Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Minimization of water and chemical use in a cotton/polyester fabric

dyeing textile mill
Emrah Ozturk a, *, Hasan Koseoglu a, Mustafa Karaboyacı b, Nevzat Ozgu Yigit a,
Ulku Yetis c, Mehmet Kitis a
a
Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
b
Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta 32260, Turkey
c
Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06531, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Water, wastewater and chemical minimization studies were carried out in a textile mill employing cotton
Received 4 March 2015 epolyester weavingeknitting and subsequently dyeingefinishing. Detailed on-site investigations and
Received in revised form analysis on production processes were performed according to Integrated Pollution Prevention and
15 December 2015
Control principles. Specific consumptions in wet processes were calculated by mass balance analyses.
Accepted 26 January 2016
Available online 3 February 2016
Water/wastewater samples were collected and various parameters were analyzed. Specific wastewater
generations and pollutant loads were determined. Wastewater reuse (with or without treatment), po-
tential chemical recovery and reuse options were evaluated. A company-wide chemical inventory study
Keywords:
BAT
was conducted and material safety data sheets of 291 chemicals were evaluated in terms of their
Chemical biodegradability and toxicological effects. It was found that 74 chemicals may be replaced with less toxic
Cleaner production and more biodegradable counterparts. Best available techniques were determined on the basis of Inte-
Textile grated Pollution Prevention and Control and Turkish Textile BREFs. The multi-criteria decision-making
Water methods were employed to determine suitable best available techniques. Feasibility analysis was per-
formed and potential benefits and savings were determined for each suggested best available technique.
A total of 14 best available techniques including good management practices, water minimization and
chemical minimization/substitution were suggested to the mill. After the implementation of best
available techniques, the following reductions can be potentially achieved; 43e51% in water consump-
tion, 16e39% in chemical consumption, 45e52% in combined wastewater flowrate, and 26e48% in
specific chemical oxygen demand load. By the implementation of 14 BATs in the mill, operational costs
for water/wastewater and chemicals may be reduced 49% and 28% (annual average), respectively. The
cost analysis indicated that the estimated payback periods of BATs may range from 1 to 26 months. It was
found that various wastewater streams can be segregated and directly reused without treatment in the
production processes. After segregation of relatively clean wastewater streams, the remaining combined
wastewater could be reused after employing advanced treatment technologies.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Limited natural resources have been polluted by industrial ac-
tivities. According to average economic growth scenario, the global
water demand is expected to be 1500 billion m3 in 2030 (Vajnhandl
and Valh, 2014). Therefore, sustainability of water resources and
protection against contamination are important issues all over the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 2462111697; fax: þ90 2462118218.
E-mail address: emrahozturk@sdu.edu.tr (E. Ozturk).
world on behalf of avoiding global fresh water crisis in the future
(Mughess and Al-Ahmad, 2015).
Various approaches that support the sustainable use of natural
resources and sustainable production processes have been devel-
oped in the last 20e30 years (Bevilacqua et al., 2014). One of these
approaches is pollution prevention, or generally speaking cleaner
production, which means protection of resources and environ-
ment as a whole with an integrated approach (UNIDO, 2002).
Cleaner production approach aims to prevent high amounts of
resource consumption and pollutant generation as a result of in-
efficiency in the production processes. Cleaner production and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.01.080
0959-6526/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102
pollution prevention/minimization approaches try to optimize the
production processes in terms of environmental considerations.
Cleaner production is also referred as a proactive environmental
protection strategy (Gavrilescu, 2005). Besides, cleaner production
in the industrial enterprises may provide reduced production
costs, improved competitiveness to meet the requirements of
existing and future regulation or standards (UNEP, 2013). Cleaner
production approach began to take place rapidly in environmental
protection policies and regulations of the countries. The first Eu-
ropean framework for pollution prevention at industrial level was
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive
(2008/1/EC) published in 1996, which is one of the key in-
struments of the European Union's (EU) environmental legislation
(Kocabas et al., 2009). It covers legal arrangements and requires
the inspecting authorities to give permits to the industrial facilities
and to monitor their environmental performances within this
general approach (Kocabas, 2008). The Directive covers the
application of “best available techniques-BAT”. The selection of
BAT consists finding the appropriate balance between environ-
mental performance and technical/economical availability (EC,
2003). On November 24, 2010, the European Parliament adopted
the Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/UE (IED). IED consists
six previous directives, including IPPC Directive (Banchmann and
Van Der Kamp, 2014). General principles of the IPPC-IED are in-
tegrated approaches, flexibility principle, participative principle,
and usage of BAT (EU, 2010).
Within the Turkey's efforts for the on-going EU accession pro-
cess, harmonization of current legal infrastructure with EU stan-
dards is underway. In this context, IED is one of the main directives
which have been evaluated during harmonization process. IED has
not yet been introduced to the Turkish legislation but the first step
has been taken with the publication of a Communique entitled
“Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control in the Textile Sector”
(Turkish BREF) in 2011 (TMEU, 2011). Regulation of procedures and
principles that minimize negative effects of textile sector activities,
control of discharges to water, air and soil environments, efficient
usage of raw materials/energy, and usage of cleaner production
technologies can be listed as the general aims of Turkish BREF.
Textile plants with production capacities over 10 tons/day are
subject to the provisions of the communique. They have to meet
Turkish BREF related requirements and employ their cleaner pro-
duction plans. According to harmonization calendar, it is planned
that the integrated permission process will be completed in 2015
and entire harmonization process will be completed in 2018.
Configuration of the cleaner production approach in industrial
enterprises is a challenging process that requires substantial know-
how (Price and Hasanbeigi, 2012). In this study, on-site cleaner
production assessment study was carried out according to IPPC-IED
in a textile mill, employing cotton and polyester fabric fini-
shingedyeing. The study followed a systematic approach consisting
of three basic steps including pre-assessment, assessment and
feasibility analysis. After the technical evaluations with the mill
management the priority issues requiring detailed further in-
vestigations were decided to be water and chemical consumptions,
wastewater generation and pollutant loads. Therefore, the main
focus of this study was the minimization of water and chemical
consumptions and wastewater generations in the mill. Multi-
criteria decision-making methods employed together with the
mill management were used for the first time to evaluate and
finalize BAT options. We believe that the employed unique meth-
odology and the findings of this study (i.e., potential reductions in
water and chemical usages and potential savings after BAT imple-
mentations) will be useful to similar textile mills, stakeholders and
regulators. The structure of this study may provide a road map to
textile industry for their cleaner production applications.
