LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO BACTERIOLOGY: HISTORY TAXONOMY AND

BACTERIAL STRUCTURE
I. Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1) Describe the significant discoveries that led to the development of microbiology.
2) Discuss the contributions of early microbiologists.
3) Differentiate Prokaryotes from Eukaryotes.
4) Describe the morphology and identify different parts of a bacteria.
5) Discuss the physiologic requirements and microbial nutrition of different types of
bacteria.

II. Concepts and Information from the Powerpoint

History of Microbiology
Definition of Terms:
Microbiology
- Came from the word “micro” meaning too small to be seen by the naked eye.
“Bio” which means life and the suffix “-logy” which came from the Greek word
“logia” which means the study of.
- Microbiology is defined as the study of organisms that are too small to be seen
by the naked eye
Parasitology- study of parasites
Phycology- study of algae
Mycology- study of fungi
Virology- study of viruses
Bacteriology
- Branch of Microbiology that deals with the study, cultivation, morphology and
identification of bacteria and its relation to medicine and other areas
Pathogen- any organism or substance especially a microorganism, capable of causing
disease, such as bacteria, viruses or fungi
Only 1% of all known bacteria cause human diseases
4% causes plant diseases
95% are non-pathogen
Opportunistic pathogens: infectious microorganism that is normally a commensal or
does not harm its host but can cause disease when the host's resistance is low.
Normal flora: These are microorganisms, mostly bacteria that continuously inhabits the
human body. Under normal conditions they are harmless and may even be beneficial
The Discovery of Microorganisms
Lucretius (98-55 B.C.) and Girolamo Fracastoro (1478-1553)
- They suggested that disease was caused by “invisible living creatures”
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
- He is considered as the “first true microbiologist”
- He is the first person to observe and accurately describe living microorganisms,
such as bacteria and protozoa, thus the accorded title of “Father of Bacteriology
and Protozoology”
- He used the term “animalcules”, or the tiny living and moving cells under the
microscope, to describe microorganisms
- He used his self-made single lens microscope with 50-300x magnification to
study bacteria and protozoa
Spontaneous Generation
- Theory that life just “spontaneously” arises or develops from non-living matter
Examples: toads, snakes and mice- moist soil or Flies and maggots- manure and
decaying flesh
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
- He mentioned that simple invertebrates could arise from spontaneous generation
Francesco Redi (1626-1697)
- In 1668, he demonstrated that maggots could not arise spontaneously from
decaying meat
- The results of his investigation invalidated the long-held belief that life forms
could arise from non-living things
- 3-jar experiment with meat
Biogenesis
- Theory that states living cells can only arise from pre-existing living cells
Rudolph Virchow (1821-1902)
- He challenged the doctrine of spontaneous generation with the concept of
biogenesis
Ferdinand Cohn (1828-1898)
 - He discovered that there are bacteria that could withstand a series of heating and
boiling because of heat resistant structures known as “endospores”
Fermentation and Pasteurization
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
- He proved that while air does not generate microbes itself, microorganisms are
indeed, present in it and can contaminate a sterile solution
- He proposed the use of heat in killing microorganisms, which is now called the
aseptic technique or a method used in preventing contamination by unwanted
microorganisms
- He described that certain microorganisms known as yeasts convert sugar into
alcohol in the absence of air (fermentation)
- He suggested the minimal heating level of beers and wines that is sufficient to kill
most of the bacteria (pasteurization)
- He developed the vaccine against anthrax (1881) and rabies (1885)
Theory of Antisepis
Ignaz Semmelweis (1816-1865)
- He demonstrated that routine handwashing can prevent spread of diseases
Joseph Lister (1827-1912)
- He was a British surgeon and he introduced the system of antiseptic surgery in
Britain
- He pioneered in promoting among surgeons, handwashing before and after an
operation, the wearing of gloves, sterilizing of surgical instruments, and the use
of phenol as antimicrobial agent for surgical wound dressing
Germ Theory of Disease
- It is based on the concept that microorganisms can cause disease
Robert Koch (1853-1910)
- He was first to show irrefutable proof that a bacteria indeed cause diseases
- He discovered Bacillus anthracis, causative agent of anthrax and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, causative agent of pulmonary tuberculosis
Koch’s Postulates:
1. The microorganism must be present in every case of the disease but absent
from a healthy host
2. The suspected microorganism must be isolated from a diseased host and
grown in pure culture
 3. The same disease must be present when isolated microorganism is inoculated
into a healthy host
4. The same organism must be isolated again from the diseased host
Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
- He introduced the concept of vaccination
- He collected scrapings from cowpox blisters and inoculated a healthy volunteer
with the cowpox material by scratching the person’s arm with a pox contaminated
needle leading to the development of smallpox immunization
Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)
- He accidentally discovered the antibiotic penicillin (Penicilium notatum)
- He discovered the lysozyme
Bacterial Taxonomy
- Taxonomy- the science of biological nomenclature and classification
- Bacterial Nomenclature- naming of microorganisms according to established
guidelines provided by the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria or
Bacteriological Code
- Writing the name of bacteria:
1. Genus should be capitalized and followed by the species epithet (specific
name), which begins with a lower-case letter
