Conversely,
is totally decomposable, say ω =decomposable,
if ω is totally w� ∧ � ∧ w k , then ω� ,=. w
say w . .�,∧�∧w
w k ∈ L ωk ,
hencewdim
then w�
� , . . .L, ω k ∈k .L ω , hence dim L ω � k . �
�
 The Plücker embedding

Lemma �.�. Let ω ∈ �k V , ω ≠ �. The space L ω = {v ∈ V ∶ ω ∧ v = �} has dimension at most k ,

with equality occuring if and only if ω is totally decomposable.

This will be all we need: Fix ω ∈ �k V , ω ≠ � and consider

Proof. Pick a basis v� , . . . , vs of L ω and extend to a basis v� , . . . , v n of V . We express ω in this basis:
For any choice of indices I = {i� , . . . , i k } with � � i� < � < i k � n let ω I = v i� ∧ � ∧ v i k . Then ω
the map
can be writtenVas→ �k+� V
φ(ω)∶ � .
v � ω∧v
ω= � cI ωI
I⊂{�,...,n},�I�=k [ω] ∈ G(k, V ) if and only if the rank of φ(ω) is at most n − k .
By the lemma, we have
The map �k V → Hom(V , �k+� V ) given by ω � φ(ω) is linear. If we fix coordinates by fixing
for some scalars c I ∈ K . For j ∈ {�, . . . , n}, we find
a basis of V , this means that the matrix A(ω) describing φ(ω) has linear entries, i.e. entries that
ω ∧ v j = � c I of
are homogeneous ∧ vj = �
ω Idegree � incthe ∧ v j.
I ω I coordinates. Therefore, G(k, V ) is defined by the vanishing
of all (n − k + �) × (n − k + �)-minors of this matrix. We have proved:
j∉I

Now for j � s , the equation ω ∧ v j = � shows c I = � for all I with j ∉ I . In other words, all I with
Theorem �.�. The Grassmannian G(k, V ) is a projective variety, embedded as a closed subset of
c I ≠ �k must contain {�, . . . , s}. If s > k , there is no such I of length k , contradicting the fact that
ω ≠��.VIf)sunder
P( = k , then there is exactly one such I , namely I = {�, . . . , k}, hence ω is a multiple of
the Plücker embedding. �
v� ∧ � ∧ v k . Conversely, if ω is totally decomposable, say ω = w� ∧ � ∧ w k , then w� , . . . , w k ∈ L ω ,
hence dim L ω � k . �
This will be all we need: Fix ω ∈ �k V , ω ≠ � and consider the map
V → �k+� V
φ(ω)∶ � .
v � ω∧v
By the lemma, we have [ω] ∈ G(k, V ) if and only if the rank of φ(ω) is at most n − k .
The map �k V → Hom(V , �k+� V ) given by ω � φ(ω) is linear. If we fix coordinates by fixing
a basis of V , this means that the matrix A(ω) describing φ(ω) has linear entries, i.e. entries that
are homogeneous of degree � in the coordinates. Therefore, G(k, V ) is defined by the vanishing
The Plücker embedding
of all (n − k + �) × (n − k + �)-minors of this matrix. We have proved:
Lemma
Theorem�.�. ω ∈Grassmannian
�.�.LetThe �k V , ω ≠ �. G(k,
The space = {v ∈ Vvariety,
V ) isLaωprojective ∶ ω ∧ vembedded
= �} has dimension
as a closedatsubset k,
most of
with V ) under
P(�kequality occuring only if ω is totally decomposable.
if andembedding.
the Plücker �
Proof. v� , . v. .� ,, .v.n. of
Pick aofbasis
Fix a basis , vsVofand
L ω and
the extend to a basisbasis
corresponding v� , . .v. i, v∧n �
of ∧ i k , � � i� < � < i k � n of
V v. We express ω in this basis:
� � of indices I = {i , . . . , i k } with � � i� < � < i k � n let ω I = v i� ∧ � ∧ v i k . Then ω
�

�k V ≅ K k . If a subspace W is� represented as the row span of a k × n-matrix A, the formula