93
1.1. Turkish textile industry
Textile industry has a significant role in the economic devel-
opment of the countries in terms of export income and employ-
ment (Heymann, 2011). Today, there are more than 150 countries
supplying textile all over the world and it is a global industry in this
respect (WTO, 2007). Turkey is one of the leading textile suppliers
with 3.6% share in the world textile trade (RTPM, 2014). Turkey is
the second largest textile supplier of Europe. Textile industry cre-
ates 16% of added values (Cukul, 2008) and it provides 27% of all
employment in Turkish manufacturing industry (RTMIT, 2010).
Turkish textile industry is dominated by small and medium en-
terprises (SMEs). It consists of large number of sub-sectors and has
complex manufacturing processes. According to Turkish Statistical
Institute, textile industry is responsible from 15% of overall indus-
trial water consumption (191.5 million m3 per year) and it is the
second largest industrial water consumer in the manufacturing
sector (TSI, 2010). Therefore, reduction of water consumption and
prevention of contamination of water resources are important
concerns for the Turkish textile industry. The stringent discharge
limits and requirements of regulatory-standards are forcing Turkish
textile industry for more efficient usage of water and chemicals.
Therefore, Turkish textile industry has already prepared cleaner
productions plans based on the Communique recently published.
Some mills already applied some parts of these plans by making
investments, considering Turkish BREF and IPPC-IED directive.
Majority of these investments are process and machinery/equip-
ment modifications with an effort to reduce water and chemical
consumptions.
1.2. Water consumption in textile industry
Water is one of the most significant inputs of wet processes
(pre-treatment, dyeing and finishing) in textile industry. The spe-
cific water consumption is reported to range 3e932 L/kg product
depending on fiber type, applied techniques and technologies (Brik
et al., 2006; Kocabas, 2008). IPPC Textile BAT Reference (BREF)
document indicates that specific water consumption ranges from
10 to 645 L/kg product (average 22e184) in the textile industry and
such values are 21e645 L/kg product (average 92e162) in mills
employing cotton and polyester fabric finishingedyeing (EC, 2003).
In other studies performed for the Turkish textile industry, specific
water consumption was found 20e350 L/kg product (Alaton et al.,
2006; Ozturk et al., 2009). For the cotton and polyester fabric fin-
ishingedyeing mills in Turkey, specific water consumptions are
expected to be 70e250 L/kg product. The Textile and Apparel
Specialist Commission Report of the 8th Five Year Development
Plan of the State Planning Organization stated that the current
specific water consumption in textile industry should be reduced to
<80 L/kg product using water saving technologies (Kocabas et al.,
2009). Such water saving technologies and BATs are available and
can easily be implemented by the textile industry. For example, it
was reported that water consumption in the textile industry can be
potentially reduced about 15e79% with the implementation of
various cleaner production measures (Alkaya and Demirer, 2014).
1.3. Chemical consumption in textile industry
Textile production processes are characterized by their
comparatively high specific chemical consumption. Chemical con-
sumption is about 10e100% in proportion to total fiber weight in
textile processing (Ozturk et al., 2009). A large number of chemicals
are needed to impart the desired properties to textile fibers such as
acids, bases, surfactants, enzymes, stabilizers, dispersing agents,
retarders, salts, dyes, solvents, emulsifiers, fixing and complexing
94 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102
agents (Marechal et al., 2012). According to IPPC Textile BREF,
specific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions in European Textile
Industry are about 10e50 g/kg product and 58e670 g/kg product,
respectively (EC, 2003). Specific dyestuff and auxiliary consump-
tions for cotton and polyester fabric finishing dyeing mills were
reported as 0.5e397 g/kg product (Kalliala and Talvenmaa, 2000)
and 3e1776 g/kg product (EMM, 2006), respectively. Specific
dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions in the overall Turkish textile
industry were found to be 10e30 g/kg product and 100e650 g/kg
product, respectively (Ozturk, 2014). Literature indicated that
chemical consumption could be reduced 20e50% by the imple-
mentation of various measures of cleaner production techniques in
the textile industry (Ozturk et al., 2015).
More than 50% of the chemicals are directly discharged from the
processes depending on the ratios of fixation in textile production
processes (Khatri et al., 2015). Thus, residual unfixed chemicals
increase pollutant loads in textile wastewaters. The textile waste-
waters are highly variable in their composition and contain unfixed
dyes, dyeing auxiliaries, inorganic salts, and other chemicals used
to improve adherence to the fibers (Karci, 2014). They are charac-
terized by high color, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and salt/
conductivity content (Tanapongpipat et al., 2008). IPPC Textile BREF
document indicates that specific COD loads of textile wastewaters
range between 13 and 390 g COD/kg product (EC, 2003). Textile
wastewater treatment with conventional purification methods is
very difficult due to the large amounts of toxic, non-biodegradable
organic compounds, salts and heavy metals (Carmen and Daniela,
2012). In addition, discharge of insufficiently treated textile
wastewaters may cause irreversible environmental problems
(Ozturk et al., 2015). On the other hand, several studies showed that
specific COD loads of textile wastewaters could be reduced 25e50%
by the implementation of proper cleaner production measures
(DEPA, 2002; LCPC, 2010).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study approach
In this study, minimization of water and chemical consumptions
were taken as a priority considering the reduction of production
costs and improved efficiency and environmental performance of
the mill. In this context, it was decided to implement a systematic
assessment study consisting three phases (Fig. 1). In the first phase
of the study, investigation of applied process flow diagrams, data
collection of water and chemical consumptions, identification of
inefficiencies were carried out. On-site investigations were per-
formed and water/chemical consumptions of the production pro-
cesses were evaluated.
In the second phase of the study, mass-balance calculations
were conducted for the production processes based on specific
inputs and outputs. Specific water and chemical consumptions
were calculated. It should be noted that the production schedules
and dyeing recipes in the studied mill may vary over time in terms
of fashion trends and customer orders. To compensate these vari-
ations and capture the general performance of the mill, three years
of continuous data was used. Samples from raw groundwater and
softened waters were collected in different periods and analyzed
for pH, conductivity, hardness, total dissolved solid (TDS), total
organic carbon (TOC), etc. Samples were also collected from all
wastewater sources to characterize different wastewater streams
and evaluate their reuse-recovery potentials. Composite samples
(2 h) from wastewater sources were collected in different periods
and analyzed for pH, conductivity, TDS, COD, total suspended solid
(TSS), total nitrogen (TN), sulfate, sulfides, color parameters.
