Unit 1 – Cell Structure and Organisation

1.1 – Plant and Animal Cells, 1.2 – Specialised cells, tissues and organs

SUFEATIN SURHAN  BIOLOGY 5090  2012

SYLLABUS CHECKLIST
Candidates should be able to:

a) examine under the microscope an animal cell (e.g. from fresh liver) and a plant cell (e.g. from Elodea, a
moss, onion epidermis, or any suitable, locally available material), using an appropriate temporary
staining technique, such as iodine or methylene blue;

b) draw diagrams to represent observations of the plant and animal cells examined above;

c) identify, from fresh preparations or on diagrams or photomicrographs, the cell membrane, nucleus and
cytoplasm in an animal cell;

d) identify, from diagrams or photomicrographs, the cell wall, cell membrane, sap vacuole, cytoplasm,
nucleus and chloroplasts in a plant cell;

e) compare the visible differences in structure of the animal and the plant cells examined;

f) state the function of the cell membrane in controlling the passage of substances into and out of the cell;

g) state, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following:
absorption – root hair cells;
conduction and support – xylem vessels;
transport of oxygen – red blood cells;

h) identify these cells from preserved material under the microscope, from diagrams and from
photomicrographs;

i) differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system as illustrated by examples covered in sections 1 to 12,
15 and 16.
 What is Biology? R RESPIRATION:
The release of energy from the oxidation of food; the
energy is used for movement, growth, reproduction, etc.
 Biology is the study of life.
A ADAPTABILITY:
 Biology allows us to answer questions such as: Organisms have the ability to adjust and adapt themselves
to changes in their environment.
N NUTRITION:
The process where organisms take in food substances and
convert them into the living protoplasm of the organism.

Cell, Basic unit of life

 The cell is the structural and functional basic unit of

living organisms.

 It is the simplest unit of life, basic unit of life or the

simplest organized unit of living matter.

 There are two major types of cells:

1. Prokaryotic cells: Cells in unicellular organisms
which exists singly as independent organisms
showing all the characteristics of life e.g.
amoeba, bacteria, paramecium.
2. Eukaryotic cells: Cells in multicellular
organisms. These cells become modified for
specific functions e.g. root hair cells, red blood
cells, epithelial cells.

 Living cells are made of protoplasm. The

 Various fields of study in Biology include: protoplasm of a cell consists of a cell membrane,
 Genetics: Study of heredity. cytoplasm and nucleus.
 Virology: Study of viruses.
 Entomology: Study of insects.  Protoplasm is the mass of living matter. It is a
 Anatomy: Study of the structure of organisms. complex jelly like substance of which 70-90% is
 Botany: Study of plants. water while the rest consists of mineral salts and
 Zoology: Study of animals. organic compounds. Chemical reactions take place
 Histology: Study of tissues. here.
 Mycology: Study of fungi.
 The cytoplasm contains structures which perform
functions. They are known as organelles.
The 8 characteristics of living things
 Organelles include nucleus, vacuoles,
M MOVEMENT:
Animals move its whole body by using limbs or their mitrochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum,
equivalent. A plant moves only by growing part of itself golgi body, centrioles and chloroplasts.
towards or away from influences important to it.
E EXCRETION:  Cells can only be seen under high magnification.
The process involving the removal of metabolic waste Cells have many features in common but their
products such as carbon dioxide, water, mineral salts and precise structure is closely related to the work they
nitrogenous waste products. These substances will harm do.
organisms if not removed.
R REPRODUCTION:
The process of the production of new generation of
offspring necessary for the survival of species.
I IRRITABILITY:
The process of sensing and responding to stimuli or any
changes in the immediate environment (light, sound,
touch, pressure, temperature).
G GROWTH:
An increase in the cell numbers, size, dry mass or volume
of an organism as a result of converting absorbed food into
living protoplasm. This may make an organism more
complex or even change its form e.g. germination of a
seed, caterpillar changing into a butterfly.
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Cell Structure  Plant cells have the following additional structures:

 All cells have the following structural features in Structure Function

common: Fully permeable membrane i.e.
allows any substance to pass
Cellulose cell wall through it
Structure Function
Selectively controls the - Cellulose form fibres that Supports non-woody plant
passage of substances criss-cross over one organs (by turgor pressure)
entering and leaving the cell another to form a very
Cell membrane (selectively permeable) strong covering of the cell. Supports and protects the cell
General rule: (prevents from bursting) and
- made up of two Small molecules can enter give shape to cell
layers of lipids and easily e.g. water (osmosis), A large, central vacuole /
proteins oxygen, carbon dioxide Sap Vacuole
(diffusion); Important for osmoregulation
Large molecules cannot e.g. - contains a solution called (regulation of water content by
proteins and starch cell sap consisting of 90% osmosis)
water and dissolved salts
Cytoplasm and sugars For food storage
Site of chemical reactions
(metabolic reactions) where - separated from the
- a jelly-like substance cytoplasm by the vacuolar Helps to maintain the shape of
organelles can be found e.g.
within the cell

