BSBMGT615 Learner Guide V1.0

BSBMGT615
Contribute to organisation
development
Learner Guide
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Table of Contents
Unit of Competency .......................................................................................................................... 4

Application ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Performance Criteria............................................................................................................................ 5
Foundation Skills .................................................................................................................................. 6
Assessment Requirements ................................................................................................................... 8
1. Develop organisation development plan ...................................................................................... 10
1.1 – Analyse strategic plans to determine organisation development needs and objectives ............. 11
What is organisation development? .................................................................................................. 11
Analyse strategic plans....................................................................................................................... 12
Organisational Behaviour Theories .................................................................................................... 14
Motivation Theories ........................................................................................................................... 18
Activity 1A .......................................................................................................................................... 22
1.2 – Consult with relevant groups and individuals to profile the organisation’s culture and readiness
for organisational development ............................................................................................................ 23
Company culture: a comparison ........................................................................................................ 23
Types of culture ................................................................................................................................. 24
Consulting with relevant people ........................................................................................................ 27
Activity 1B .......................................................................................................................................... 28
1.3 – Determine who will take key roles in the organisational development process and confirm their
commitment .......................................................................................................................................... 29
People to Support OD Planning ......................................................................................................... 29
Activity 1C .......................................................................................................................................... 32
1.4 – Collect and analyse data on areas of the business experiencing problems or that need
realignment ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Types of data ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Activity 1D .......................................................................................................................................... 36
1.5 – Determine and agree on objectives and strategies for organisational development .................. 37
Organisational development objectives ............................................................................................ 37
Activity 1E........................................................................................................................................... 39
1.6 – Consider change management techniques required to achieve the workplace culture outcomes
and build them into the organisation development plan ...................................................................... 40
Change management techniques ...................................................................................................... 40
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Activity 1F........................................................................................................................................... 43
1.7 – Develop communication/education plans to achieve communication objectives in relation to the
desired work environment and desired approach to problem-solving and developmental activities . 44
Communication considerations ......................................................................................................... 44
Activity 1G .......................................................................................................................................... 49
2. Implement organisation development activities ........................................................................... 50
2.1 – Identify and implement consultative processes to maximise participation in the organisation
development process............................................................................................................................. 51
Consultation ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Activity 2A .......................................................................................................................................... 58
2.2 – Undertake team development and training activities to develop collaborative approaches to
problem-solving and development ........................................................................................................ 59
Training activities ............................................................................................................................... 59
Activity 2B .......................................................................................................................................... 62
2.3 – Facilitate groups to articulate problems and to propose means for resolving the problems ...... 63
Resolving problems ............................................................................................................................ 63
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 64
Warm Up ............................................................................................................................................ 64
Managing Activities ............................................................................................................................ 64
Activity 2C .......................................................................................................................................... 67
2.4 – Manage conflict between individuals and/or groups to achieve consensus or agreement ......... 68
Managing conflict............................................................................................................................... 68
Activity 2D .......................................................................................................................................... 71
2.5 – Undertake interventions in accordance with the organisation development plan ...................... 72
Undertaking interventions ................................................................................................................. 72
Activity 2E........................................................................................................................................... 77
2.6 – Brainstorm alternative proposals and negotiate and agree on outcomes ................................... 78
Reasons for alternative proposals ..................................................................................................... 78
Activity 2F........................................................................................................................................... 80
3. Maintain organisation development program .............................................................................. 81
3.1 – Undertake surveys to identify any loss of support for organisational development programs and
activities ................................................................................................................................................. 82
Identifying loss of confidence in OD .................................................................................................. 82
Activity 3A .......................................................................................................................................... 84
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3.2 – Maintain regular team meetings and individual feedback in accordance with communication
plan ........................................................................................................................................................ 85
Purpose of communication ................................................................................................................ 85
Activity 3B .......................................................................................................................................... 88
3.3 – Set out activities and interventions in the organisation development plan and maintain, evaluate
and modify them as required ................................................................................................................ 89
Interventions to OD plan.................................................................................................................... 89
Activity 3C .......................................................................................................................................... 91
3.4 – Ensure senior management reinforces organisation development program by ongoing messages
of support and appropriate resource allocation.................................................................................... 92
Senior management support ............................................................................................................. 92
Activity 3D .......................................................................................................................................... 94
3.5 – Evaluate organisation development plans in terms of costs and benefits, including opportunity
costs ....................................................................................................................................................... 95
Cost/benefit analysis.......................................................................................................................... 95
Activity 3E........................................................................................................................................... 97
Summative Assessments........................................................................................................................ 98
References ............................................................................................................................................. 99
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Unit of Competency
Application
This unit describes the skills and knowledge required to contribute to the creation of an organisation
development plan which ensures that the organisation will become more effective over time in
achieving its goals.
It applies to individuals with organisation wide responsibilities who are critically involved in shaping and
focussing the organisation so that it can adapt to new technologies, challenges and markets.
No licensing, legislative or certification requirements apply to this unit at the time of publication.
Unit Sector
Management and Leadership – Management

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Performance Criteria
Element Performance Criteria
Elements describe the Performance criteria describe the performance needed to
essential outcomes. demonstrate achievement of the element.
1. Develop organisation 1.1 Analyse strategic plans to determine organisation

development plan development needs and objectives
1.2 Consult with relevant groups and individuals to profile the
organisation’s culture and readiness for organisational
development
1.3 Determine who will take key roles in the organisational
development process and confirm their commitment
1.4 Collect and analyse data on areas of the business
experiencing problems or that need realignment
1.5 Determine and agree on objectives and strategies for
organisational development
1.6 Consider change management techniques required to
achieve the workplace culture outcomes and build them into
the organisation development plan
1.7 Develop communication/education plans to achieve
communication objectives in relation to the desired work
environment and desired approach to problem-solving and
developmental activities
2. Implement 2.1 Identify and implement consultative processes to maximise

organisation participation in the organisation development process
development activities 2.2 Undertake team development and training activities to
develop collaborative approaches to problem-solving and
development
2.3 Facilitate groups to articulate problems and to propose
means for resolving the problems
2.4 Manage conflict between individuals and/or groups to
achieve consensus or agreement
2.5 Undertake interventions in accordance with the organisation
development plan
2.6 Brainstorm alternative proposals and negotiate and agree on
outcomes
3. Maintain organisation 3.1 Undertake surveys to identify any loss of support for
development program organisational development programs and activities
3.2 Maintain regular team meetings and individual feedback in
accordance with communication plan
3.3 Set out activities and interventions in the organisation
development plan and maintain, evaluate and modify them
as required
3.4 Ensure senior management reinforces organisation
development program by ongoing messages of support and
appropriate resource allocation
3.5 Evaluate organisation development plans in terms of costs
and benefits, including opportunity costs
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Foundation Skills
This section describes language, literacy, numeracy and employment skills incorporated in the
performance criteria that are required for competent performance.
Learning:
 Participates in team development and training activities to develop skills and knowledge.
Reading:
 Evaluates and integrates facts and ideas while reviewing and interpreting organisational
development processes.
Writing:
 Researches, plans and prepares documentation using vocabulary, grammatical structure and
conventions appropriate to context and audience.
Oral Communication:
 Applies appropriate strategies to extract main ideas from oral texts across a range of contexts in
an effort to improve organisational development.
Numeracy:
 Selects and interprets a range of mathematical information to analyse performance, determine