Furthermore, factors (fiber type, applied techniques, process
specifications, color shade) affecting the characteristics of waste-
waters were taken into consideration and recovery/reuse potentials
of wastewater streams were evaluated accordingly. The water and
wastewater analyses were performed according to the relevant
Standard Methods (APHA, 1997). The 2-h composite samples were
collected in duplicate. Analytical measurements of each sample
were conducted in triplicate. A detailed chemical inventory study
was also conducted in the mill. Material safety data sheets (MSDS)
of 291 chemicals were evaluated in terms of biodegradability and
toxicity (LC50, LD50, IC50, and EC50) aspects. Thus, the chemicals
which possess environmental and health risks were determined.
According to the chemical inventory results, chemical substitution
with the environmentally friendly counterparts was suggested for
toxic and low biodegradable chemicals. Specific water and chemical
consumptions of the mill were compared with those in similar mills
and in IPPC Textile BREF document. In this context, potential re-
ductions that could be achieved for water and chemical con-
sumptions were determined.
In the third phase of the study, BAT options were determined on
the basis of IPPC and Turkish Textile BREFs. The multi-criteria de-
cision methods were used to quantitatively evaluate BAT options.
Multi-criteria decision-making is an effective approach that can be
successfully used for revealing eco-innovative solutions (Aydiner
et al., 2015). Multi-criteria analysis tools help at the selection of
BATs (Cikankowitz and Laforest, 2013). In this decision process,
potential BAT options were listed for the solution of the problems in
the production processes of the mill. Listed BAT options were dis-
cussed with the mill management for their technical applicability.
In the second step of the decision process, weighting scores were
given to each technically applicable BAT option in terms of potential
environmental benefits, saving ratios, estimated investment costs,
and potential payback periods. Score 5 and 1 indicates high priority
and low priority, respectively. After these screening steps, final list
of BATs to be incorporated in the cleaner productions plans of the
mill was prepared. Feasibility studies in terms of techno-economic
applicability, potential savings and environmental benefits were
carried out for each final BAT. The estimated payback periods were
also calculated for each final BAT.
2.2. Studied textile mill
In this work, water and chemical minimization studies were
carried out in a cotton and polyester fabric finishingedyeing mill.
The textile mill was located in Denizli province of Turkey. Annual
fabric pretreatment and dyeing capacities of the mill were 2412 and
6682 tons/year, respectively. There were two production lines in
the mill; HT (high temperature)-over flow (atmospheric machine)
and pad-batch. The process flow diagram of the mill is given in
Fig. 2. Exhaustion techniques and impregnated-padding techniques
were employed in the HT-over flow and pad-batch processes,
respectively. The HT-over flow and pad-batch production processes
in the mill were discontinuous and semi-continuous, respectively.
Jet dyeing machines were used in the HT-over flow process
employing 10:1 flotte ratio.
Water demand of the mill was supplied from groundwater re-
sources and raw water demand of the mill was approximately
3100 tons/day. Raw water has considerable hardness content due to
the geological structure of the region. Raw water was softened by
cationic ion exchange resins to be used mainly as process water in
wet processes. Other uses of softened water were for regeneration
of ion exchange resins and partly for steam generation. Some
fraction of the softened process water was further treated by
reverse osmosis (RO) to provide demineralized water to be used in
steam boilers. Thus, steam generation performance was increased
and possible inorganic scaling and/or corrosion problems in hot
 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102
pipes and boilers were proactively avoided. A very small portion of
the raw groundwater was directly (without softening) used in fa-
cility cleanings.
Large volume of wastewater was generated in the mill mainly
due to the intensive water consumption in wet processes. The main
sources of wastewaters in the mill were wet processes, regenera-
tion of ion exchange resins, facility cleaning operations, RO con-
centrates, and domestic usage. During the study, the average
combined/composite wastewater flowrate (industrial and domes-
tic) of the mill was 2573 m3/day. Wastewater streams from various
production processes were collected through a combined channel
system. Heat recovery from hot wastewater streams by plate heat
exchangers were already implemented in the mill. However, any
type of wastewater recovery or reuse application, except for cooling
water, was not present in the mill. The combined wastewater was
sent to a common industrial wastewater treatment plant (con-
ventional aerobic biological treatment) in the organized industrial
region.
Large amounts of dyestuff and auxiliary chemicals were
consumed in the wet processes of the mill. Reactive and disperse
dyestuff were intensively used in cotton and polyester dyeing
Fig. 1. Structural approach employed in the study.
95
processes, respectively. An automatic chemical dosage system was
only used in HT-over flow process to reduce chemical consumption.
However, chemical recovery or reuse applications were not per-
formed in the mill. Quality management system and Occupational
Health and Safety Assessment Series (OHSAS) were employed in
the mill. Furthermore, Oeko-Tex Standard 100 (Zhu et al., 2009),
which is an independent testing and certification system required
at all production stages for textile raw materials, intermediate and
end products, was already implemented in the mill.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Minimization of water consumption and wastewater
generation
The specific water consumptions and their distributions were
evaluated in the mill (Table 1). It was found that 2% of the raw water
was consumed directly (without softening) in facility cleaning op-
erations. About 98% of the raw water was softened in cationic ion
exchange resins and further used in the production processes of the
mill. 82% of the softened water was consumed in the wet processes.
96 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102

Fig. 2. Process flow diagram of the mill.

Water consumption in the HT-over flow process was 60% of overall
consumption. Similarly, 66% of total fabric (by weight) is produced
by the HT-over flow process. Pretreatment and finishingedyeing
steps in the HT-over flow process were responsible from 18% and
42% of the overall water consumption, respectively. Main reason of
the high water consumption in finishing and dyeing processes was
the number of baths employed. On the other hand, the pad-batch
process had a 22% share in the overall water consumption. About
34% of total fabric (by weight) is produced in the pad-batch process.