For any choice
n

��� a � a ���
can be written as
ω= ��� i� ,� i� ,k ��
�� a i,�v i�
� ∧ � ∧ �I�Ia i,k v i � =
cω
� ��� ⋮ ⋮ ���� v i� ∧ � ∧ v i k ,
��� �
��i�<�<i k �n � a i ,� � a i ,k ���
I⊂{�,...,n},�I�=k
�� k k � �
for some scalars c I ∈ K . For j ∈ {�, . . . , n}, we find
which we saw earlier, shows what the Plücker embedding does in these coordinates: It maps
ω ∧ v jA=to
the matrix �the c I ωtupleI ∧ v jof = all I ∧ v j . of A (of which there are � k � = dim(
�k c×I ωk -minors n
dim ��kkVV).).
I∶ j∉I
The for j � sembedding
NowPlücker , we have v jof∈ G(k, n) the
L ω and as aequation
space of ω ∧ v j = �isshows
matrices given cby=the k ×all
� for k -minors.
I with j ∉ I.
k V ) are
�
I
In other words, all I with c I ≠ � must contain {�, . . . , s}. If s > k , there is no such I of length k ,
The relations between these minors corresponding to the equations of G(k, n) in P(
the
contradicting the fact that ω ≠ �. If s = k , then there is exactly one such I , namely I = {�, . . . , k},
Plücker relations.
hence ω is a multiple of v� ∧�∧v k . Conversely, if ω is totally decomposable, say ω = w� ∧�∧w k ,
then w� , . . . , w k ∈ L ω , hence dim L ω � k . �
 Affine cover of the Grassmannian
Affine cover of the Grassmannian
by ��nnkk �� copies
n k(n−k)
We
We have
have seen
seen howhow the Grassmannian G(k,
the Grassmannian G(k, n) n) is
is covered
covered by of A
copies of k(n−k)..
� �
Ak(n−k)
We
Let have seen how the Grassmannian G(k, n) is covered by k copies of A .
Let us
us see
see what
what that
that corresponds
corresponds to to under
under the the Plücker
Plücker embedding.
embedding.
Let us see what that corresponds to under the Plücker embedding.
First, there
First, there is is an
an abstract
abstract description:
description:
dimension n − k of multivector η ∈ �n−k
First, there is subspace
an abstract description: n−k
Let Γ
Let be any subspace of dimension
be any of of V ,, corresponding
corresponding to to aa multivector n−k V ..
Let
The Γ be any subspace of dimension n − k of V , corresponding to a multivector η ∈ � V.
The set
set
The set
H Γ = �W ∈ G(k, V ) ∶ Γ ∩ W ≠ {�}�
H ΓΓ = �W ∈ G(k, V ) ∶ Γ ∩ W ≠ {�}�
is a hyperplane in G(k, V ). Namely, if W = [ω] for ω ∈ �kkk V , then Γ ∩ W ≠ {�} is equivalent to
). Namely, W =nn [ω] for ω ∈ one-dimensional,
V , then Γ ∩ W ≠we {�}
ω a∧hyperplane
η = �. SinceinωG(k, ∧ η is �n V , which is� �n V
is V an elementifof can is identify
equivalentnn to
∧ η = � . Since ω ∧ η is an element of �
with K and thus interpret η as a linear form on �k V given by ω � ω ∧ η. (Indeed, this amounts
ω V , whichk
k is one-dimensional, we can identify � V
≅ �kkkform up �
V ∗∗∗, on V given by ω � ω ∧ η. (Indeed, this amounts
�n−k
with K and thus
to a natural interpret η n−k
isomorphism as aV
n−k linear to scaling.)
to a natural
Thus hyperplane�defined
isomorphism
H ΓΓ is the V ≅ by � ηV, so, up = P(�kkk V ) � H ΓΓ is an affine space. The in-
thattoUscaling.)
Γ P(� V )subspaces
Γ=
Γ
� H Γ is anofaffine
Thus H
tersectionΓ G(k, V )∩U thus corresponds to all k -dimensional
is the hyperplane defined by η , so that U V that space. The in-
are comple-
)∩U Γkthus
Γ
Γ
mentary toG(k,
tersection Γ. FixVsome corresponds
-dimensional to all k -dimensional
subspace W�� of V complementary subspaces oftoVΓthat. Then areany
comple-
other
such subspace W can be viewed as the graph of a linear map W�� → Γ, and vice-versa. (Given
mentary to Γ . Fix some k -dimensional subspace W � of V complementary to Γ . Then any other
such
W , thesubspace W can be
corresponding mapviewed �the
is w�� as graph of
γ , where γ ∈a linear
Γ is the map
unique W� → Γ, and with
element w�� + γ(Given
vice-versa. ∈ W.
, the corresponding map is � � γ , where γ ∈
Conversely, given α∶ W�� → Γ, let W = {w�� + α(w��) ∶ w�� ∈ W��}.) Since W�� ≅ K k and Γ ≅ K n−k
W w Γ is the unique element withk
k w � + γ ∈ W .,
n−k
n−k
Conversely,
we find given α∶ W� → Γ, let W = {w� + α(w�) ∶ w� ∈ W�}.) Since W� ≅ K and Γ ≅ K ,
we find
G(k, V ) ∩ U Γ ≅ Hom(W� , Γ) ≅ Matk×(n−k)(K) = Ak(n−k) k(n−k) .
G(k, V ) ∩ U Γ ≅ Hom(W� , Γ) ≅ Matk×(n−k)(K) = A .