objectives and calculate cost-benefits of organisational development.
Interact with others:
 Recognises the importance of taking audience, purpose and contextual factors into account
when making decisions about what to communicate, with whom, why and how
 Recognises the importance of supportive interaction and building rapport in order to establish
positive and effective working relationships
 Collaborates with others to achieve joint outcomes, playing an active role in encouraging
innovation and facilitating effective group interaction, influencing direction and taking a
leadership role
 Manages conflict in the workplace through the recognition of contributing factors and by
implementing resolution strategies.
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Get the work done:
 Develops flexible plans for complex, high impact activities with strategic implications that
involve multiple stakeholders with potentially competing demands
 Systematically gathers and analyses all relevant information and evaluates options to make
decisions about organisational development
 Considers whether others should be involved in decision making and, if so, uses collaborative
processes
 Uses analytical and lateral thinking to review current practices and develop new ideas
 Actively identifies systems, devices and applications with potential to meet current and or
future needs with the help of specialists.
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Assessment Requirements
Performance Evidence
Evidence of the ability to:
 Analyse information and data about the organisation and develop an organisation development
plan including:
o agreed objectives
o change management and communications strategies
o identified roles
 Implement the development plan including:
o developing the team
o managing conflict
o solving problems
 Consult and communicate effectively with relevant stakeholders to:
o determine agreed objectives and outcomes
o manage conflict
o monitor and promote participation in and support for the development activities
 Evaluate the development plan and make adjustments as appropriate.
Note: If a specific volume or frequency is not stated, then evidence must be provided at least once.
Knowledge Evidence
To complete the unit requirements safely and effectively, the individual must:
 Explain how to maximise participation in and support for organisation development including
strategies or techniques for:
o change management
o consultation
o evaluating the process and outcomes
o generating ideas and options
o managing conflict and resolving problems
 Outline theories of organisational behaviour and dynamics relevant to planning and
implementing organisational development
 Explain the impact of legislation on organisational development and change
 List aspects of organisation culture that can affect organisation development and explain how to
address them in planning and implementation.
Assessment Conditions
Assessment must be conducted in a safe environment where evidence gathered demonstrates

consistent performance of typical activities experienced in the management and leadership field of
work and include access to:
 Relevant legislation and regulation

 Workplace documentation and resources
 Case studies and, where possible, real situations
 Interaction with others.
Assessors must satisfy NVR/AQTF assessor requirements.

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Links
Companion volumes available from the IBSA website: http://www.ibsa.org.au/companion_volumes
Companion Volume implementation guides are found in VETNet -

https://vetnet.education.gov.au/Pages/TrainingDocs.aspx?q=11ef6853-ceed-4ba7-9d87-4da407e23c10
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1. Develop organisation development plan

1.1. Analyse strategic plans to determine organisation development needs and objectives
1.2. Consult with relevant groups and individuals to profile the organisation’s culture and readiness
for organisational development
1.3. Determine who will take key roles in the organisational development process and confirm their
commitment
1.4. Collect and analyse data on areas of the business experiencing problems or that need
realignment
1.5. Determine and agree on objectives and strategies for organisational development
1.6. Consider change management techniques required to achieve the workplace culture outcomes
and build them into the organisation development plan
1.7. Develop communication/education plans to achieve communication objectives in relation to the

desired work environment and desired approach to problem-solving and developmental
activities
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1.1 – Analyse strategic plans to determine organisation development needs and

objectives
By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

 Analyse strategic plans
 Identify organisational needs and objectives.
What is organisation development?

Organisation development (OD) can be defined as:
‘A planned and systematic approach to enabling sustained organisation performance through the
involvement of its people’.
Key points about organisation development are as follows:

 OD applies to changes in the strategy, structure, and/or processes of an entire system,
such as an organisation, a single site of a multi-site organisation, a department or work
group, or individual role or job
 OD is concerned with managing planned change in a flexible manner that can be

revised as new information is gathered
 OD aims to improve organisational effectiveness by:
o helping team members to gain the skills and knowledge necessary to solve
problems by involving them in the change process
o promoting high performance including financial returns, high quality products

and services, high productivity, continuous improvement and a high quality of
working life
 OD work contributes to the sustained health and effectiveness of the organisation
 OD work is based upon robust diagnosis that uses real data from organisational,
behavioural and psychological sources
 OD work is planned and systematic in its focus and takes account of strategic plans
 OD practitioners help to create alignment between different activities, projects and

initiatives
 OD work involves groups of people in the organisation to maximise engagement,

ownership and contribution.
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Organisation Development Cycle

The OD Cycle can be summarised as follows:
Analyse
Strategic
Plans
Evaluate OD Identify OD
Intervention Objectives
Implement
Design OD
OD
Intervention
Intervention
Analyse strategic plans

From our definition, we can say that an understanding of the organisation’s strategic plans is essential in
order to start the organisation development process. The strategic plans set the direction and indicate
what the organisation hopes to achieve in the future. OD is the process which supports the transition
from where the organisation is now, to where it wants to be in the future. Without an understanding of
the future state, any OD activity is at risk of being wasteful, misguided and possibly ineffective.
Let’s look at a real-life example. A successful cheese factory conducted some research into how one of
the cheese-making by-products could be used more effectively and more profitably. Whey was its
biggest manufacturing by-product and was traditionally sold as an ingredient in animal feed. After
extensive research, the organisation found a way of manufacturing baby milk formula using the whey as
one of its key ingredients. Realising that this was a way of making better use of the whey, the
organisation planned to start manufacturing of the new baby milk formula.
However, this was not as simple as buying the new machinery to manufacture baby milk formula. This
was, in fact, a massive ‘change programme’ which required careful consideration and planning.
Some of the items involved in achieving the new strategic vision included:
 Installation of new manufacturing plant and machinery
 Recruitment of new staff
 Training and development of staff to manufacture the new product
 Quality controls to manage the quality of the new product
 Communication and consultation to preserve good working relationships across the

whole staff team, etc.
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Immediately, one can see that the OD plan needs to take account of the wider perspective – the big
picture of what’s going on in this organisation. Drilling down a little further, even with just one of the
items – Recruitment of new staff – there is a potentially huge piece of work to be done.
This may involve the following actions:

 Define new job roles and reporting structures
 Advertise the new positions
 Shortlist applicants
 Conduct testing of applicants
 Training managers to conduct recruitment interviews
 Interviews and taking up references
 Selection of successful candidates
 Training and induction of new starters
 Performance management of new starters, etc.
Without a clear understanding of the overall strategy, OD interventions (actions taken to develop the
organisation) could lack direction, impact and effectiveness. There is a risk that the person in charge of
recruitment misses the fact that ‘excellent standards of food hygiene practice’ is an essential criterion in
the recruitment process, for example, and then recruits a number of individuals with no prior
experience of this working environment. This could potentially put the programme at risk as additional
training would have to be provided, along with additional monitoring and quality checks to ensure that
individuals are complying with basic food hygiene requirements.
A disconnect between the overall strategy and the OD program puts the organisation at risk of a failed
programme.
Identify organisation development objectives

With a clear view of the overall strategy, it should now be possible to determine the part that OD will
play in delivering the strategy. The specific nature of the OD needs and objectives will, of course, vary
depending on the context and the organisation’s strategy.
However, here’s an overview of some common OD objectives which may give some guidance as to
what the OD process is aiming to achieve:
 To increase the level of trust and support amongst members of the organisation
 To create an opportunity for organisational problems to be dealt with openly (as

opposed to ‘sweeping them under the rug’)
 To enable groups and individuals to participate in changes that are taking place in the
organisation
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 To improve the quality and openness of communication at all levels throughout the
organisation
 To develop the skills and talents of people within the organisation
 To equip individuals with the knowledge and skills they need in order to deliver the
organisation’s strategy
 To increase the level of personal satisfaction and

engagement amongst team members
 To increase the levels of responsibility and

accountability which people take for their actions.
In discussion with relevant people within the organisation (e.g. senior leaders), the purpose of the
organisation development program should be agreed so that all are supportive of and committed to its
objectives. Having this support at an early stage will prove invaluable should problems with
implementation occur later in the process.
Organisational Behaviour Theories

There are several important theories which underpin an understanding of organisational behaviour and
its impact on planning and implementing organisational development.
The principal ones are summarised below:

Henri Fayol’s Management Principles
Henri Fayol was a successful French industrialist of the late 19th Century who created the first school of
management. He was responsible for developing the major classical management concepts of planning,
organising, developing, staffing, coordinating, and budgeting.
As a result of his management experience, Fayol strongly believed management theories could be
developed and taught to others. He identified fourteen management principles which set out guidelines
for the effective management of an organisation.
These are listed below:

1. Division of work – division of work amongst the workforce and specialisation produces
more and better work with the same effort
2. Authority and responsibility – authority is the right to give orders and the power to ask
people to follow them. Responsibility is the task or expectation which is being allocated
to people
3. Discipline – obedience and respect between a firm and its employees based on clear
and fair agreements is absolutely essential to the functioning of any organisation
4. Unity of command – an employee should receive orders from only one manager
5. Unity of direction – organisational activities must have one central authority and one
plan of action
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6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest – the interests of one

employee or group of employees are subordinate to the interests and goals of the
organisation and cannot prevail over it
7. Remuneration of personnel – salaries should be fair and provide satisfaction both to

the employee and employer
8. Centralisation – the degree of centralisation varies according to the dynamics of each

organisation – the objective of centralisation is the best utilisation of personnel
9. Scalar chain – a chain of authority exists from the highest authority to the lowest ranks
10. Order – the right materials and the right employees are necessary for each
organisational function and activity
11. Equity – this is a combination of kindliness and justice – the desire for equity and
equality of treatment are aspirations to be taken into account in dealing with
employees
12. Stability of tenure of personnel – in order to attain the maximum productivity of

personnel, it is essential to maintain a stable and secure workforce
13. Initiative – thinking out a plan and ensuring its success is an extremely strong
motivator
14. Esprit de Corps – teamwork is fundamentally important to an organisation. This is

encouraged by creating work teams and using extensive face-to-face verbal
communication.
Even though these principles were first published in 1916, it is clear that many of the core principles are
still regarded as best management practice today.
Bureaucratic Management
Max Weber can be classified in the bureaucratic management
branch of the classical school. Weber's interest in organisations
evolved from his view of the institutionalisation of power and
authority in the modern Western world. He constructed a
‘rational-legal authority’ model of an ideal type bureaucracy.
This ideal type rested on a belief in the ‘legality’ of patterns of rules and the right of those elevated to
authority to issue commands (legal authority). Weber suggested the rules and regulations of a
bureaucracy serve to protect its members from the possibility of personal favouritism.
He believed that all bureaucracies have certain characteristics:

 A well-defined hierarchy – all positions within a bureaucracy are structured in a way
permitting the higher positions to supervise and control the lower positions. This
provides a clear chain of command facilitating control and order throughout the
organisation
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 Division of labour and specialisation – all responsibilities in an organisation are

rationalised to the point where each employee will have the necessary expertise to
master a particular task. This requires that each employee is granted the necessary
authority to complete all their tasks.
 Rules and regulations – all organisational activities should have standard operating
procedures which provide certainty and facilitate coordination
 Impersonal relationships between managers and employees – Weber believed it is

necessary for managers to maintain an impersonal relationship with the employees
because of the need to have a rational decision-making process rather than one
influenced by favouritism and personal prejudice.
 Competence – competence should be the basis for all decisions made in hiring, job
assignments, and promotions. This would eliminate personal bias and the significance
of "knowing someone" in central personnel decisions. Ability and merit are the primary
characteristics of a bureaucratic organisation.
 Records – it is essential for a bureaucracy to maintain complete files regarding all its
activities. This provides an accurate organisational ‘memory’ where accurate and
complete documents are available concerning all actions and decisions.
Scientific Management
Frederick W. Taylor has been termed the ‘father of scientific management’. As the name implies, his
was a scientific approach to managerial decision making. Taylor's major techniques
included time and motion studies whereby the work task was divided into its
constituent elements and wasted actions were eliminated. Tasks were also timed in
order to determine the expected rate of production.
Taylor also pushed strongly for standardisation in the design and use of tools.
Taylor also advocated a worker be assigned a given quantity of work each day
based on the results of time study. This was forerunner of modern day goal-setting.
Taylor claimed the primary motivation of an employee was to earn money.

Therefore, the way to get an employee to work harder was to pay by the piece. This system, known as
the piece rate system, was intended to provide individual employee productivity incentives.
The Hawthorne Experiment

(Taken from: Questions on Organizational Behaviour (8), Dr Stephen Hartman, School of Management,
New York Institute of Technology.)
The Hawthorne Experiments consist of two studies conducted at the Hawthorne Works of the Western
Electric Company in Chicago from 1924 to 1932. The study's particular focus is on lighting and attempts
to put into practice many of the principles of scientific management.
The initial study in 1924 was conducted by a group of engineers seeking to determine the relationship of
lighting levels to worker productivity. The results were extremely interesting since worker productivity
increased as the lighting levels decreased until the employees were unable to see what they were
doing, after which performance naturally declined.
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Beginning in 1927 a second group of experiments commenced with a group of

five women in the bank wiring room. During the course of the experiment, the
women were supervised by the experimenters conducting the study.
Additionally, the workers in the experimental group are given special privileges
including the right to leave their workstation without permission, rest periods,
free lunches and variations in pay levels and workdays. As with the first set of
experiments, the second group of experiments resulted in significantly increased
rates of productivity.
In the second experimental study in 1928 the results concluded that the primary determinant of an
increase in productivity is a change in the supervisory arrangement rather than the changes in lighting
or other associated worker benefits. Since the experimenters became the primary supervisors of the
employees, the intense interest they displayed for the workers was the basis for the increased
motivation and resulting productivity.
Essentially the experimenters became a part of the study and influenced its outcome. This is the origin
of the term ‘Hawthorne Effect’ describing the special attention researchers give to a study's subjects
and the impact it has on its findings. While the result of the Hawthorne studies failed to answer the
specific question of the relation between illumination and worker productivity, the study did create a
strong theoretical foundation for the human relations view of management.
Acceptance Theory of Management

Chester Barnard felt that organisations are communication systems. He believed that it is particularly
important for managers to develop a sense of common purpose where a willingness to cooperate is
strongly encouraged. He believed that the manager's ability to exercise authority is strongly determined
by the employee's ‘zone of indifference’ where orders are accepted without undue question.
Contrary to Weber’s belief that communication flows from the top of the organisation to the bottom,
Barnard felt that organisational communication flows from the bottom to the top.
He stated there are four factors affecting the willingness of employees to accept authority:
1. The employees must understand the communication
2. The employees accept the communication as being consistent with the organisation's
purposes
3. The employees feel their actions will be consistent with the needs and desires of the
other employees
4. The employees feel they are mentally and physically able to carry out the order from
the higher authority.
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Motivation Theories
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow was the first psychologist to develop a theory of motivation based upon a
consideration of human needs.
Maslow's theory of human needs has three assumptions:

1. Human needs are never completely satisfied
2. Human behaviour is purposeful and is motivated by need satisfaction
3. Needs can be classified according to a hierarchical structure of
importance from the lowest to highest.
Maslow believed the needs hierarchy can be classified into five specific groups.
To reach successive levels of the hierarchy requires the satisfaction of the lower level needs:
 Physiological needs – all physical needs necessary for maintaining basic human
wellbeing (e.g. the need for water, food, shelter, etc.) These needs become acute and
predominant if any or all of these needs are unsatisfied. However, once a need is
satisfied (e.g. thirst), it no longer is a motivator.
 Safety needs – these needs include the need for basic security, stability, protection,
and freedom from fear. A normal state exists for an individual to have all of these
needs generally satisfied. Otherwise, they become primary motivators.
 The belongingness and love needs – once physical and safety needs are satisfied and
no longer are motivators, then the belongingness and love needs emerge as primary
motivators. The individual will strive to establish meaningful relationships with
significant others.
 The esteem needs – an individual must develop self-confidence. In order to do this, it is
essential to achieve competence leading to the achievement of status, reputation,
fame and glory. This achieves satisfaction of the self-esteem needs.
 The need for self-actualisation – assuming all of the previous needs in the hierarchy
are satisfied, a "new discontent and restlessness will soon develop... A musician must
make music; an artist must paint, a poet must write ... What a man can be, he must
be."
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory helps the manager to visualise employee motivation. It helps in
understanding the motivations and needs employees have and the requirement to satisfy basic needs in
order to achieve higher level motivation.
McGregor’s Theory X and Y

McGregor is another major theorist associated with the Human Relations School of management.
McGregor believed there are two basic kinds of managers:

 Theory X managers have a negative view of employees assuming they are lazy,
untrustworthy and incapable of assuming responsibility
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 Theory Y managers assume that employees are trustworthy and capable of assuming
responsibility, having high levels of motivation.
Theory X:
 Employees normally do not like to work and will try to avoid it
 Since employees do not like working, they have to coerced,

controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to motivate
them to work
 The average employee is lazy, shuns responsibility, is not

ambitious, needs direction and principally desires security.
Theory Y:
 Work is as natural as play and therefore people desire to work
 Employees are responsible for accomplishing their own work objectives
 Comparable personal rewards are important for employee commitment to achieving

work goals
 Under favourable conditions, the average employee will seek and accept responsibility
 Employees can be innovative in solving organisational problems
 Most organisations utilise only a small proportion of their employees' abilities.
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Model

Herzberg performed research on 200 engineers and accountants. The research objective was to
determine work situations where the subjects felt highly satisfied and motivated as opposed to those
where the reverse is true. The research revealed that the work itself and achievement, as well as
recognition for the achievement, are the primary motivators. Herzberg terms these factors satisfiers or
motivators.
Factors having a negative motivation impact on the research subjects are the working conditions, salary,
job security, supervisory methods and the general company management climate. Herzberg terms these
factors hygiene factors or dissatisfiers.
From this research, Herzberg developed the motivation-hygiene model of management. The model
states that employee motivation is achieved with challenging enjoyable work where achievement,
growth, responsibility and advancement are encouraged and recognised. The environmental or hygiene
factors, such as poor lighting, ventilation, poor working conditions, low salaries, and poor supervisory
relations, serve as dissatisfiers.
The difference between motivators and hygiene factors is that motivators cause an employee to
develop his/her own internal motivations, whereas hygiene factors can make an employee unhappy and
dissatisfied, but cannot motivate him/her. The job itself is the motivator.
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Deming’s Management Points

Deming received his doctorate in physics from Yale and was invited by the Union of Japanese Scientists
and Engineers to visit Japan in 1950. In addition to urging the Japanese to use sampling methods to test
for quality control, he also taught them the best way to lowered production costs was improved quality.
Dr. Deming is concerned with increased organisational productivity by applying statistical quality
controls as well as improving organisational communication.
Deming's fourteen management points:

1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with the aim
to become competitive, to stay in business, and to provide jobs
2. Adopt a new philosophy – we can no longer live with commonly-accepted styles of

Western management, nor with commonly-accepted levels of delays, mistakes, or
defective products
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality – eliminate the need for inspection
on a mass basis by building quality into the product in the first place
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag – instead, minimise total
cost
5. Improve constantly the system of production and service

to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly
decrease costs
6. Institute training on the job
7. Institute supervision – the aim of supervision should be

to help people and machines and gadgets do a better job
8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company
9. Break down the barriers between departments – people in research, design, sales, and
production must work as a team to foresee problems of production
10. Eliminate slogans and targets for the work force which ask for zero defects and new
levels of productivity -such messages only create adversarial relationships. The bulk of
the causes of low productivity belong to the system, and thus lie beyond the power of
the work force
11. Eliminate work standards that prescribe numerical quotas for the day – substitute
support and helpful supervision
12. Remove the barriers that rob people of their right to pride of workmanship – the
responsibility of supervisors must be changed from sheer numbers to quality
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and retraining

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14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.

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Activity 1A
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1.2 – Consult with relevant groups and individuals to profile the organisation’s
culture and readiness for organisational development

 Communicate with relevant groups
 Profile the organisation’s culture and readiness for development.
Each organisation has a culture that is unique. No two organisations have exactly the same culture. The
culture of an organisation is not always easy to define. It is characterised by the way that people behave
and the values that drive that behaviour. Interestingly, people who are external to the organisation are
often able to identify the culture very clearly just from the way that people behave towards them.
Company culture: a comparison

Compare the following two scenarios which describe how a supplier was treated on arrival at a
customer’s premises:
Organisation A
The supplier arrives with all their equipment to carry out a planned piece of work
at the organisation’s site. They are shown to the location where they will carry
out the work, but the person doing so doesn’t ask about their journey, or if they
found the site without any trouble. They also don’t offer to help the supplier to
carry their equipment, or even open doors for them. Nor do they provide any
useful information such as where the fire exits or the toilets are, for example.
Organisation B
The same supplier arrives with all their equipment and they are shown to the location where they will
carry out the work. The person escorting the supplier chats about the supplier’s journey and asked
whether they had been to the site before, etc. Before they set off, the supplier is asked if they need any
help in carrying their equipment and a trolley is provided. The person escorting them opens doors as
they move through the site. They also point out the fire exit nearest to the place where the supplier is
working, along with toilets, etc. Before leaving the supplier to get on with their work, they are offered a
drink or anything else that they may need in order to carry out their work. They are also told who to ask
for if they need any help, and where that person can be found.
Just within the first few minutes of arriving at the customer’s site, the supplier can establish very quickly
what sort of organisation this is and get an insight into the culture. At Organisation A, they were treated
as somewhat of an intrusion and given no help or information to help make their visit run smoothly. At
Organisation B however, the experience was very different – the supplier was made to feel welcome
and as if their work was important. It wouldn’t be unreasonable for the supplier to regard Organisation
A as one where people are unhappy in their work, they have little regard for other people and they are
not interested in helping others to perform their work. However, the feeling they get from Organisation
B is that people are willing and helpful, and that this is a pleasant place to work.
Of course, these are sweeping generalisations and the supplier would have to have other evidence to
support their view. Their experience might be a ‘one-off’ where they were either unlucky or lucky with
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the individual they interacted with. However, if they find that everyone they come into contact treats
them as a nuisance, then it would be a reasonable assumption that this is just the way people behave in
that organisation. In a subtle way, the supplier can detect signs which hint at the organisation’s culture
just from their first impressions.
Culture can help predict how an organisation might respond to change. People may only notice their
culture when the normal routine breaks down and they have to deal with something new or
unexpected. When planning an OD program, it is essential to understand the organisation’s current
culture and its readiness for change. Where change is accepted as the norm, people will generally be
more open to, and indeed welcoming of change. In a different type of culture, change may be viewed
with suspicion and resistance and any change program should be approached in such a way as to reduce
tension and apprehension, and show consideration for the ‘people’ aspect of the change.
Culture also determines the kind of people who will be attracted to the organisation and who will be
successful in it. It also gives clear direction for the training and development of individuals by defining
what is, and what is not important, and what skills the individual needs to do well in the organisation.
In an organisation which has divisions or sub-cultures it may be that each is pulling or pushing in a
different direction. This can lead to fragmentation, confusion, conflict, and a lack of co-operation.
Types of culture
Values-based cultures
Organisational culture can be defined by seven different values as follows:
 Innovative – these organisations are flexible, adaptable and open to new ideas. People
are encouraged to take risks and to try new things.
 Aggressive – these organisations value competitiveness but they sometimes neglect

corporate social responsibility in terms of making a contribution to the wider
community. Unethical behaviour may be the norm in this type of organisation.
 Outcome-Orientated – these organisations value achievement, results and action

towards achieving objectives. Performance is managed closely and people are held to
account for non-delivery as well as being rewarded for good performance.
 Stable – in these organisations, there are rules and bureaucracy which people must
always follow. Although this leads to a great degree of control and predictability, this is
at the expense of creativity and innovation.
 People-orientated – these organisations value fairness, support and respect for

individuals. Staff are rewarded well financially, often enjoying higher levels of pay than
the norm for their industry. There may be a wide range of benefits for all employees.
Although the staff are treated well, there may be a lack of emphasis on performance
and delivering results.
 Team-orientated – these organisations have a collaborative

approach and encourage co-operations and teamwork
amongst employees. Teams aretrained together and work
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collaboratively to resolve problems, etc. In this type of culture, relationships between

staff members, and between staff members and their managers tend to be very good.
 Detail-orientated – precision and attention to detail are important in this type of

organisation. This can give a competitive edge to an organisation in the hospitality
sector, for example. A good example is a hotel which keeps a record of all customer
requests so that staff can anticipate and deliver the customer’s preferences in terms of
which newspaper they like, what type of pillow they prefer, etc. This standard of
service and the level of attention to detail would impress any returning customer.
Changing an organisation’s culture cannot be done overnight and it cannot be done by one individual.
The food manufacturer Kraft Foods is an example of a stable culture with centralised decision-making
and an emphasis on following rules and bureaucracy. When the company attempted to change its
culture, a new position of ‘Vice President of Business Process Simplification ‘ was created but was later
eliminated when it became evident that the way to reduce bureaucracy was not to introduce even more
bureaucracy!
Structure-based cultures
Charles Handy is an author/philosopher who specialises in organisational behaviour. In 1999 he
presented organisational cultures as classified into four major types which illustrated the connection
between the culture of an organisation and its structure.
The four types are:

 Power culture
 Role culture
 Task culture
 Person or support culture.
Power culture
The power culture is depicted as a spider’s web, with the spider sitting in the
centre because according to Handy, ‘…the key to the whole organisation sits in
the centre, surrounded by ever-widening circles of intimates and influence.
The closer you are to the spider, the more influence you have’. Organisations
with this type of culture can respond quickly to events, but they are heavily
dependent on the competence of the people at the centre; succession is a
critical issue.
Performance is judged on results and these organisations can appear tough and abrasive. Their success
can be accompanied by low morale and high staff turnover as individuals fail or opt out of the
competitive atmosphere. If managers get this culture right, it can result in a happy, satisfied
organisation that in turn can breed quite intense commitment to corporate goals. However, if they get it
wrong, it can lead to intense dissatisfaction and sometimes lead to a high labour turnover as well as a
general lack of effort and enthusiasm. In extreme cases, a power culture is a dictatorship, but it does
not have to be.
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Role culture
The role culture can be illustrated as a building supported by columns – each
column has a specific role to play in keeping up the building. This type of
organisation is characterised by strong functional or specialised areas
coordinated by a narrow band of senior management at the top and a high
degree of formalisation and standardisation; there are strict rules and
procedures defining the job, the authority that goes with it, how
communication should work, etc.
The efficiency of this culture depends on how effectively work is allocated rather than on individual
personalities. This type of organisation is likely to be successful in a stable environment, where the
environment is steady, predictable or controllable. Conversely, the role culture finds it difficult to adapt
to change; it is usually slow to perceive the need for it and to respond appropriately. Such an
organisation will be found where economies of scale are more important than flexibility or where
technical expertise are more important than product innovation, for example.
This culture is frustrating for ambitious people who are power orientated, want control over their work
or are more interested in results than methods.
Task culture
Task culture is job or project-oriented, and its accompanying structure can be best represented as a net.
Some of the strands of the net are thicker or stronger than others, and much of the power and influence
is located at the joins in the net, at the knots. Task cultures are often associated with organisations that
adopt matrix or project-based structures.
The emphasis is on getting the job done, and the culture seeks to bring together the appropriate
resources and the right people at the right level in order to deliver a particular project. Task culture
depends on teamwork to produce results. The organisation can respond to change rapidly since each
group ideally contains all the decision-making powers required. Individuals find that this culture offers a
high degree of autonomy, judgement by results, easy working relationships within groups and mutual
respect based on ability rather than on age or status.
Many managers prefer to work in the task culture with its emphasis on groups, respect for technical
expertise, rewards for results and a merging of individual and group objectives.
Person culture
Person culture is not found in many organisations. It is illustrated by a loose cluster or a constellation of
stars. In this culture the individual is the focal point; if there is a structure, it exists only to serve and
assist the individuals within it to further their own interests without any overriding objective.
Clearly, not many organisations can exist with this sort of culture since organisations tend to have some
form of corporate objective over and above the personal objectives of it individual members. Control
mechanisms and management hierarchies are impossible in these cultures except by mutual consent.
Specialists in organisations, such as IT experts in a business, consultants in a hospital, architects in local

government and university teachers benefit from the power of their professions. Being specialists,
alternative employment is often easy to obtain.
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Consulting with relevant people

Part of the process of developing an organisation development plan is consulting with relevant people.
‘Relevant people’ could be anyone inside or outside the organisation who understands the issue being
dealt with and the expertise to contribute to the process. They should be people with a good
understanding of the organisation, and if they are external people, they should have good experience of
situations that are similar to the one that is currently being faced.
The point of this consultation at this stage is to identify the organisation’s readiness for the organisation
development program so that appropriate plans can be made accordingly. For example, in a very
resistant organisation, a great deal of communication may need to take place in various forms to explain
why the OD program is being implemented. In a less-resistant organisation, the communication effort
may be simpler and less protracted.
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Activity 1B
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1.3 – Determine who will take key roles in the organisational development
process and confirm their commitment

 Identify people to take roles in the organisational development process.
People to Support OD Planning

As part of the planning process, it is important to ensure the right people, with the right skills and
expertise are in the right place to support the development of the organisation development plan. At
the planning stage, it is usually senior people and experts who need to be involved. The involvement of
senior people ensures that people and resources will be made available for implementing the plan.
Without senior management commitment, and access to people and resources, it will be near-
impossible to implement any OD activity effectively.
Senior managers have got to support the plan otherwise it will not work. Even if
senior managers do not actively obstruct OD efforts, their lack of engagement or
commitment sends a clear message to others in the organisation that this is
something that is not worthy of time and attention. The message is simple – if
the senior managers of the organisation aren’t involved, why should anyone else
be?
The choice of people to support the OD planning and implementation processes is very important.
Key questions to ask include:

 Who is likely to be a key supporter of the OD plan?
 Who is likely to be a key opponent?
 Who has the necessary skills and expertise to contribute to the OD plan?
 Who has the budget?
 Who should be involved?
It is important to identify potential ‘opponents’ early on. An opponent may not actively hinder your
plans, but their apathy may result in delays in getting things done in their area of responsibility, etc.
Because of this, ‘opponents’ should get your attention. Having someone on the team who is sceptical
about the process or who resists it can be very useful if their contributions are managed skilfully. They
will be good at identifying possible problems and barriers. It is useful to identify this in the planning
stages rather than at implementation.
Getting the ‘opponents’ involved in the planning process will probably be tricky. Those people who see
the need for the OD plan and are already committed don’t need to be persuaded – they will naturally
involve themselves as they believe it is the right thing to do and will be able to see the benefits of doing
it. However, for people who resist the need for OD or those who believe that they are too busy to get
involved, they will require more persuasion.
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Key points to consider when persuading the reluctant contributor include:

 Set out the ‘big picture’: briefly describe how the OD planning process will help to
achieve the organisation’s mission and vision
 Identify key benefits for the organisation: show how the OD process will benefit the
organisation as a whole, and their department in particular
 Identify key benefits for them personally: identify how the OD process will be of
personal benefit for them (e.g. will their teams be more
productive/engaged/profitable; will this make their own life easier; etc.?)
 Be realistic about their involvement: summarise what you expect their input to be –
explain what you expect is being asked of them in terms of their time, resources and
commitment
 Set out what might happen if the OD process is hindered: explain the consequences if
they are not involved in or committed to the OD process.
If all else fails, seeking the support of other senior people may exert some gentle pressure on the
person who is reluctant to commit to the process. The effects of peer pressure might come to bear. Or,
they may be set a key objective by their manager which is linked to their involvement in the OD
program. However, this is a last resort as it can be very problematic having a reluctant contributor on
board as they will not treat the program as a priority and may even cause harm, perhaps
unintentionally, simply by demonstrating their lack of engagement.
Other people who may be involved in the OD process may include technical experts or advisers. These
may be internal or external personnel, but their involvement is crucial as they have technical expertise
and skills which will make a valuable contribution to the program.
It is important to consider the numbers of people to be involved in the

planning process at this stage. Too few, and you may miss some key points in
the planning process, or fail to take account of some important information.
Too many, and it will be difficult to get agreement and to move things
forward.
Wherever the people are on the ‘commitment scale’, it is important to establish their commitment right
at the start of the process.
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Follow the steps below to ascertain a person’s commitment:

 Reiterate what you are trying to achieve: emphasise how this process will help the
organisation overall and how you see it working in practice
 Summarise your expectations of them: set out what you believe will be the time and
resources that you are asking them to contribute (e.g. attend weekly meetings, take
the lead on key tasks, make their team members available for periods of time, etc.)
 Ask them if they can foresee any difficulties: listen to this, take note and use this
information to help fine-tune the OD plan; make sure that they are closely involved
when this point in the planning process is reached
 Discuss what they can and cannot do: let them express their commitment to the
process (e.g. there may be some activities they cannot support, for various reasons;
there may be some areas for which their budget cannot be used, etc.)
 Close the conversation positively: summarise what you have agreed and what will
happen next.
Finally, one key point in this step is to ensure that all those involved in the OD planning process know
what their role is and what is expected of them.
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Activity 1C
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1.4 – Collect and analyse data on areas of the business experiencing problems
or that need realignment

 Collect and analyse relevant data.
Types of data
A key part of the OD planning process is collecting data which explains the current state of the
organisation. Data may relate specifically to an area of the organisation that is experiencing problems
(e.g. a department which is not meeting its targets) or an area that needs realignment (e.g. if the
current structure and processes are not working effectively).
The precise nature of the data will vary depending on the context of the organisation but may include
information such as:
 Sales/revenue figures
 Profitability
 Actual expenditure vs. budgets
 Waste figures
 Production/productivity data
 Quality data
 Health & Safety records
 Complaints
 Customer data, etc.
Key considerations when collecting and analysing data include:

 What data is needed?
 What methods and processes should we use to collect the data?
 What resources are required to collect the data?
 Who ‘owns’ the data? What part do they need to play?
 Who will analyse the data?
 Who needs to have feedback as a result of the data analysis?
Some data will be relatively straightforward to access and analyse, particularly financial data providing
that permission to ask for and analyse the data is granted by relevant people. However, some other
data may not exist currently and will have to be collected specifically for the OD planning process. If the
organisation has a problem with increasing numbers of customer complaints but does not have records
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relating to the production or quality functions for example, then it is more difficult to quantify what is
going on and so it would be necessary to start collecting data that does not currently exist. This is when
data collection can become time-consuming.
One example of collecting data that has never been sought before might be in the form of a staff survey.
Organisations that are serious about effecting lasting and sustainable change often conduct a staff
survey to gauge levels of engagement and motivation in the workplace, for example. This is a useful way
of taking a ‘temperature check’ of the workforce’s mood and can be invaluable in the OD planning
process. If the survey shows that people feel that their working conditions are poor compared to similar
organisations, then no amount of training sessions, briefings and road-shows are going to improve
morale – what needs to happen first is an improvement in the working conditions, and then people will
be open to more sophisticated and subtle interventions.
Although conducting a staff survey might seem simple, it may be complicated in multi-site
organisations; people may be wary of completing it; people may worry about anonymity and how the
information will be used; who has access to it, etc.
At this stage of the OD planning process, data is being used to inform a diagnosis of how the
organisation is currently performing in a range of aspects.
A diagnosis should:
 Be based on current, relevant and reliable data
 Involve relevant personnel
 Focus on key, underlying problems
 Be honest and face up to the problems which are

presented (it’s easy to make excuses for poor
performance data: “It was a bad year”; “We had
tough competition”; “New legislation affected us
badly”; etc.)
 Acknowledge and deal with people’s feelings (e.g. anxiety; resistance; defensiveness;
etc.).
When analysing data, it is important to identify:

 Similarities and differences between departments/ different years/ products and
services delivery; etc.
 Trends which suggest a particular pattern of improvement, decline or stability, or even

a mixed pattern
 Symptoms and causes – distinguish between these as treating the ‘symptom’ may not
get to the root cause of the problem
 The most critical areas requiring attention – it is important to prioritise the issues to be
dealt with.
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The volume of data to be collected may be relatively small and can be conducted over a short period of
a few weeks or so. However, it may be a complex process, particularly if data is not readily available and
has to be collected.
In either case, it would be useful to have a plan which sets out:

 What data is to be collected
 By whom
 From where
 By when, etc.
By doing this, all those who are involved in the data collection process understand their role and the
process can be managed rather than being left to chance. It would not be unusual in a complex
situation, for the data collection stage to be conducted by a team of people over a period of several
months. A data collection effort on this scale is a separate project in its own right and would need
careful planning and management. However, the same principles apply in a more straightforward
context as it is important to be clear about what data is required, who is responsible for getting it and
when this should be done.
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Activity 1D
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1.5 – Determine and agree on objectives and strategies for organisational

development

 Agree upon objectives and strategies with relevant people.
Organisational development objectives

Having collected and analysed data, you should be in a position to propose objectives and strategies for
organisational development.
In other words, you should be able to set out:

 What you aim to achieve
 How you are proposing to do it.
This may be something that you do alone and then seek approval, or you may
be involved in a wider team which has the power and authority to act upon
the proposal. Either way, it is important to have an outline plan of what you
are hoping to achieve and how you intend to do it.
The OD objectives should closely align with the organisation’s overall mission
and vision. If there is a disconnect, then it would seem that an OD proposal
may not deliver the results that are required.
Having clarity and agreement on the OD objectives is crucial to the overall success of the OD program.
All other action will stem from the objectives and so it is important that all those involved are in
agreement about what the OD program is aiming to achieve. The strategy – the ‘how’ – is fine detail and
can be modified and revised at a later date if necessary. The most important part is to confirm the
objectives of the OD program in the first instance.
You may wish to refer back to section 1.1 for an overview of the possible objectives of an OD program.
Let’s again take the example of the cheese factory which is developing a new product range in addition
to its well-established and successful products.
An OD program might have the following objectives:

 To achieve flexibility in the workforce so that personnel can operate in any part of the
business
 To instil a sense of pride in making high-quality products
 To achieve more effective and more consistent people-management across the

business.
These objectives are just ‘headlines’ and would need to be further qualified with target dates and
measures, but they give us a flavour for what the OD program is aiming to achieve and we can use this
as the basis for further examples throughout this unit.
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The objectives set out the ‘what’. The strategy should now set out the ‘how’. In other words, the
strategy explains what specific actions are to take place in order to achieve the objectives.
In the cheese-factory example, this may involve the following:
Objectives Strategies
1. To achieve flexibility in the workforce so that a) Training for each person in a range of skills
personnel can operate in any part of the and activities
business
b) Appoint training co-ordinator for each
team/department
c) Establish recognised experts or ‘champions’
for each activity/process
2. To instil a sense of pride in making high-quality a) Publicise quality data to all staff (via team
products briefings?)
b) Ensure all employees understand the
importance of their role via job descriptions
and feedback
c) Implement performance management process
which recognises achievement
3. To achieve more effective and more consistent a) Implement a new performance management
people-management across the business process
b) Set standards for effective management
c) Management development training program
d) Cross-functional teams of managers to work
together to solve real business issues
e) Ensure managers get feedback about their
performance and effectiveness as managers
f) Provide additional training for individuals
where necessary, etc.
Having identified and agreed a strategy, it is then possible to develop a project plan for its
implementation which sets out:
 Specific actions that are required to implement the strategy
 Time and resources required
 Who is responsible for each action, etc.
It would be usual practice to then propose the OD objectives and strategy to the decision-makers in the
organisation. This might be the board, or a panel of senior managers, for example. At this stage,
objectives and strategies may be refined, but it would be important to make reference back to the data
which underpins the proposal.
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Activity 1E
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1.6 – Consider change management techniques required to achieve the

workplace culture outcomes and build them into the organisation development
plan

 Identify and consider techniques for change management
 Integrate techniques into the development plan.
Change management techniques

Having agreed the OD program objectives and the strategies required to achieve them, it is useful to
identify which specific techniques are to be used.
These may include one or more of the following, each of which is briefly described below:
 Business re-engineering
 Consultative processes
 Job redesign
 Organisational redesign
 Sensitivity training
 Systems redesign
 Work re-organisation.
Business re-engineering
Business re-engineering is the analysis and redesign of workflows in the organisation. It can sometimes
result in radical changes to the way the organisation operates where some processes are completely
redefined or even lost altogether.
Michael Hammer and James Champy’s best-selling book Re-engineering the Corporation suggests seven
re-engineering principles to streamline the work process and thereby achieve significant levels of
improvement in quality, time management, speed and profitability.
These principles are:

1. Organise around outcomes, not tasks

2. Identify all the processes in an organisation and prioritise them in order of redesign
urgency
3. Integrate information processing work into the real work that produces the information
4. Treat geographically dispersed resources as though they were centralised

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5. Link parallel activities in the workflow instead of just integrating their results
6. Put the decision point where the work is performed, and build control into the process
7. Capture information once and at the source.
Consultative processes
Consultation can be a highly effective and engaging way to enlist support and achieve higher levels of
worker engagement.
It can take numerous forms including, but not limited to, the following:
 Focus group consultations
 One-to-one meetings and reviews
 Representative/council meetings
 Surveys and questionnaires to all individuals, etc.
Job redesign
Job redesign involves a review of particular jobs in terms of the key tasks and accountabilities and
whether or not these can be reallocated or combined to make the job role more effective.
Job redesign can result in:

 Tasks being removed or added
 Tasks being reallocated to other roles
 Tasks being combined
 Enlarging or enriching a job role, etc.
Organisational redesign
This is a step-by-step methodology which identifies dysfunctional aspects of work flow, procedures,
structures and systems, realigns them to fit current organisational goals and then develops plans to
implement the new changes. The process focuses on improving both the technical and people side of
the organisation.
In most cases, this process leads to a more effective organisation design, significantly improved results
(profitability, customer service, internal operations), and employees who are empowered and
committed to the organisation. The hallmark of the design process is a comprehensive and holistic
approach to organisational improvement that touches all aspects of organisational life.
It is therefore possible to achieve:

 Excellent customer service
 Increased profitability
 Reduced operating costs

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 Improved efficiency and cycle time
 A culture of committed and engaged employees
 A clear strategy for managing and growing the organisation, etc.
Sensitivity training
Sensitivity training is training with the goal of raising people’s awareness of themselves, their own
behaviour and how that impacts others. It seeks to encourage diverse groups of people to work
together more effectively. As its name suggests, this is something to be approached with careful
consideration to avoid it being dismissed as ‘fluffy’ and impractical.
Systems redesign
This involves specifically reviewing the systems that are in place in the organisation and redesigning
these to improve efficiency; productivity; customer service; etc. An example of systems redesign might
be the installation of a new suite of software used to manage customer relationships.
Work re-organisation
This is similar to business re-engineering as it involves the review of current work practices and
developing ones that are fit-for-purpose to meet current and future needs. A good example of this is the
Morgan Motor Company whose factory had grown organically as the company grew in size. As the
company outgrew its premises, it acquired new buildings and premises in the immediate vicinity. The
effect this had on production was that cars at various stages of production were being moved by hand
from one end of the site to another (sometimes uphill and sometimes even crossing a road!) to get to
the next stage of production. This was clearly inefficient, but to the organisation, it was how they’d
always done things. A re-organisation effort resulted in the different production stages being housed in
buildings so that the vehicle could flow downhill from one end of the site to each of the other buildings
in a logical fashion, requiring less physical effort. This contributed to speeding up production. At one
time, the waiting time for a Morgan motor car was eight years. It is now only three months.
These techniques are very different in the way that they are implemented and managed. A total
reengineering process across the whole organisation is very different from installing a systems upgrade.
As with all other aspects of the OD plan, the change management techniques used
will require careful project planning so it is clear:
 What is to be carried out
 By whom
 By when
 With what resources, etc.
An important point is that these techniques should form a part of the overall OD plan and shouldn’t be
separate from it. It is unlikely that one will see ‘Systems Redesign’ on the OD plan, for example. Instead,
this is the generic name for the techniques that is being used to capture the sourcing, installation and
testing of a new IT software package, for example.
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Activity 1F
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1.7 – Develop communication/education plans to achieve communication

objectives in relation to the desired work environment and desired approach to
problem-solving and developmental activities

 Develop relevant communication and education plans.
Communication considerations
Implementing the OD plan can only ever be successful if it is communicated effectively to those who will
be affected by it (possibly everyone in the organisation).
As part of developing the overall OD plan, it is important to consider:

 What needs to be communicated
 To whom
 By whom
 When
 How.
It is unlikely that one message, delivered in one medium, on one occasion will be sufficient. Let’s return
to the cheese-factory for an example. With the introduction of new equipment, manufacturing a brand
new product, up-skilling a large section of the workforce, etc., a simple team briefing to explain what’s
happening would clearly be insufficient.
Instead, a comprehensive communication plan should set out exactly what needs to happen and when.
Planning the communication should not be an after-thought – it goes hand-in-hand with planning the
overall OD program.
The purpose of the communication plan is to ensure that all affected groups and individuals (and other
relevant parties) obtain sufficient knowledge to allow them to understand what is happening and why,
and to allow them to participate in the OD program, where appropriate.
Effective communication plans cover:

What?
It is essential to be clear about the purpose of the communication so that it can be tailored to the
audience in the most appropriate way. If the purpose of the communication is to inform, then written
briefings and face-to-face presentations may be sufficient. If the purpose of the communication is to
consult, however, then this requires a two-way process and how the communication is positioned
should be varied accordingly.
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A useful model to use when structuring a communication is as follows:
a) What is it?  What are the key points?

 What are we doing?
 Why are we doing it?
 When will it happen?
 Who is involved?
 What are the implications?, etc.
b) Why is it important?  Again, why are we doing this?

 How will it benefit the organisation and its customers?
 How will it benefit you?
 What might happen if we don’t do this?
c) What do we need to do?  What are the specific details of what’s happening?
d) What else?  What other information is relevant?
Who?
There are two aspects to this part of communication planning:
 The audience
 The person delivering the message.
Let’s take each one in turn:

The audience
Different audiences will require different types of communication. What’s of interest to the senior
management team and what’s of interest to the operational staff may be very different – there will, of
course, be similarities, but where the senior managers may be focused on risk management and cost.
For example, the operational staff may be more concerned about job security, feeling threatened by
changes, etc. Another population of technical experts may have different concerns again.
The point is that different audiences require different input. Whilst it is fine to have a ‘core’
presentation, for example, it is unlikely that the same presentation will be suitable for all of the
different audience groups who attend it. Some core messages should be the same for each audience
(e.g. what we are doing and why we’re doing it), but the level of detail should be tailored to match the
needs and interests of the target audience.
By tailoring the communication accordingly, this can go a long way to

allay fears and pre-empt possible resistance to plans. If a presentation to
operational staff, for example, offers reassurance that there will be no job
cuts and emphasises the positive benefits of learning new skills, etc., then
this may limit the objections to the plans.
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The person delivering the message