Pretreatment and dyeingefinishing steps in the pad-batch process
were responsible from 9% and 13% of the overall water consump-
tion, respectively. Semi-continuous techniques were employed in
pad-batch process. Although water and chemical consumption
should theoretically be limited in this type of process, lack of
wastewater recovery-reuse applications, water and chemical con-
trol equipments, automatic dosage systems and efficient washing
techniques appear to lead to excessive water and chemical con-
sumptions in pad-batch processes. Softened waters were also
consumed in steam generation, regeneration of ion exchange resins
and domestic usage. The steam generation was responsible from 7
to 8% of the overall water consumption. The softened water used in
steam boilers was further treated for hardness removal by RO
process. Hence, the hardness-causing ions were rejected and
related scale formation was prevented. In addition, energy effi-
ciency of the mill was improved by using closed steam system to
minimize steam losses. Besides, the condensate was reused in
 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102 97

Table 1 regeneration of ion exchange resins were responsible from 2%, 0.4%
Specific water consumptions in the wet processes. and 10% of overall wastewater generation, respectively. The specific
Specific water consumption wastewater generation of the mill (including domestic wastewa-
Sources of water Average specific Unit Percent of
ters) varied between 86 and 94 L/kg product. The specific waste-
consumption water consumption total water water generation of the HT-over flow and pad-batch processes
(min.emax.) consumption ranged from 86 to 88 and 60 to 62 L/kg product, respectively.
(average) Samples from raw and softened waters were analyzed for pH,
Raw water 97 (95e102) (L/kg product) 100 conductivity, turbidity, TDS, TOC, iron, sulfate, and hardness pa-
Facility cleaning 5 (4e6) (L/m2-day) 2 rameters and the performance of the softening system was also
Processes water 95 (93e100) (L/kg product) 98
evaluated. These analyses are in critical importance since high
HT-over flow process 88 (85e90) (L/kg product) 60
Pretreatment 30 (29e31) (L/kg product) 18 conductivity and hardness content of softened waters might
Dyeing and finishing 66 (64e68) (L/kg product) 42 directly affect production efficiency. It was found that hardness of
Pad-batch process 61 (55e64) (L/kg product) 22 softened waters were about 30e40 mg CaCO3/L (removal effi-
Pretreatment 25 (22e26) (L/kg product) 9 ciencies higher than 90%), indicating the proper operation of soft-
Dyeing and finishing 41 (37e43) (L/kg product) 13
ening process by the resins. However, to further increase hardness
Steam generation 7 (6e7) (L/kg product) 7
Ion-exchangers 9 (8e12) (L/kg product) 10 removal efficiency, optimization techniques for resin regeneration
regeneration cycles and new resin replacements were suggested to the mill. The
Domestic usage 43 (28e45) (L/person-day) 0.3 wastewaters produced during resin regenerations with very high
salinity contents were directly discharged to combined wastewater
channel in the mill. However, the regeneration wastewaters could
steam boilers for enhanced water and energy savings. The regen- be separately collected and potentially reused in several processes
eration of the ion exchange resins was responsible from 9 to 10% of such as facility cleanings and cotton fabric dyeing process where
overall water consumption. The regeneration wastewaters with high salinity process water is a necessity. Although regeneration
high salinity content were directly discharged to the wastewater wastewaters have high salinity contents due to the usage of sodium
collection channel. Domestic usage was found to have 0.3% share in chloride (NaCl) salts as resin regenerants, they are relatively clean
the overall water consumption. Specific water consumptions were in terms of other parameters such as TOC, turbidity, TN, color, and
also calculated for each production process. Accordingly, the spe- sulfur species. Therefore, by reuse of regeneration wastewaters
cific raw water consumption and softened water consumption both water consumption and wastewater generation could be
varied from 95 to 102 and 93 to 100 L/kg product, respectively. The reduced.
specific water consumption of the HT-over flow and pad-batch Factors such as fiber type, applied techniques, process specifi-
process varied from 85 to 90 and 55 to 64 L/kg product, cations, and color shades affect wastewater characteristics; there-
respectively. fore samples from various wastewater streams were taken in
Specific wastewater generations were also determined based on different periods in order to capture the variations (Table 3) Based
the production processes (Table 2). According to the calculations, on the wastewater quality analysis and flowrates of various
finishingedyeing processes were responsible from 88% of the streams, reuse potentials of each stream with or without treatment
overall wastewater flowrate. The HT-over flow and pad-batch were evaluated. Wastewater samples from HT-over flow process
processes had shares of 64% and 24% in the overall wastewater (sample no: 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, and 11) and pad-batch process (sample no:
generation, respectively. The HT-over flow process wastewaters 13, 16, 17, and 18) exhibited high and variable COD (1224e9690 mg
consisted of pretreatment (30%) and dyeingefinishing (70%) COD/L), TSS (1680e2890 mg TSS/L) (sample no: 3, 5, and 16), color
wastewaters. This is mainly due to the numerous washingerinsing (117e4712 PteCo), and conductivity (915e92,200 mS/cm) values,
procedures especially in finishing processes. The wastewaters of indicating that HT-over flow and pad-batch process wastewaters
pad-batch process were generated mainly (70%) from the finishing should be treated if reuse is considered. In other words, these
procedures. In pad-batch operations, 35% and 52% of the waste- streams cannot be directly reused (DR) without treatment. Simi-
waters were generated by the pretreatment and dyeingefinishing larly, the wastewaters from dyeingefinishing processes also had
steps, respectively. Facility cleanings, domestic wastewaters and high concentrations of above parameters. Hence, these wastewa-
ters were also not suitable for direct reuse in dyeingefinishing
processes. Such wastewaters could only be reused in production
processes after appropriate advanced treatment. Conventional
Table 2
Specific wastewater generations. aerobic biological treatment is generally ineffective for color and
COD reduction mainly due to the presence of azo dyes and other
Specific wastewater generation
various types of dyes (reactive, disperse, etc.) (Moralı, 2010).
Sources of wastewater Average specific Unit Percent of Therefore, advanced treatment options (such as anaerobic/aerobic
generation wastewater total water
biological treatment, membrane bioreactors, high pressure mem-
generation consumption
(min.emax.) (average) brane processes, advanced oxidation, etc.) seem to be necessary for
the treatment of textile wastewaters from dyeingefinishing pro-
Process wastewater 88 (86e94) (L/kg product) 98
HT-over flow process 86 (86e88) (L/kg product) 64
cesses (Esenceli and Tiyek, 2014). In this respect, membrane pro-
Pretreatment 29 (29e30) (L/kg product) 19 cesses (microfiltration-MF, ultrafiltration-UF, nanofiltration-NF,
Dyeing and finishing 64 (64e66) (L/kg product) 45 and reverse osmosis-RO) have been employed with increasing
Pad-batch process 60 (60e62) (L/kg product) 24 number of installations (Gozalvez-Zafrilla et al., 2008).