Affine
Affine cover
cover of
of the
the Grassmannian
Grassmannian
V= =K Γ= = span(e ,, .. .. .. ,, ee n )).. Then
n
Now let V
Now let and Γ
K nn and span(e k+� any subspace W complementary to Γ has a
n Then any subspace W complementary to Γ has a
of aa kk ×
k+� n
×n
k+�
unique
unique basis
basis given
given by
by the
the rows
rows of n-matrix
-matrix of of the
the form
form
� �� �� �
� � b b�,� � bb�,n−k �
� � b�,� �,n−k��
�,� � b�,n−k
�
� � �,� b�,�
�,�
� bb�,n−k�� �
A = �� � � � b�,� �,� � b�,n−k
� � � b�,� b�,�
�,n−k��
A = �⋮
b�,�
⋮ �,�⋮ ⋮⋮ ��.
�⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ �
�
��� �� � � �� bb k,� bb k,� �
� bb k,n−k � ..�
�
k,�
k,� k,�k,� k,n−k �
k,n−k
This yields a bijection of G(k, n) ∩ U Γ with Ak(n−k)
This yields a bijection of G(k, n) ∩ U ΓΓ with Ak(n−k)
k(n−k).
.
Under the Plücker embedding, we know that A is mapped to the tuple of all its k × k -minors.
Under the Plücker embedding, we know that A is mapped to the tuple of all its k × k -minors.
But
But since
since the
the left
left part of A
part of A is
is the
the identity, the kk ×
identity, the × kk -minors of A
-minors of A are
are really
really just
just the
the minors
minors of
of the
the
matrix B of any size. Hence the Plücker embedding of G(k, n) ∩
matrix B of any size. Hence the Plücker embedding of G(k, n) ∩ U ΓΓ is given by all the minors of
U is given by all the minors of
the matrix B
the matrix B..

Finally, since the affine parts G(k, n) ∩ U Γ are irreducible open subsets of dimension k(n − k)
Finally, since the affine parts G(k, n) ∩ U Γ are irreducible open subsets of dimension k(n − k)
and have pairwise non-empty intersection, we conclude:
and have pairwise non-empty intersection, we conclude:
Corollary �.�. The Grassmannian G(k, n) is an irreducible variety of dimension k(n − k). �
�
Corollary �.�. The Grassmannian G(k, n) is an irreducible variety of dimension k(n − k).
 The Grassmannian G(�,
The Grassmannian G(�, �)
�)

G == G(�, �) == G(�,
�
The Grassmannian G
The Grassmannian G(�, �) G(�, �)
�) parametrizes
parametrizes lines in P
lines in P�..
P(� K �)) ≅≅ P
�� K Writing zzii jj == vvii ∧
∧ vv jj,, �� �� ii << jj �� ��,, the
� � �
The
The Plücker
Plücker embedding puts G
embedding puts into P(
G into P�.. Writing the
image is the quadratic hypersurface
image is the quadratic hypersurface
V(z
V(z�� z �� −
�� z�� − zz�� z �� +
�� z�� + zz�� z ��))
�� z��
called the Plücker
called the Plücker quadric.
quadric.
This
This and
and the
the following
following statements
statements will
will be
be shown
shown in
in the
the exercises.
exercises.

point pp ∈∈ P H ⊂⊂ P with pp ∈∈ H ⊂ G be the set

p,H ⊂ G be the set
� �
Proposition
Proposition �.�.�.�. For
For any
any point P� and plane H
and plane P� with let Σ
H,, let Σp,H
� is a line in P��.
of
of lines in P
lines in P� passing through pp and
passing through and lying in H
lying in H.. Under
Under the
the Plücker embedding, Σ
Plücker embedding, p,H is a line in P .
Σp,H
G ⊂⊂ P
�
Conversely,
Conversely, every
every line in G
line in P� isis of
of the form Σ
the form Σp,H for
for some
some choice
p,H of pp,, H
choice of H..