( Living matter )
nucleus, mitochondria PROTOPLASM membrane = tonoplast the cell
- consists of 90% water - Dividing cells do not have
with dissolved salts a vacuole
Temporary food storage e.g.
and sugars; fats and
oil globules, starch granules
proteins are suspended Contains green pigments,
(in plants only) Chloroplasts
in it chlorophyll, for absorption of
sunlight required for
Nucleus - small organelles in the
photosynthesis
(pl: nuclei) cytoplasm
Contains chromosomes which
- largest organelle carry genetic information of Summary
(visible in the light the cell; Chromosomes
microscope) possess genes for ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL
- has DNA, enclosed by programming the cytoplasm to Cell membrane present
nuclear membrane manufacture particular Cytoplasm present
- In non-dividing cells, proteins SIMILARITIES Nucleus present
DNA forms long
Mitochondria present
chromatin threads Controls all chemical
- In dividing cells, DNA reactions within the cell and Ribosome present
condenses (coils up) cell division Cell wall absent Cell wall present
into visible Sap vacuole
chromosomes absent Sap vacuole
Mitochondrion
* Have many present
(pl: Mitochondria) temporary vesicles
Chloroplasts Chloroplasts
- smaller sized Site of respiration absent present
organelle (visible only DIFFERENCES Starch granules
with electron absent; glycogen Starch granules
microscope) granules usually present
Ribosomes present
Tonoplast, a thin
Site of synthesis of proteins from
- Very tiny round Tonoplast is membrane that
amino acids
organelles present in absent surrounds the sap
the cytoplasm vacuole is present

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 Specialised cells, tissues and organs The Xylem vessel
 In unicellular organisms, one cell must be able to
carry out all functions of a living organism.

 In multicellular organisms, cells are usually modified

to carry out one main function. The appearance of
the cell will vary depending on what that main
function is.

 There is a relationship between the structure of a

cell and its function. This specialisation of cells to
carry out particular functions in an organism is
referred to as ‘division of labour’.

The Root Hair Cell

Functions:

 Absorption of water from the water film surrounding

the soil particle by osmosis.

 Allows simple diffusion of dissolved mineral salts in

the soil solution to pass into the root hair.

 Absorb minerals that are present in low

concentration in the soil by active transport. Functions:

Adaptations:  To conduct or transport water and mineral salts

1. It has a long, tubular shape.
- Able to form very close contact with the water
film surrounding many soil particles (able
to penetrate between the soil particles).
- Greatly increases the surface area of the cell
available for uptake of water and mineral salts
(due to its shape and large number of root
hairs).
2. Has a very concentrated cell sap in its vacuole
- Increases the water potential gradient between
the soil water and the root hair cell so that
water will tend to move into the cell by
osmosis.
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from roots to stems, leaves, flowers and fruits.
 To provide mechanical support for the parts of the
plant above the ground.
Adaptations:
1. Conduction:
- Xylem vessels are stacked end-to-end and the
end walls are digested away to form long,
continuous, narrow tubes, stretching from the
roots, through the stem to the leaves.
- They have hollow lumen i.e. no cytoplasm,
allowing water and its dissolved mineral salts to
pass through unimpeded (no obstruction). This is
why xylem vessels are dead cells.
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2. Support: Muscle cells
- The cell walls of xylem vessels are strengthened
by the strong, rigid and waterproof substance FUNCTION:
called lignin. As the lignin in the walls build up,
it eventually kills the xylem vessels. Hence, the  To cause movement when they
hollow lumen. contract.
- Xylem vessels are part of the vascular bundles
which run through the stem of plants like steel  (Contraction brings about a
reinforcements in concrete pillars. They help to decrease in length of the cell.
resist bending strains caused by the wind. Muscles can only do work when
they contract, never when
they relax)
The Red Blood Cells or Erythrocyte
When longitudinal When circular muscles
muscles contract, they contract, they become
become short smaller

ADAPTATIONS:

FUNCTION:
 To carry oxygen around the body in the form of
oxyhaemoglobin.
ADAPTATIONS:
1. The cytoplasm in red blood cells contains the
pigment haemoglobin. Haemoglobin combines with
oxygen in the lungs to become oxyhaemoglobin. This
is a reversible process.
1. They are long and thin, allowing many to work side-
by-side for greater force, or to form a contractile
network.
2. Their cytoplasm contains many mitochondria which
are responsible for releasing energy within a cell
and necessary here to bring about contraction.
Cells, Tissues, Organ System and Organism

2. The absence of nucleus (enucleated) means space
for more haemoglobin enabling more oxygen to be
transported increasing their efficiency.
3. The cells are small and there are many of them, so
they have a very large surface area for oxygen
absorption.
4. They have a flat, biconcave shape making their
surface area for absorption (by diffusion) even
larger.
 One cell working on its own would achieve very
little in an individual plant or animal, so it is
common to find many similar cells lying side-by-side
and working together, performing the same function
to increase efficiency.
Tissues
 Many similar cells working together and performing
the same function is known as a tissue.