Pretreatment 42 (42e44) (L/kg product) 17
Some of the wastewater sources (sample no: 1, 7, and 10) were
Dyeing and finishing 20 (20e21) (L/kg product) 7
Ion-exchangers 9 (8e12) (L/kg product) 10 found to contain low TSS (19e82 mg TSS/L), color (<38 PteCo) and
regeneration conductivity (962e1987 mS/cm) levels (Table 3). However, such
Facility cleaning 5 (4e6) (L/m2-day) 2 samples exhibited high and variable COD concentrations
Domestic wastewater 43 (28e45) (L/person-day) <1 (918e2142 mg COD/L). Therefore, it appears that PES-softening,
Total wastewater generation 88 (86e94) (L/kg product) 100
soaping process and enzyme containing wastewater streams
98 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102

Table 3
Wastewater characterization and evaluation of reuse potentials in wet processes.

Wastewater characterization in wet processes

Sample no. Source of wastewater Process Color shade pH Conductivity (mS/cm) COD (mg/L) TSS (mg/L) Color (PteCo) Reuse
potential

1 Polyester softening HT-over flow Light/dark 4.1 962 1479 19 38 WT/DR

b
2 Reductive washing HT-over flow Light/dark 3.3 1552 9486 48 764 WT
3 Optical bleaching HT-over flow Light/white 10.8 9240 8466 2440 349 WT
4 Soaping process-1 HT-over flow Dark 5.6 6380 2193 115 3903 WT
5 Bleaching HT-over flow Light/dark 10.8 4540 5202 2890 2356 WT
6 Reactive dyeing-1 HT-over flow Light 10.5 27,700 281 34 137 WT/DR
7 Soaping process-2 HT-over flow Light ea e 2142 24 38 WT/DR
8 Polyester dyeing-1 HT-over flow Dark 3.5 992 9690 82 4712 WT
c
9 Softening HT-over flow Light/dark 4.8 807 740 46 22 DR
10 Enzyme HT-over flow Light/dark 5.1 1987 918 82 <20 WT/DR
11 Reactive dyeing-2 HT-over flow Dark 10.7 92,200 1581 196 713 WT
12 Polyester dyeing-2 HT-over flow Light 4.2 1769 1556 22 167 WT/DR
13 Mercerization cabin 2 Pad-batch Light/dark e e 1530 228 301 WT
14 Washing/rinsing cabin 1 Pad-batch Dark 10.2 3930 510 16 382 WT/DR
15 Washing/rinsing cabin 2 Pad-batch Light e e 82 18 <20 DR
16 Cold bleaching cabin 2 Pad-batch Light/dark 10.2 4750 4896 1680 1911 WT
17 Cold bleaching cabin 4 Pad-batch Light/dark 9.1 915 1224 210 652 WT
18 Cold bleaching cabin 3 Pad-batch Light/dark 9.2 1062 2550 610 117 WT
19 Hot bleaching cabin 5 Pad-batch Light/dark 8.4 898 204 12 317 WT/DR
a
Data not available.
b
WT: can be reused after treatment.
c
DR: can be directly reused (without treatment).

could be reused in finishing dyeing processes after COD reduction
by appropriate treatment. The residual chemicals (softening
agents) were responsible from the high COD content of these
wastewaters. As a second option, these wastewaters could be
directly reused in facility cleanings. As a third option, testing the
direct reuse of these wastewaters in the same processes was sug-
gested to the mill since the organic content is mainly due to the
residual softening agents. In addition to water saving, such
approach may also provide chemical recovery, if it is found that
such reuse does not negatively affect product quality.
Reactive dyeing-1 and hot bleaching cabin 5 wastewater
streams (Table 3, sample no: 6 and 19) had high COD and color
contents, which indicated that these streams could only be reused
in finishingedyeing processes after appropriate treatment. Alter-
natively, these streams could be reused in the same processes
without treatment, but after chemical composition rearrangement.
IPPC Textile BREF document emphasizes that waste dyebath efflu-
ents can be reused after chemical composition rearrangement in
dyebaths based on production experiences (EC, 2003). Due to high
COD (1556 and 510 mg COD/L) and color (167 and 382 PteCo)
contents of PES-dyeing-2 and washing/rinsing cabin 1 wastewater
streams, sample no: 12 and 14, respectively, reuse was only viable
after appropriate treatment. Alternatively, wastewaters from PES-
dyeing-2 operation could be directly reused in the same process
after chemical composition rearrangement. Wastewaters from
softening (sample no: 9) and washing/rinsing cabin 2 (sample no:
15) operations were found to have relatively low salt, COD and color
contents, suggesting that these two streams could be directly
reused in the finishingedyeing processes. Similarly, the final
washingerinsing wastewaters of the HT-over flow process were
also suitable for direct reuse in the finishingedyeing process.
Samples from combined wastewaters (domestic and indus-
trial) were also collected in different periods during 3 months of
investigation. The composition and flowrates of wastewaters in
the mill were greatly variable day by day due to the production
schedules, process specifications and applied recipes. Following
results were obtained from the analysis of combined wastewater
samples; pH: 8.2e8.9, conductivity: 3740e4770 mS/cm, COD:
118e1378 mg/L, TSS: 118e244 mg/L, oil-grease: <10 mg/L,
NH4eN: <0.5 mg/L, sulfur: <0.1 mg/L, sulfide: <1 mg/L, free
chlorine: <0.1 mg/L, and color: 374e1496 PteCo. Specific
pollutant loads of wastewaters (pollutant load divided by weight
of textile product) were also calculated in the mill. Average spe-
cific COD, TSS and oil-grease loads were 122, 22 and 0.9 g/kg
product, respectively. Furthermore, the specific pollutant loads of
processes were also determined. Average specific COD and TSS
loads of the HT-over flow process were 313 and 43 g/kg product,
respectively. Average specific COD and TSS loads of the pad-batch
process were 95 and 24 g/kg product, respectively. Average spe-
cific COD and TSS loads of the HT-over flow pretreatment process
were 99 and 17 g/kg product, respectively. Average specific COD
and TSS loads of the finishingedyeing processes were 211 and 5 g/
kg product, respectively. Average specific COD and TSS loads of
the pad-batch finishing processes and pretreatment operations
were 88 and 23 g/kg product, respectively. Average specific COD
and TSS loads of the pad-batch dyeing and finishing operations
were 6 and 0.3 g/kg product, respectively. Analysis of samples
from various wastewater streams and the calculated specific
pollutant loads indicated a high degree of variability in pollutant
concentrations and specific loads among production processes. In
addition, variations in the same production line were also
observed mainly due to different production schedules and
applied dyeing recipes. Overall, it was found that after segregation
of relatively clean wastewater streams to be directly reused, the
remaining combined wastewater could be reused after employing
advanced treatment technologies such as membrane bioreactor
and nanofiltration/reverse osmosis.