point pp ∈∈ P Σpp ⊂⊂ G
� �
Proposition
Proposition �.�.
�.�. ForFor any
any point let Σ
P�,, let G be
be the
the set
set of
of lines in P
lines in P� passing through pp;; for
passing through for
⊂
any plane H ⊂ P , let ΣH ⊂
H ⊂ G be the locus of lines lying in H . Under the Plücker embedding, both
any plane H P �
� , let Σ G be the locus of lines lying in H . Under the Plücker embedding, both
Λ ⊂⊂ GG ⊂⊂ P
� �
Σ p Σ
Σ p and Σ H are carried into planes
and H are carried into in P
planes in P�.. Conversely,
Conversely, any plane Λ
any plane P� isis either
either of
of the form Σ
the form Σpp
for
for some point pp or
some point or ofof the form Σ
the form ΣH forfor some plane H
some plane
H H..
Let ℓℓ��,, ℓℓ�� ⊂⊂ P (i.e. ℓℓ�� ∩
∩ ℓℓ�� == �
�).). The Q ⊂⊂ G
� �
Proposition
Proposition �.�.
�.�. Let P� be
be skew
skew lines
lines (i.e. set Q
The set G of
of lines in P
lines in P� meeting
meeting
both is the intersection of G with a three-dimensional subspace of P ��.
both is the intersection of G with a three-dimensional subspace of P .

