Reproduction - IGCSE Biology Notes (2020)

10/24/22, 5:53 PM Reproduction - IGCSE Biology Notes (2020)
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Reproduction
 July 22, 2019
Reproduction
Reproduction is the process of making more of the same kind of organism.
There are two types of reproduction that you need to be aware of:
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical off-
spring from a single parent i.e. cloning
Advantages of asexual reproduction are:
Quick
Only single parent required
Good genetic characteristics always passed on
N di l ff
https://www.freeexamacademy.com/2674-2/ i ill i th f bl i t 1/22
No dispersal so offspring will grow in the same favorable environment
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction are:
Little variation i.e. less adaptability to a changing environment

Unlikely to withstand disease if parent not resistant
Lack of dispersal lead to increased competition for nutrients
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of two gametes (one from each parent)
to form a zygote. This results in the production of offspring that is genetically different from
the parents.
Gametes are sex cells that have half of the normal chromosome number (haploid).
Therefore, when the male and female gamete fuse together they form a new cell with the nor-
mal chromosome number (diploid).
Advantages of sexual reproduction are:
Variation among offspring, and therefore more adaptable to a changing environment

More likely to withstand disease
In plants, seed dispersal reduces competition for nutrients as offspring will grow in a dif-
ferent environment
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction are:
Requires the fusion of two gametes

Slower process
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Plant reproduction
Plants mostly reproduce sexually, and therefore that will be the focus of this section.
The sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of the male gamete (pollen) and the fe-
male gamete (ovule).
A plant flower has both a ‘male part’ containing the pollen and the ‘female part’ which contains
the ovule.
Male part = Stamen

Female part = Pistil/carpel
Sexual reproduction occurs when the pollen from the stamen of one flower successfully
reaches the ovule of either the same flower, or a different flower.
This transfer of pollen is called pollination, and we will look into this in a bit more detail down
below.
Important concepts to understand at this stage are:
Transfer of pollen is pollination

Successful pollination results in fertilization
A flower can self pollinate i.e. pollen transfer within the same flower or a different flower
of same plant
A flower can cross pollinate i.e. pollen transfer to a different flower of a different plant
Structure of a flower
The term carpel & pistil has the same meaning, but I would suggest using carpel in your exami-
nation as this is the official term for IGCSE.
The carpel is the female reproductive part of the plant. It is made of three important
structures:
Stigma = The sticky surface that catches pollen

Style = Links stigma to ovary
Ovary = Contains ovules which develop into seeds after fertilization
The stamen is the male reproductive part of the plant. It is made of two important structures:
Anther = Contains pollen

Filament = Supports the anther
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of the pollen (male sex cell) from the anther to the stigma.
Once the pollen lands on the stigma, it is transferred to the ovule (female sex cell).
The fusion of the pollen and ovule leads to what we call fertilization.
There are main two methods by which plants facilitate pollination
Insect pollination
Wind pollination
Insect pollination
Insect pollination uses insects that land on the flower to carry pollen.
As insects move around within the flower, some pollen become caught onto the insect’s body.
The insect therefore physically carries pollen and successful pollination occurs when it rubs its
body against a stigma of the same flower (self pollination) or a different flower (cross
pollination).
Wind pollination
Wind pollination uses the wind to carry pollen.
Pollen that gets carried by the wind may end up on the stigma of the same flower (self pollina-
tion) or a different flower (cross pollination).
Insect pollinated vs wind pollinated flower
There are some key differences between an insect pollinated flower and a wind pollinated
flower.
Cross pollination vs self pollination
Self pollination is the transfer of pollen from the another of one flower to the stigma of the
same flower, or a different flower of the same plant.
Advantages
Only one parent required so less reliance on pollinators
Less competition among offspring
Disadvantages
Less variation (since genes are all from the same plant)
Less adaptable to changing environment and resistance to disease
Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of an-
other flower on a different plant (of same species)
Advantages
Increased variation
Greater adaptability to changing environment and more resistant to disease
Disadvantages
More reliance on pollinators
Image result for cross pollination vs self pollination
In the above diagram, A and B represent self pollination. C represents cross pollination.
Fertilization
When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the correct species, a pollen tube will begin to
grow.
It grows through the style, enters through a small gap in the ovary called the micropyle, and
eventually reaches the ovule.
The nucleus of the pollen then passes along the pollen tube and fuses with the neuclus of the
ovule, resulting in successful fertilization.
The zygote eventually develops into a seed. The seed remains dormant until the conditions are
right, and germination occurs.
Germination
Germination is the development of a plant from a seed or spore after a period of dormancy.
The conditions that must be met for germination to occur are as follows:
Water – For the activation of enzymes