3.2. Minimization of chemical consumption and chemical inventory
study
Chemical consumptions in various production processes were
calculated (Table 4). Dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions of the HT-
over flow process with respect to total mill consumptions were 56%
and 72%, respectively. The remaining dyestuff (44%) and auxiliary
(28%) consumptions were found to be from the pad-batch process.
The chemical consumption was intensive in the HT-over flow
dyeingefinishing process, which is mainly due to the fact that this
 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102
Table 4
Specific dyestuff and auxiliaries consumptions.
Specific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions
Processes Average specific dyestuff consumption
(min.emax.) (g/kg product)
HT-over flow process 8 (7e9)
Pretreatment 0 166
Dyeing and finishing 8 (7e9)
Pad-batch process 13 (11e15)
Pretreatment 0 248
Dyeing and finishing 8 (7e9)
Total 10 (9e10)
process contributes 66% (by weight) to total textile production.
Average specific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions of the mill
were calculated as 10 and 366 g/kg product, respectively. Average
specific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions in the HT-over flow
process was 8 and 405 g/kg product, respectively. Such values were
13 and 298 g/kg product in the pad-batch process. Based on these
values, it was found that dyestuff usage was higher in the pad-batch
process. Long process chains, application of the pad-batch type
dyeing and manual techniques appeared to be the main reasons of
higher dyestuff consumptions in the pad-batch process. The re-
sidual dyestuff was found to be removed with the wastewater,
resulting in significant amounts of dyestuff being lost from the pad-
batch process. On the other hand, auxiliary usage was higher in the
HT-over flow process, which was due to high amounts of salt usage
in reactive dyeing as a process requirement and lack of automatic
dosage systems in some of the dyeing machines.
A detailed chemical inventory study was performed in the mill.
MSDS documents of 291 chemicals (auxiliary: 86, dyestuff: 155,
other chemicals: 50) were studied. Biodegradability ratio (OECD
301A (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development)
and Zhang-Wellens 302B test values) and eco-toxicity values (LC50:
lethal concentration for 50% organism mortality) of all chemicals
were investigated. A chemical with a biodegradability ratio less than
70% was classified as ‘low biodegradable’. The toxicity classification
based on LC50 value was as following; toxic: <10 mg/L, medium
toxic: 10e100 mg/L, low toxic: 100e180 mg/L, very low toxic/non-
toxic: >180 mg/L (Ren, 2000). Among the investigated 155 dye-
stuffs, 53 of them were found to be low biodegradable. Based on LC50
values, only 2 dyestuff was found to be toxic. Among the investi-
gated 86 auxiliary chemicals, 19 of them were found to be low
biodegradable or toxic. Some of the auxiliary chemicals classified as
toxic were polyamine derivative, protein enzymes, propanol, so-
dium hypochlorite, fatty alcohol polyglycol ether, aryl ethyl phe-
nylpolyglycol ether, isotridecanol, ethoxylates, and lactic acid. The
chemical inventory study overall indicated that total of 74 chemicals
(19 auxiliary and 55 dyestuff) could be replaced with more biode-
gradable and less toxic counterparts. The mill will conduct a further
study to evaluate the potential effects of chemical substitutions on
production processes and product quality. A similar chemical in-
ventory study was conducted by Ozturk et al. (2009) in a denim
fabric mill. A total of 128 chemicals were evaluated and substitution
of 8 chemicals was suggested. After the implementation of sug-
gested substitutions, it was reported that sulfide concentration of
wastewater could be reduced 76% and biodegradability could be
increased 26% (Ozturk et al., 2009).
3.3. Comparison of specific consumptions and environmental
aspects with similar mills
Based on the collected 2-year data, specific water consumption
was found to range from 95 to 102 L/kg product in the mill. Such
values were compared with those indicated in IPPC Textile BREF
99
Average specific auxiliary consumption Percent of total dyestuff Percent of auxiliary
(min.emax.) (g/kg product) consumption (average) consumption (average)
405 (382e408) 56 72
(151e173) 0 30
238 (218e249) 56 42
298 (280e305) 44 28
(223e652) 0 23
56 (52e58) 44 5
366 (347e383) 100 100
document and in the published literature. For fabric finishingedye-
ing mills, IPPC Textile BREF document suggests that specific water
consumption should be 7e645 L/kg product (EC, 2003). For cotton
weaving and knitting fabric dyeingefinishing mills, such values are
suggested as 21e645 and 60e216 L/kg product, respectively, in the
BREF document (EC, 2003). Similarly, specific water consumptions
for the polyester weaving and knitting fabric dyeingefinishing mills
were given as 7e248 and 35e229 L/kg product, respectively (EC,
2003). Specific water consumption values for similar mills were
also found in the literature. For example, Kocabas (2008) reported
specific water consumption values for cottonepolyester weaving and
knitting fabric dyeingefinishing mills as 5e508 (average: 113) and
20e377 (average: 83) L/kg product, respectively. It was found that
the specific water consumptions of the investigated mill fall in the
range of those reported in BREF documents and literature. It should
also be noted that the ranges given in BREF documents are very wide
mainly due to the heterogeneity of various textile production pro-
cesses. Based on the lower end values reported in BREF documents
and technical investigation (reuse and process optimization/modi-
fication options) performed in the mill, it was found that specific
water consumption of the mill could be potentially decreased by
16e79%. This finding indicated a significant potential on water sav-
ings in the mill. Similar results were also found in the literature. It
was reported that water savings up to 35e65% could be achieved by
the application of cleaner production techniques in textile industry
(Ozturk et al., 2015). It was reported that water consumption and
COD load might be decreased 30e50% (DEPA, 2002) or 25e50%
(LCPC, 2010) with the reuse of dyeing bath in textile mills. Greer et al.
(2013) indicated that water consumption could be decreased 6e21%
by reuse of washingerinsing and softening wastewaters. Water
savings around 5e10% could be achieved by the optimization of
water softening system (AIG, 2012). Reductions in water consump-
tions also reduce wastewater flowrates to be treated.