Incidence
Incidence Correspondences
Correspondences
Incidence
Incidence Correspondences
Incidence Correspondences
Correspondences
n
Let G(k, n) be the Grassmannian of k -subspaces in P nn and put
Let G(k,
Let G(k, n) n) bebe the the Grassmannian
Grassmannian of of kk -subspaces
-subspaces in in P
Pn and
and put
put
Let G(k, = �(Λ, ∈∈ G(k, × ∶∶ xx ∈∈ Λ�.
Let G(k, n)
n) be
be the
the Grassmannian
Grassmannian of
of kk -subspaces
-subspaces in
in P
P n and
and put
put
= �(Λ, ×
Σ x) n) P n
Σ = �(Λ, x) ∈ G(k, n) × Pnn ∶ x ∈ Λ�.
Σ x) G(k, n) P n
n Λ�.
=
= �(Λ,
�(Λ, x) ∈∈ G(k, ×
×P Pn)∶∶×xxP∈∈nnΛ�. Λ ∈∈ G(k,
Σ
Σ x) G(k, n)
n) Λ�.
n) ×
Σ G(k, n) is just Λ
×P Λ ∈ G(k,
So is the subvariety of G(k, whose fibre over aa point itself as a
So Σ is the nsubvariety of G(k, n)
So Σ is the subvariety of Pnn whose
whose fibre
fibre over point Λ
over a point G(k, n)n) is just Λ
is just Λ itself
itself as
as aa
So
So Σ
subsetis the
of
Σ is of
subset P
theP
of subvariety
n . To
Psubvariety
n .. To see
To see that
see that of G(k,
Σ
of G(k,
that is
Σ is n)
closed,
is closed,
closed, ×
n) × Pit P it
n whose
suffices fibre
to
whose fibre
it suffices
suffices over
note
over
to note
note a
that
thatpoint Λ ∈
a point Λ ∈ G(k, n) is just Λ itself as aa
G(k, n) is just Λ itself as
subset n Σ to that
of�(v
= ∧ � ∧ Σ ∶is �∧ � ∧ ∧ =
subset
subset of P
Pn ..� ToTo see
see that Σ isvclosed, it
itv suffices to
to note
note that
Σ = �(v ∧ � ∧ vvthat,, w) ∶
closed,
∧ � ∧
suffices
∧ w = ��. that
Σ = �(v�� ∧ � ∧ v kk , w) ∶ v�� ∧ � ∧ v kk ∧ w = ��.
Σ k w) v v k w ��.
Σ=
Σ = �(v
�(v���.�.∧
∧� ∧
�Let
∧ vvΦkk ,, w)
⊂
∶∶ vv�� ∧
∧n)�
�be∧ ∧ w=
∧ avv kkclosed
∧w =subvariety.
��.
Then �
w) ��.
⊂ G(k, �
G(k, P n.
Proposition Φ⊂ subvariety. Then Λ∈Φ Λ is closed in
�Λ∈Φ Λ is closed in Pnnn ...
Proposition �.�. �.�. LetLet Φ G(k, n) n) bebe a a closed
closed subvariety. Λ is closed in P n
⊂
Λ P
�
Proposition Then Λ∈Φ is closed in
Proposition
Proposition π
�.�. Let
�.�.beLet Φ ⊂ G(k, n)maps
G(k,
Φprojection n) be a closed
be a closed subvariety.
subvariety.
G(k,
Then
Then �PΛ∈Φ Λ is closed in P .
n . Then
Λ∈Φ
Proof.
Proof. Let
Let π � ,, ππ � be thethe projection maps of
of Σ
Σ onto
onto G(k, n)
n) and
and P n
n . Then
Proof. Let π� , π� be the projection maps of Σ onto G(k, n) and Pn . Then
� �
Proof.�
Proof. LetΛπ
Let π��=,, π (π
ππ���be −�
the
(Φ)).
projection
projection maps maps of of Σ onto G(k,
Σ onto G(k, n) and P
n) and Pn .. Then �
= (π
be −�
the
(Φ)).
Then
�
�
� Λ = π −�
��(π −�(Φ)). �
= (π (Φ)). �
Λ π
�
� Λ = π��(π (Φ)).
Λ∈Φ
Λ∈Φ
Λ∈Φ
Λ π −� �
X⊂ Ck (X) = �Λ ∈ G(k, n) ∶ Λ∩ X≠ �� is
Λ∈Φ
X⊂ Then CCkk (X) = �Λ
(X) = �Λ ∈∈ G(k, n) ∶∶ Λ
Λ∩ X≠≠ ��
Λ∈Φ Pnnn be
⊂P ∩X �� is
Proposition �.�. Let a projective variety. Then
Proposition
Proposition �.�. �.�. LetLet X Pn bebe a
a projective
projective variety.
variety. Then G(k, n)
⊂ C (X) = �Λ ∈ ∶ ∩ ≠ ��
is
Proposition
closed
closed in
Proposition
in G(k,
G(k, n)
�.�.
�.�.
closed in G(k, n).n) .. Let
Let X
X ⊂ P
P n be
be a
a projective
projective variety.
variety. Then
Then C k
k (X) = �Λ ∈ G(k,
G(k, n)
n) ∶ Λ
Λ ∩ X
X ≠ �� is
is
closed in G(k,
in G(k, n) .
closedWe
Proof. haven).
Proof. We
Proof. We have
have
Proof.CWe −�(X)).
k (X) = �(π �
Proof. have
C
We
(X) =
have
(π −�(X)). �
Ckk (X) = π�(π��−�
π
π �
−� (X)). �
C (X) = (π (X)). �
�
Ck (X)C=k (X)
π�(πis
π � −� (X)). �
C (X)
k �
C (X)
The variety � called the variety of incident subspaces.
X, Y ⊂ Pnvariety
The variety is called the variety of incident subspaces.
variety C (X)
The variety k is called the nvariety of incident subspaces.
Ckk�.�.
(X)Let X, Y ⊂the
Proposition k�.�. Let be two of
disjoint projective varieties. The join of X and Y , which is
The
The variety is
is called of incident subspaces.
lines pq with p ∈ X , q ∈ Y , is a closed subset of Pn .
Proposition called the P variety incident
be two disjoint projective varieties. Let J(X, Y) be the union of all
subspaces.
lines pq with p ∈ X , q ∈ Y , called the join of X and Y . Then J(X, Y) is closed in Pn .
the union of all

Proof. The set J (X, Y) = C�(X) ∩ C�(Y) is closed in the Grassmannian, hence J(X, Y) = �ℓ∈J ℓ
Proof. The setnJ (X, Y) = C�(X) ∩ C�(Y) is closed in the Grassmannian, hence J(X, Y) = �ℓ∈J ℓ
�
�
is closed in Pn .
is closed in P .
Let X, Y ⊂ Pn be two disjoint projective varieties. The join of X and Y is the union of all lines
n
Let X, Y ⊂ P be two disjoint projective varieties. The join ofn X and Y is the union of all lines
 Fano varieties