Oxygen – For respiration for growth
Temperature – Optimum temperature for enzymes
Investigation of germination
Set up boiling tubes each containing 10 cress seeds on cotton wool
Leave tubes in set environmental conditions for a period of time

A, B and C placed in an incubator of 20°C
D is placed in a fridge of 4°C
Compare the growth/germination of each of the test tubes
Results are as follows:
A(no water) = No germination
B (control) = Germination
C (no oxygen) = No germination
D (cold temperature) = No germination
Human reproduction
Human reproduction is focused on the male gamete (sperm) fertilizing the female gamete
(egg).
Male reproductive system
Penis
Can become firm and erect for insertion into the vagina
Testis
Sperm production
Scrotal sac
Holds testes outside of body to keep it colder than body temperature (ideal for sperm
production)
Epididymis
Sperm storage
Vas deferns/sperm duct
Tube connecting testis to urethra
Prostate gland
Add nutrients & fluid to sperm to make it semen
Urethra
Passes semen or urine out through the penis (but never at the same time)
Female reproductive system

Vagina
Entry point for penis
Cervix
Ring of muscle separating vagina from uterus
Uterus
Location of fetal development
Ovary
Production of egg cells
Oviduct/fallopian tubes
Site of fertilization
Movement of egg cell to uterus via cilia in the wall
Human pregnancy overview
1. Sperm enters vagina

2. Sperm passes through cervix
3. Sperm enters oviduct
4. If an egg is present, it becomes fertilized

5. Fertilization results in zygote formation
6. Zygote divides to make an embryo (ball of cells)
7. Embryo implants into the uterus walls
8. Embryo develops further to form a fetus
9. Fetus develops within uterus/womb
10. Birth of a baby
Fetal development & birth
Once an egg is fertilized by sperm, it forms a zygote. The zygote undergoes cell division to form
a ball of cells called the embryo.
The emrbyo implants itself into the uterus lining, where it begins to develop into a fetus
Fetal development
The placenta brings fetal blood supply close to the mother’s blood without mixing. Nutrients
diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetus’ blood. Oppositely, waste diffuses from the fe-
tus’ blood into the mother’s blood.
The umbilical cord carries fetal blood to and from the placenta. This cord is therefore essential
for the nutrient/waste exchange between the fetal blood and the mother’s blood.
The amniotic fluid protects the fetus from physical harm, and is held inside the amniotic sac.
Umbilical cord
Umbilical artery
Carries blood from the fetus to the placenta
Placenta
Nutrient/waste exchange
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g Reproduction - IGCSE Biology Notes (2020)
Nutrients pass from mother’s blood to fetal blood
Waste products poss from fetal blood to mother’s blood

Umbilical vein
Carries blood from the placenta to the fetus
Some toxins such i.e. nicotine or pathogens i.e. rubella, can cross the placenta from
the mother’s blood and affect the fetus
Ante-natal care of pregnant woman
Before birth, the baby obtains all dietary requirements from the mother via the placenta.
It is therefore very important that the mother’s diet is well balanced with:
Amino acids/proteins for growth

Calcium for bone development
Iron for RBC formation
Process of childbirth
The process of childbirth is as follows:
Labour is triggered by the oxytocin hormone

Muscular walls of the uterus contract
Pressure from contraction breaks the amniotic sac and releases amniotic fluid
Contractions become more violent and push the baby down the cervix
The cervix becomes dilated for the baby to pass through
The vagina stretches in order to allow the baby to be born
The Baby is still attached to the placenta via umbilical cord post birtth
The umbilical cord is therefore cut and tied
The placenta breaks away from the uterus wall and passes out
Breast-milk vs formula
It is important to understand the ongoing debate about the advantages and disadvantages of
breast feeding compared to formula.
Advantages:
No risk of allergic reaction