The specific wastewater generation and specific COD load of the
combined wastewaters in the mill were 86e94 L/kg product and
122 g COD/kg product, respectively. It was reported in the literature
that similar textile mills have specific wastewater generation of
67e265 L/kg product (Visvanathan and Kumar, 1999) and specific
COD load of 43e303 g COD/kg product (Kalliala and Talvenmaa,
2000). IPPC Textile BREF document suggests that similar textile
mills should have specific wastewater generation and specific COD
load of 21e618 L/kg product and 14e302 g COD/kg product,
respectively (EC, 2003). Hence, specific wastewater generation and
specific COD load of the studied mill were found to fall in the range
of those reported in BREF documents and literature, consistent with
the trend found for specific water consumption. Although the mill
exhibited a good performance in terms of specific wastewater
generations and specific COD loads, the mill may further reduce the
values of these parameters by reducing water consumptions and
making operational modifications. Thus, the mill can approach to
lower end values indicated in BREF documents. Literature also in-
dicates the possibility of reductions in water usage/wastewater
100 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102
generation and COD loads in textile industry. Gleick et al. (2003)
reported that the COD loads of combined wastewaters could be
decreased 20e50% with the recovery and reuse of textile waste-
waters. Greer et al. (2013) found that water consumption could be
reduced 1e6% with the implementation of water leakage detection,
preventive maintenance and improved cleaning techniques. Esti-
mated payback period was less than one month for these im-
provements. The process wastewater from bleaching and
mercerizing processes could be collected and reused for other
processes, which may reduce total water consumption 3e7% in
textile mills with estimated payback period less than one month
(Greer et al., 2010). The reductions in water consumption ranging
from 15 to 79% could be achieved by switching from overflow to
stepwise rinsing (LCPC, 2010). A 20e30% water saving could be
realized by introducing automatic water stops (Dubey and Jain,
2015). An effective method of washing was to use a countercur-
rent system (ETBPP, 1997; Dubey and Jain, 2015). It was indicated
that overall water consumption could be decreased 5e10% in textile
facilities by employing good management practices (Barclay and
Buckley, 2000).
Based on the 2-year data, the average specific dyestuff and
auxiliary consumptions of the mill were calculated as 10 and 366 g/
kg product, respectively. IPPC Textile BREF document suggests that
specific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions in similar mills should
be 10e50 and 58e670 g/kg product, respectively (EC, 2003). Spe-
cific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions in cotton weavingeknit-
ting fabric dyeingefinishing mills are reported as 10e20 and
380e670 g/kg product, respectively (EC, 2003). Such values are
reported as 10e50 and 95e430 g/kg product for mainly polyester
weavingeknitting fabric dyeingefinishing mills (EC, 2003). It was
indicated in the literature that similar textile mills employing cot-
tonepolyester weaving and knitting and subsequent dyeing/fin-
ishing have specific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions in the
range of 0.5e397 (Kalliala and Talvenmaa, 2000) and 3e1776 g/kg
product (IEE, 2006), respectively. When compared with these
values, it can be concluded that the performance of the studied mill
is good in terms of specific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions.
However, after a feasibility study with respect to lower end values
reported in BREF documents, it was found that specific dyestuff and
auxiliary consumptions of the mill could be potentially reduced 10
and 28%, respectively. It was indicated in the literature that
chemical consumption of textile mills could be significantly
reduced by the following approaches: application of automatic
chemical dosage systems; improved coordination between labo-
ratory and dyehouse (11e20% reduction) (LCPC, 2010); optimiza-
tion of recipes and chemical substitution (10e20% reduction)
(Barclay and Buckley, 2000); chemical consumption monitoring-
control and recovery/reuse (25e51% reduction) (Ozturk et al.,
2015). Specific COD load of wastewater could also be reduced
30e50% with reduced chemical consumptions (UNIDO, 2012).
Chemical consumption and specific COD load of wastewater could
be reduced 10e15% (USEPA, 1996) and 33e35% (EEAA, 1999),
respectively, with recovery/reuse of dyebath effluents. Chemical
savings of 2% could be achieved with preventive maintenance-
repair, cleaning and leakage control practices (Kar, 2012). A
20e50% chemical reduction was reported by reviewing recipes and
chemicals used in textile mills, which could correspondingly reduce
COD of composite wastewaters 30e50% and the costs of effluent
disposal (LCPC, 2010).
3.4. Evaluation of savings/benefits after the potential
implementation of final BATs
The performance of the mill was evaluated by measurements
and subsequent mass balance calculations on wet processes
according to the cleaner production principles. Depending on the
determined performances and the comparison of such perfor-
mances with those indicated in BREF documents, initial list of BAT
options was prepared. The initial list of BATs was discussed with the
mill management in the frame of techno-economic applicability.
After this screening step, working again with the mill management,
multi-criteria decision-making methods (Table 5) were applied to
determine the final BAT list. Ultimately, a final list containing 14
BATs was prepared. The final list consisted of BATs on the following
general topics: good management practices, minimization in water
and chemical consumptions and chemical substitutions.
After the implementation of BATs only related with the appli-
cation of good management practices, it was found that total water
and chemical consumptions in the mill could be potentially
reduced 3e5% and 2e5%, respectively. Such good management
practices included establishment of environmental management
system, preparation of preventive and effective maintenance-repair
programs, application of monitoring and better control techniques
in wet processes, preparation of annual waste inventory reports,
improved research and development (R&D) studies, revision of
production schedules according to cleaner production approach.
Similarly, only with the application of good management practices,
wastewater generation and specific COD load could be reduced
3e6% and 3e10%, respectively. In addition to good management
practices, by the application of techniques to minimize water
consumptions, it was calculated that total water and chemical
consumptions in the mill could be further reduced 46e50% and
10e25%, respectively. Suggested techniques to minimize water
consumptions included reuse of washing/rinsing and softening
wastewaters, reuse of suitable dyebath, optimization of water
softening unit, reuse of resin regeneration wastewater, application
of counter-washing techniques in the pad-batch washing process.
With the techniques to minimize water consumptions, wastewater
generation and the specific COD load of combined wastewaters
could be reduced 48e56% and 16e20%, respectively.
By optimizing chemical consumptions and making chemical
substitutions, chemical consumptions and specific COD load of
Table 5
Determined best available techniques.
Suggested 14 best available techniques
Good management practices  Establishment of environmental
management system
 Preparation of preventive
maintenance-repair programs
 Application of monitoring and control
techniques
 Preparation of annual waste inventory
reports
 Improving R&D activities
 Revision of production schedules according
to cleaner production principles
Water consumption  Reuse/recovery of washing/rinsing and
minimization softening wastewater
 Reuse of suitable dyebath
 Optimization of water softening unit.