Let X ⊂ Pnn be a projective variety. Then Fkk (X) = �Λ ∈ G(k, n) ∶ Λ ⊂ X� is the variety of
k -subspaces contained in X , called the k th Fano variety of X .
Proposition �.�.
�.��. The
TheFano varietyFFk k(X)
Fanovariety (X)isisclosed
closedininG(k,
G(k,n)
n). .
Proof. Let X = V(H�� , . . . , Hrr ). We fix an (n − k)-subspace Γ of K n+�
n+� and consider the affine open
subset U ΓΓ of G(k, n) = G(k + �, n + �) of (k + �)-subspaces complementary to Γ. We determine
explicit equations for U ΓΓ ∩ Fkk (X). After changing coordinates, we may assume as before that Γ
is spanned by e k+� n . We have seen that any subspace in G(k + �, n + �) ∩ U Γ
k+� , . . . , e n Γ is uniquely
represented as the row span of a matrix
�� � �
� b�,�
�,� b�,�
�,� �
�,n−k��
bb�,n−k
�� � �,n−k�
� �
A=� ��
� � b�,� b�,� bb�,n−k
� �. .
�,� �,�
�⋮ ⋮ ⋮ �
⋮⋮ ��
�� � � � b k,�
k,� k,� � b k,n−k
b k,� .�
k,n−k �
The entries b i,i, jj are regular functions (even coordinates) on U ΓΓ via the Plücker embedding. For
λ ∈ K k+�
k+�, let a(λ) = ∑kk λ i a i●, where a i● is the i th row vector of A. Then the subspace spanned
i=�
i=� i i● i●
by the rows of A is contained in X if and only if
H ii (a(λ)�� , . . . , a(λ)nn ) = �
for all λ ∈ K k+�
k+� and i = �, . . . , r . Taking coefficients in λ, this amounts to a set of polynomial
equations in the cordinates b i,i, jj, which defines Fkk (X) in U ΓΓ . �

Example of a Fano variety

Example of a Fano variety
Let Q = V(Z� Z� − Z� Z�) be a quadratic surface in P��.
Let Q == V(Z
V(Z Z�� −
Z −Z Z�� Z ��)
) be aa quadratic surface in P
in P�..
The Q
Let surface Q��contains Ztwo be quadratic
families surface
of linear subspaces,
The
The surface
surface Q contains
Qseen
contains two
two families ofof linear
linearonsubspaces,
which can be in the realfamilies
affine picture subspaces,
the right.
which
which can
can be
be seen
seen in
in the
the real
real affine
affine picture
picture on
on the
the right.
right.
This corresponds to the fact that Q is exactly the Segre
of P�� ×P {p}×
This
This corresponds
corresponds to
to�the the fact
facttwothat Q is
thatfamilies exactly
Q is exactly the Segre
of linestheareSegre
×P {p}×
embedding ��,, so
so the
embedding
embedding
� � of
of P
P � ×P
P� and P� × {q}, for p, q ∈ P� .
, so the
the two
two
� families
families of
of lines
lines are
are {p}× Ex
P P� ×
and P
P� and × {q}
{q},, for
for p, p, qq ∈∈ P P�..
How does this translate into the Fano variety F�(Q)? Let Q = V(Z� Z� − Z� Z�) be a q
How
How does
does this
this translate
translate into into thethe Fano variety F
Fano variety F��(Q)
(Q)?? The surface Q contains
[taken from R. Vakil's homepage two famil
Instead of doing the computation by hand, we are lazy and ask Macaulay�. which can be seen in the real affi
Instead
Instead of
of doing
doing thethe computation
computation by by hand,
hand, wewe are
are lazy
lazy and
and ask
ask Macaulay�.
Macaulay�.
This shows that the Fano variety F�(Q) is the union of two plane quadrics in the Grassmannian
This corresponds to the fact that
��(Q)
(Q) of P� ×P�, so the two fa
�) ⊂ P(that )
F embedding
�� �
This
This shows that the Fano variety F is the union of two plane quadrics in the Grassmannian
G(�,shows �Kthe� Fano variety is the union of two plane quadrics in the Grassmannian
�) ⊂ K �)).. P� and P� × {q}, for p, q ∈ P�.
.
G(�,
G(�, �) P(�
⊂ P( �� K
How does this translate into the F

Instead of doing the computation

Conclusion.
F�(Q) is the union of
two plane quadrics in
G(�, �) ⊂ P�, one for
each of to the two fam-
ilies of lines in Q .