Natural antibodies in breast milk (passive immunity)
Breast milk is at ideal temperature
No additives
Bonding between mother & baby
Disadvantages
Difficult to do in public
Painful
Mother must be present
Puberty
Puberty is the name for the time when the body begins to change as a child transitions into
adulthood.
Testosterone triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males

Estrogen triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females
Menstrual cycle
There are four main hormones involved in the menstrual cycle:
1. Estrogen – Builds the uterus lining

2. Progesterone – Maintains the uterus lining
3. FSH – Causes a single follicle in the ovary to mature (a mature follicle contains the egg,
along with other surrounding cells)
4. LH – Secreted from pituitary glands which stimulate ovulation
The stages of the cycle can be summarized as follows:
1. Uterus lining breaks down due to the lack of progesterone

2. Estrogen levels rise to build the uterus lining
3. FSH causes a single follicle to mature
4. On day 14, estrogen levels drop and LH levels spike to cause ovulation
5. The ovum gets released into the oviduct, leaving behind the remains of the mature
follicle.
6. The cells that get left behind after ovulation become the corpus luteum
7. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone which maintains the thick uterus lining in
preparation for implantation
Human birth control
There are various methods of birth control that you must be familiar with.
Common methods of birth prevention include:
Natural
Abstinence
Withdrawal
Rhythm
Chemical
Contraception
Spermicide
Mechanical
Condoms
Femidom
Diaphragm
Surgical
Vasectomy
Laparotomy
Common methods of birth promotion include:
Artificial insemination
Fertility drugs
Fertility drugs
In-vitro fertilization
Sexually transmitted disease
Sexually transmitted diseases (STIs) are infections that can be transmitted via body fluids
during sexual contact.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is an example of an STI. An HIV infection can lead to AIDS
(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).
As the name suggests, the HIV virus destroys the body’s immune system. The virus attacks
lymphocytes in the blood stream, and a decreased lymphocyte count leads to reduced antibod-
ies, and therefore compromised immunity.
Methods of transmission include:
Unprotected sex
Sharing needles
Mother to fetus via the placenta
Methods to prevent the spread of HIV include:
Condom usage
Abstinence of sexual intercourse
Using sterilized needles instead of sharing
Bottled milk
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10/24/22, 5:53 PM Reproduction - IGCSE Biology Notes (2020)

Free Exam Academy 

Reproduction is the process of making more of the same kind of organism.

Advantages of asexual reproduction are:

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction are:

Little variation i.e. less adaptability to a changing environment

Advantages of sexual reproduction are:

Variation among offspring, and therefore more adaptable to a changing environment

Disadvantages of sexual reproduction are:

Requires the fusion of two gametes

Male part = Stamen

Important concepts to understand at this stage are:

Transfer of pollen is pollination

Stigma = The sticky surface that catches pollen

Anther = Contains pollen

There are main two methods by which plants facilitate pollination

Wind pollination uses the wind to carry pollen.

Insect pollinated vs wind pollinated flower

Cross pollination vs self pollination

Image result for cross pollination vs self pollination

Water – For the activation of enzymes

Set up boiling tubes each containing 10 cress seeds on cotton wool

Leave tubes in set environmental conditions for a period of time

Male reproductive system

Female reproductive system

Human pregnancy overview

1. Sperm enters vagina

3. Sperm enters oviduct

4. If an egg is present, it becomes fertilized

Fetal development & birth

Nutrients pass from mother’s blood to fetal blood

Waste products poss from fetal blood to mother’s blood

Ante-natal care of pregnant woman

Amino acids/proteins for growth

The process of childbirth is as follows:

Labour is triggered by the oxytocin hormone

No risk of allergic reaction

Testosterone triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males

1. Estrogen – Builds the uterus lining

The stages of the cycle can be summarized as follows:

1. Uterus lining breaks down due to the lack of progesterone

Human birth control

Common methods of birth prevention include:

Common methods of birth promotion include:

Sexually transmitted disease

Methods of transmission include:

Methods to prevent the spread of HIV include:

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