Recovery/reuse of regeneration
wastewater
 Application of counter-washing techniques
in pad-batch washing process
Chemical consumption,  Removing iron from fabric surfaces before
minimization and scouring process and prevention of
substitution complex chemical usage
 Wide spreading automatic chemical dosing
 Caustic recovery from mercerization
process wastewaters using membrane
processes
 Chemical substitution
 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102
wastewater could be reduced 6e14% and 10e25%, respectively.
Suggested techniques for chemical consumption optimization and
chemical substitution included the following: removing iron from
fabric surfaces before scouring process and prevention of complex
chemical usage, installations of automatic chemical dosage sys-
tems, caustic recovery from mercerization process wastewaters
using membrane technology, and chemical substitution. The cost
analysis for the potential implementation of 14 final BATs in the
mill indicated that the payback periods seem to range from 1 to 26
months (Table 6). Furthermore, by the implementation of 14 final
BATs in the mill, operational costs for water/wastewater and
chemicals could be reduced 49% and 28% (annual average),
respectively. The potential cost savings and the associated low
payback periods, potential reductions in water/chemical usages and
wastewater flowrates/loads, and thus reduced environmental im-
pacts overall indicated the importance of the implementation of 14
BATs to the studied textile mill.
4. Conclusions
A cleaner production assessment study was carried out in a
textile mill employing cotton and polyester fabric finishingedye-
ing. The main focus was the minimization of water and chemical
consumptions and wastewater generations in the mill. It was found
that the regeneration wastewaters from water softening unit (ion
exchange process) could be separately collected and potentially
reused in several processes such as facility cleanings and cotton
fabric dyeing process where high salinity process water is a ne-
cessity. Wastewaters from dyeingefinishing, HT-over flow and pad-
batch processes were evaluated as reusable after appropriate
advanced treatment. PES-softening, soaping process and enzyme
containing wastewater streams could be reused in finishing dyeing
processes after COD reduction by appropriate treatment. As a sec-
ond option, these wastewaters could be directly reused in facility
cleanings. As a third option, they can be directly reused in the same
process since the organic content is mainly the residual softening
agents. Wastewaters from softening and washing/rinsing cabin
operations were found to have relatively low salt, COD and color
contents, suggesting that these two streams could be directly
reused in the finishingedyeing processes. The final wash-
ingerinsing wastewaters of the HT-over flow process were also
suitable for direct reuse in the finishingedyeing process. After
segregation of relatively clean wastewater streams to be directly
reused, the remaining combined wastewater could be reused after
employing advanced treatment technologies such as membrane
bioreactor and nanofiltration/reverse osmosis.
Analysis of samples from various wastewater streams and the
calculated specific pollutant loads indicated a high degree of vari-
ability in pollutant concentrations and specific loads among pro-
duction processes. Long process chains, application of the pad-
Table 6
Calculated potential savings and reduction ratios for best available techniques.
Potential savings and reductions
Best available techniques (as listed in Table 5) Water saving (%)
Good management practices 3e5
Water consumption minimization techniques 46e50
Chemical consumption minimization and ea
substitution
b
Total saving/reduction 49e55
c
Effective saving/reduction 43e51
a
Data not available.
b
Total saving/reduction: It shows the arithmetical sum of saving and reduction ratios.
c
Effective saving and reduction ratios: It shows the total saving and reduction ratios with considering cross effects between the suggested BATs.
101
batch type dyeing and manual techniques appeared to be the
main reasons of higher dyestuff consumptions in the pad-batch
process. Auxiliary chemical usage was higher in the HT-over flow
compared to pad-batch process, which was due to high amounts of
salt usage in reactive dyeing as a process requirement and lack of
automatic dosage systems in some of the dyeing machines. The
chemical inventory study indicated that total of 74 chemicals (19
auxiliary and 55 dyestuff) could be replaced with more biode-
gradable and less toxic counterparts.
Specific water consumption was found to range from 95 to
102 L/kg product in the mill. Specific wastewater generation and
specific COD load in the mill were 86e94 L/kg product and 122 g
COD/kg product (average), respectively. The average specific
dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions of the mill were calculated as
10 and 366 g/kg product, respectively. The values of all these per-
formance parameters were generally within the ranges reported in
BREF documents and literature for similar textile mills. Although
the mill exhibited a good performance in terms of specific water
consumption, specific wastewater generation, specific COD loads,
and specific dyestuff and auxiliary consumptions, the mill may
further improve its performance by implementing the BATs deter-
mined in this study.
Multi-criteria decision-making methods, with the involvement
of the mill management, were applied to determine the final BAT
list (total of 14 BATs). Such methods were simple, convenient and
effective in the screening and finalizing of BAT list. The final list of
determined BATs was related with good management practices,
minimization in water and chemical consumptions and chemical
substitutions. Good management practices included establishment
of environmental management system, preparation of preventive
and effective maintenance-repair programs, application of moni-
toring and better control techniques in wet processes, preparation
of annual waste inventory reports, improved research and devel-
opment (R&D) studies, revision of production schedules according
to cleaner production approach. Suggested techniques to minimize
water consumptions included reuse of washing/rinsing and soft-
ening wastewaters, reuse of suitable dyebath, optimization of water
softening unit, reuse of resin regeneration wastewater, application
of counter-washing techniques in the pad-batch washing process.
Suggested techniques for chemical consumption optimization and
chemical substitution included the following: removing iron from
fabric surfaces before scouring process and prevention of complex
chemical usage, installations of automatic chemical dosage sys-
tems, caustic recovery from mercerization process wastewaters
using membrane technology, and chemical substitution.
After the implementation of 14 BATs in the mill, it is estimated
that the following reductions can be potentially achieved: 43e51%
in water consumption, 16e39% in chemical consumption, 45e52%
in combined wastewater flowrate, 26e48% in specific COD load.
The cost analysis indicated that the estimated payback periods of
Chemical saving (%) Wastewater reduction (%) COD load reduction (%) Payback period
(months)
2e5 3e6 3e10 1e12
10e25 48e56 16e20 4e26
6e14 e 10e25 13e24
18e44 51e62 29e55 e
16e39 45e52 26e48 1e26
102 E. Ozturk et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 130 (2016) 92e102
BATs may range from 1 to 26 months. By the implementation of 14
BATs in the mill, operational costs for water/wastewater and
chemicals may be reduced 49% and 28% (annual average),
respectively.
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