5. They are flexible, allowing them to be pushed easily ANIMAL TISSUES (based on humans)
through the small blood vessels i.e. capillaries Types of
whereby they become bell-shaped. Contents Main Function
tissue
To cover the external surface.
Layers of
Epithelial To serve as a protective lining.
cells placed
tissue To line tubes and spaces and
end to end
form the skin.
Skeletal To support the body and permit
Hard material
tissue movement.
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 To carry oxygen and food round Organ system
Blood tissue Runny fluid
the body.
Nervous Brain and To conduct nerve impulses and  An organ system is a collection of different organs
tissue nerve cells coordinate messages. working together to perform a particular function.
Bundles of
To bring about movement for
Muscular muscles in
locomotion, breathing ORGAN SYSTEM IN ANIMALS
tissue arms, heart,
peristalsis. Main organs of
etc. System Main Function
system
Joins body structure together.
Bone, Provides protection and Oesophagus,
Connective stomach, To digest the ingested food
cartilage, support. Digestive
tissue duodenum, To absorb digested food
blood Has ability to store and system
transport materials. ileum, colon, To expel undigested food
liver, pancreas
To take in oxygen
Respiratory Trachea and
To get rid of carbon
PLANT TISSUES (based on flowering plants) system lungs
dioxide
Types of To carry oxygen and food
Contents Main Function Heart, veins,
tissue Circulatory around the body
To cover surface of plants. arteries,
system To regulate body
Epithelial Layers of To protect from physical capillaries
temperature
tissue cells damage and infection. Kidneys, urinary
To reduce water loss. Excretory To get rid of toxic
bladder, liver,
To provide cells with system metabolic products
lungs, skin
Photosynthetic Cells with chlorophyll. Sensory
tissue chloroplasts To absorb sunlight. Eyes, ears, nose To detect stimuli
system
To perform photosynthesis. To control and coordinate
Round To fill in spaces inside the body movements
Packing tissue balloon-like plant for mechanical Nervous Brain, spinal
To conduct impulses from
cells support. system cord
one part of the body to
Vascular tissue another
 Xylem Xylem To transport water and Muscular Muscles,
vessels mineral salts from roots to To move parts of the body
system skeleton
all parts of the plant. Skeletal To support the body
To provide mechanical skeleton
system To protect internal organs
support to plant. To produce gametes
 Cambium Cambium New tissue growth in the Reproductive Testes, ovaries, To protect and nourish the
cells cambium. system uterus embryo during
 Phloem Sieve tubes, To transport food development in the uterus
sieve cells substances.
and
companion
cells ORGAN SYSTEM IN PLANTS
The sepals, stamens, petals and carpels in a flower
make up the reproductive system of a plant.
Organ
Organism
 Several different tissues working together to
perform a particular function.  A collection of organ system working together.

 Example in human:
Organism Type of organs Function Digestive system, circulatory system, respiratory
Alimentary canal To digest food system, urinary system, nervous system,
Nose, trachea, lungs Gaseous exchange reproductive system all combine together to form
ANIMAL Transport oxygen and an organism.
Heart and blood
dissolved food
vessels
substances
The increasing order of cell organisation found within any living
Photosynthesis
Leaf organism is:
PLANT Transpiration
Flower Reproduction Cell → Tissues → Organs → Organ systems → Organisms

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 SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO
 All animals need to take in oxygen and food substances from the environment and to eliminate carbon dioxide and
other waste products from their bodies.

 Small animals such as protozoa, jellyfish and flatworms carry out their exchanges by simple diffusion through their
body surfaces. It is therefore important to study the relationship between surface area and volume in the living
organism. This factor affects the rates of gaseous exchange, heat loss and loss of excretory products.

 Notice that as the cube becomes bigger, the surface area does not increase in the same proportion as the volume.
The largest cube has the smallest surface area : volume ratio. Therefore, as the smaller the size of the cell or
organism, the greater the surface area : volume ratio, the faster and more efficient the rate of diffusion of food
and gases into the organism. It also means diffusion of waster products also diffuse out of the organism or cell at a
faster rate.

 As an object becomes larger, its surface area compared to its volume is smaller. Diffusion is no longer an
effective way to transport materials to the inside. For this reason, there is a physical limit for the size of the cell,
with the effectiveness of diffusion being the controlling factor. This explains why small organisms such as amoeba
and bacteria undergo cell division when they grow too big.