2. Both the genus and species should be italized in print- but underlined when
written in script
Example: Staphylococcus aureus or Staphylococcus aureus
3. When bacteria are referred to as a group, their names are neither capitalized
nor underlined
Ex. staphylococci, streptococci
Prokaryotes, Bacterial Structure and Eukaryotes
A. Eukaryotes
- These are microorganisms that contain a true nucleus (with chromosome bound by a
nuclear membrane)
- These are cells of higher plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and other more
morphologically complex and larger organisms than prokaryotes
- They reproduce through sexual and asexual cell division
- Cell size: 10-100 μm
B. Prokaryotes
- The word “prokaryote” is formed by the words “pro” meaning before, and the Greek
word “karyon” , which means nucleus, nut or kernel
- These organisms do not contain a true nucleus
- These organisms also do not contain organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. All their functions take place in the cytoplasm or
cytoplasmic membrane
- They reproduce asexually (binary fission)
- Cell size: 0.20-2.0 μm
C. Bacteria
- These are unicellular organisms that do not have a true nucleus, a nuclear membrane
and membrane bound organelles
- They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms
- They reproduce asexually (binary fission)
Morphology of bacteria:
Cocci: spherical/oval
-diplococci
-streptococci
-staphylococci
-tetrad
-sarcina
Bacilli: rod shaped
-diplobacilli
-streptobacilli
-chain of bacilli
-Flagellate rods
-Spore-former
Spiral
-vibrio
-spirilla
-spirochetes
Bacterial Cell Structure:
a. Cell envelope
- It is the outermost structure of the bacterial cell
- It is composed of an outer membrane, cell wall, periplasm and plasma membrane
b. Cell Wall
- Also referred to as peptidoglycan or murein layer
- Rigid structure that maintains the shape of the cell
- Its synthesis and structure is the primary target of antimicrobial agents
- It determines the staining characteristics of a species
Types of cell wall:
1. Gram-positive cell wall
- It is composed of very thick protective peptidoglycan (murein) layer
- It is the prime target of antimicrobial agents like penicillin which prevents the
synthesis of peptidoglycan
2. Gram-negative cell wall
- Its outer membrane is composed of proteins, phospholipids, and
lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
- It has porins that contribute to the permeability of the cell wall
3. Acid fast cell wall
- It has a gram positive cell wall structure
- It contains a waxy layer of glycolipids and fatty acids (mycolic acid)
- Ex. Mycobacterium and Nocardia
4. Absence of cell wall
- Prokaryotes that do not have cell wall contain sterols in their cell membrane
- Ex. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma
c. Cytoplasmic Structures
1. Inclusion bodies
- They serve as energy source or food reserve of bacteria
- Ex. Babes-Ernst bodies (Corynebacterium diptheriae),
 Bipolar bodies (Yersinia pestis),
Much’s granules (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
2. Endospores/ Asexual structures (Resistant structures)
- They are small, dormant structures located inside the bacterial cell
- They aid in survival of bacteria against external conditions
Types of spores:
i. Terminal spore: Clostridium tetani
ii. Subterminal spore: Clostridium botulinum
iii. Central spore: Bacillus anthracis
d. Cell appendages
1. Flagellum (organ of locomotion)
- It is an exterior protein filament that rotates and thus, causes bacteria to be
motile
- Important in the survivability and pathogenic ability of bacteria
Arrangement of flagella:
i. Atrichous: without flagellum
ii. Monotrichous: single flagellum on one end
iii. Amphitrichous: single flagellum on both ends
iv. Lophotrichous: group of flagella on one end or both ends
v. Peritrichous: spread over the whole surface
2. Pili (Fimbria)
- These are hairlike, proteinaceous structures that extend from the cell
membrane to the external environment
- They aid in attachment of bacteria to surfaces
- Virulence factor/ organ of attachment is the common or somatic pilus
- Genetic transfer/ conjugation process is sex pilus
- Examples of bacteria with pili: Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Pseudomonas
Microbial Nutrition
Physiologic Requirements of Bacteria
A. According to oxygen requirement
1. Aerobes
- These organisms require oxygen and grow well with room air
- Ex. Bordetella, Brucella, Mycobacteria and Pseudomonas
2. Anaerobes
- These organisms do not require oxygen to grow
a. Obligate anaerobes
- These organisms absolutely do not require the presence of oxygen because
they die after prolonged exposure to air
- Ex. Clostridium, Bacteroides
b. Facultative anaerobes
- They are the most clinically significant bacteria. They grow either in the
presence or absence of oxygen.
- Do not require oxygen but grow better in its presence
c. Aerotolerant anaerobes
-These organisms can survive in the presence of oxygen but will be unable to
perform metabolic processes unless situated in an anaerobic environment
Ex. Propionibacterium acnes
B. According to Carbon Dioxide Rrequirement
- Capnophiles require an increased CO2 (5%-10%)
- Ex. Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae
C. According to pH
- pH scale is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of an organism’s
environment
a. Acidophiles- grow between pH 0-5.5
b. Neutrophiles- grow between pH 5.5-8.0
c. Alkalophiles- grow between pH 8.5-11.5
D. According to Temperature Requirement
- Optimum temperature for most bacteria is 35°C to 37°C
1. Psychrophiles
-These organisms grow well at 0°C to 20°C
-Ex. Listeria monocytogenes
2. Mesophiles
- These organisms grow between 20°C-45°C
- Most commonly encountered pathogenic bacteria in the lab
3. Thermophiles/ Hyperthermophiles
- These organisms grow between 50°C-125°C
- Ex. Bacillus stearothermophilus
4. d. Extremophiles
- Able to survive in unusual conditions like absence of oxygen or living below the earth’s
surface
- Ex. Bacillus infernus
E. According to Salt Concentration
- Halophiles require increased concentration of sodium chloride
- Ex. Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes

III. Assignment
I. Give 5 benefits of bacteria. Explain each benefit in 2-3 sentences.
II. Identify and tabulate 5 differences of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

IV. Summarization/ Generalization

Give a summary or generalization of what you have learned from Lesson 1: Introduction
to Bacteriology: History, Taxonomy and Bacterial Structure. Minimum of 5 sentences.

V. Assessment Quiz with Answers

Choose the best answer among the choices.
1. What type of bacteria requires an increased amount of carbon dioxide for growth?

Facultative anaerobes
 Obligate aerobes

Capnophiles

Microaerophiles

2. Which type of bacteria can survive at 35°C?

Mesophiles

Psychrophiles

Extremophiles

Thermophiles

3. Which of the following terms refers to organisms with a “true nucleus”?

Prokaryotes

Archaebacteria

Eukaryotes

Bacteria

4. Which of the following inclusion bodies are found on Corynebacterium diptheriae?

Bipolar bodies

Much’s granules

Babes-Ernst bodies

Polyphosphate

5. Which of the following statements is true of bacterial nomenclature?

 Genus and name species name should be underlined when transcribed in
script

When bacteria are referred to as a group, it should be written in capital letters

Genus name should be written in all capital letters

Naming of a bacteria follows the Bergey’s Code of Bacterial Nomenclature

6. Which theory states that living cells can only arise from pre-existing living cells?

Biogenesis

Spontaneous generation

Fermentation

Germ theory of disease

7. Who introduced the concept of vaccination?

Karl Landsteiner

Edward Jenner

Howard Florey

Louis Pasteur

8. What antibiotic did Alexander Fleming discover?

Erythromycin

Bacitracin

Salvarsan
 Penicillin

9. In bacterial nomenclature, which is referred to in the species name that follows the
genus name?

Strain

Epithet

Denomination

Biotype

10. Which type of flagellar arrangement is described as the distribution around the
surface of bacteria?

Monotrichous

Lophotrichous

Amphitrichous

Peritrichous

11. Which of the following organisms lack a cell wall?

Nocardia

Mycoplasma

Capnocytophaga

Chlamydia

12. Which type of bacteria can live in the absence of oxygen but grows best inn its
presence?

Aerotolerant anaerobes
 Aerobes

Obligate anaerobes

Facultative anaerobes

13. Who among these scientists provided evidence that bacteria causes diseases?

Robert Koch

Ferdinand Cohn

John Tyndall

John Needham

14. Based on the experiment of Cohn, which cellular structures are heat resistant?

Endospores

Maggots

Animalcules

Yeast

15. Who introduced the concept of aseptic technique?

Edward Jenner

Louis Pasteur

Joseph Lister

Robert Koch

16. What is the intracellular structure that allows organisms to withstand extreme
conditions?
 Murein

Fimbriae

Endospore

Inclusion bodies

17. Who among these scientists first demonstrated that handwashing can prevent the
spread of diseases?

Francesco Redi

Joseph Lister

Edward Jenner

Ignaz Semmelweis

18. Which British surgeon developed the antiseptic system of surgery?

Louis Pasteur

Joseph Lister

Robert Koch

Edward Jenner

19. All of the following correctly states the postulates of Robert Koch except?

The same disease must be absent when the isolated

microorganism is inoculated into a healthy host

The microorganism must be present in every case of the disease but

absent from a healthy host
 The suspected microorganism must be isolated from a diseased host
and grown in pure culture

The same organism must be isolated again from the diseased host.

20. Which type of bacteria requires and grows in an environment with an increased
sodium chloride concentration?

Halophiles

Alkalophiles

Neutrophiles

Cryophiles

VI. References
Mahon, C.R., Lehman, D.C., Manuselis, G. (2014). Textbook of
Diagnostic Microbiology (5th ed.). New York: Saunders
Bailey, W. R., Scott, E. G., Finegold, S. M., & Baron, E. J. (1986). Bailey and Scott's
Diagnostic microbiology. St. Louis: Mosby.
Rodriguez, M.T. (2018). Review Handbook in Diagnostic Bacteriology. C&E Publishing
Inc.