It is equally important to consider who should be the person who delivers the message. Where a team is
involved in the OD program, the leader of the team (perhaps a senior manager) should have some
visibility and then the main communicating should be done by whoever in the team is best suited to the
role, again depending on who the audience is. For example, when presenting to a group of operational
staff, they may appreciate hearing an overview from the senior person in the team to understand how
much the senior team are supportive of the plans. But input from an operational person who is the
technical expert on the team may lend a great deal of credibility to the plans just by virtue of the fact
that they have been involved in the process.
The key point here is that senior people should have visibility to demonstrate their commitment, but
they are not always the best person to do all the communicating.
When
The timing of the communication is important. The grapevine works incredibly quickly
and something that is communicated to one team at 9am can spread right throughout
the organisation within 24 hours or less. Consideration should be given to timing so
that different groups of people are communicated with in a planned and logical
manner.
Another aspect of timing is to allow for any ‘fall-out’ from the communication after it has taken place.
People may want to reflect on the information they have been given and to ask questions or make
comments some time afterwards. Depending on the context, it may be vitally important to allow people
some time to digest what they have learned and to come forward with their thoughts and opinions. In
this case, they need to know to whom they can direct their contributions, when and in what format. It
would be advisable, in a large scale operation, to avoid the OD team having to deal with hundreds of
individual emails as a result of a presentation, for example. Instead, personnel may be advised to
discuss their concerns with their line manager and then that information can be collated and passed on
in a controlled manner. This makes it easier for the OD team to manage the feedback, questions and
opinions rather than having many disparate pieces of information.
In terms of the timing of communication, one manager of a small factory in the UK was renowned for
making important announcements literally a few minutes before taking a two week holiday. He would
make announcements such as the annual pay increase or major changes in working terms and
conditions in this manner, leaving his second-in-command to deal with the staff’s reaction. By the time
he returned from his break, his assistant had dealt with people’s anger and questions, and everything
was back to normal. Of course, this is a highly unethical way to manage one’s people!
How
It is very important to consider the method of communication. With a clear purpose in mind, and having
considered the audience and the timing, it is important to give as much thought to the method used.
Some insensitive organisations have been known to announce redundancies by text message. Whilst
this ensures that everyone receives the same message at the same time (as would be important in this
context), it was not the most elegant or sensitive way to alert people that their jobs are under threat.
Similarly, cancelling a person’s security card and disabling their access to the organisation’s systems
without telling them is also exceptionally poor practice as a way of telling them that business re-
organisation has been taking place!
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There are many possible methods which could be used to communicate plans to people:
 Presentations and briefings (either live or on video-link)
 Email
 Telephone calls/Video-conferencing
 One-to-one meetings
 Noticeboards (electronic and traditional formats)
 Surgeries, where people can ‘drop in’ for a chat with key people, etc.
Presentations: Large-scale presentations and briefings are effective in getting the same message to
large groups of people simultaneously. These have the advantage in that they can be video-recorded
and distributed to those who were unable to physically attend. However, they lack a two-way process
and people are not always able to ask questions, express their views, etc.
With smaller numbers (e.g. in team briefings), there is an opportunity for attendees to participate, but
the person delivering the brief may be remote from the OD team and may not convey the messages
with the same degree of clarity and conviction that someone else might.
Email: Email can be effective for the same reasons as large-scale presentations, but it is difficult to
convey complex messages in an email, and to do so clearly and unambiguously. Emails are good for
following up with key messages after a presentation, but they are limited in their effectiveness for
making announcements.
Telephone calls/Videoconferencing: These can be a good way of having a discussion with people who
are geographically remote (in the format of conference calls or video-conferencing), but these are only
effective on a small scale. They may also have technological challenges which impair the quality of the
communication.
One-to-one meetings: These give individuals every opportunity to hear the message and respond.
However, this is an incredibly time-consuming approach. This may be useful when dealing with
particularly sensitive changes. If the location of a person’s job role was being moved 200 hundred miles
away for instance, probably the best way of communicating that with them is to sit down and have a
one-to-one conversation. Any other method would be inconsiderate in this context.
Noticeboards: These are quick, inexpensive and easy to manage. They can reach a great deal of people
very quickly. However, they rely on people taking the time to read them and it can be difficult to
summarise a complex message in a short piece of text. They are good for promotional posters and
messages which advertise what’s going on in the organisation. They should be changed frequently so
that they don’t become stale and then people stop noticing them.
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Surgeries: These can be incredibly effective at enabling people to get access to the senior decision-
makers in the organisation. When they work well, they are informal events to which people are invited
after they have been informed by other means what’s going on in the organisation. Usually, a senior
person is the focal point and they come along to an informal session where people can individually or
collectively ask questions, make comments and suggestions, etc. concerning the changes that are taking
place in the organisation. This type of event can be highly successful in gaining support from the staff as
they see the senior managers finding it important enough to take the time to talk to people individually.
In a large organisation, this access to senior people can be a powerful tool in overcoming resistance to
changes that are taking place.
So to summarise, giving thought to the communication plan can almost be as complex as developing the
OD plan itself in that there is much to consider. The key point is to give careful consideration to what,
who, when and how to ensure that the communication hits the mark. Remember that ill-conceived
communication can cause problems which can take a great deal of time and effort to unravel.
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Activity 1G
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2. Implement organisation development activities

2.1. Identify and implement consultative processes to maximise participation in the organisation
development process
2.2. Undertake team development and training activities to develop collaborative approaches to
problem-solving and development
2.3. Facilitate groups to articulate problems and to propose means for resolving the problems
2.4. Manage conflict between individuals and/or groups to achieve consensus or agreement
2.5. Undertake interventions in accordance with the organisation development plan
2.6. Brainstorm alternative proposals and negotiate and agree on outcomes

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2.1 – Identify and implement consultative processes to maximise participation

in the organisation development process

 Identify and implement processes to maximise participation.
Consultation
When implementing the sorts of change that is usually associated with an OD program, consulting with
relevant individuals is an essential part of the process. This would certainly form part of the overall
communication/education plan in which consideration is given to who needs to be informed of what.
Consultation is a specific form of communication in which it is a two-way process where both parties
provide information. The usual format would be for the OD team to set out what is happening, why,
when, how, etc. and the people being consulted have an opportunity to discuss the issues at hand and
offer their thoughts, opinions and comments.
Consultation is a powerful thing to do in the OD process and it quickly identifies where support for the
OD program lies and it highlights areas of concern and possible resistance. People dislike change
happening to them. When change is imposed, it feels as if one has no control over what’s happening
and this is where resistance can stem from. However, when people are consulted as part of the change
program, they feel involved, that their opinions have been heard and that they have had some input to
the process.
Let’s look at a simple change involving the refurbishment of an office suite.
In Organisation A, the following process is used:

 Everyone on the team is invited to put forward suggestions
 The suggestions are summarised and distributed to everyone

for comment (or for people to vote on their favourite suggestions)
 A draft plan is displayed for a period of time, showing the proposed office layout and
colour scheme, etc.
 People are invited to make comments about the plan and make any final requests or
suggestions
 The plans are finalised and communicated to the team
 The team are informed when the refurbishment is to take place and what they need to
do (e.g. Pack away materials and equipment; move to a temporary area, etc.)
 The refurbishment is completed and the team move back into the office
 The team has a few teething problems at first but these are quickly identified and
resolved
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 After a week or so, the team is asked for their views of the refurbished office – their
points are either acted on if they have identified faults/error, or they are noted for
future reference.
In Organisation B however, a very different process is used to plan the office refurbishment:
 The office manager draws up a plan and make arrangements for the refurbishment to
take place
 When a date is confirmed, the manager tells the team that the office is being
refurbished and they should pack away their equipment and materials
 The team is told little or nothing about what the refurbished office will be like
 The team vacates the office and moves to a temporary area
 The team moves back into the refurbished office
 Team members are disgruntled about the location of their desks, the lack of rubbish
bins, the location of the stationery cupboard, their access to telephones, the lack of
personal storage space, etc.
 Some team members argue over how the limited storage space should be used, etc.
So, a seemingly simple change can be handled completely differently by two different organisations.
Organisation A has undoubtedly invested more time in the planning stage, consulting with people,
listening to their views, etc. In Organisation B, the change has been imposed on the team with no
thought given to their views. These are obviously opposite ends of a spectrum but they both contain
elements of the sorts of things that happen for real in organisations which are going through change.
The manager in Organisation A is perhaps consulting a little too much for what should be a fairly
straightforward project. However, they seem to be reasonably happy in comparison to the team in
Organisation B where people were given little information and had absolutely no input to the change
process.
The biggest mistake that the manager in Organisation B made was to arrogantly assume that he/she
knew best how the office should be refurbished. This is a common trait amongst managers who fail to
listen or value their team’s input. By cutting out the team’s input, there is a risk that the solution is not
the best it could have been. Those working in the office are the best people to say what storage is
required, what the office layout should look like for ease of workflow, etc. By failing to consult with
them, the manager is storing up resentment and conflict which will take far more time and energy to
unravel than a few minutes here and there in the planning stage, listening to people’s views.
The people who may typically be involved in consultation processes include:

 Senior management team
 Technical experts (internal and external)
 Staff representatives
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 Human resources personnel
 Quality personnel
 Finance personnel, etc.
The nature of the consultation with relevant people will vary depending on:
 Who they are
 Their role in the proposed change program
 Their location, etc.
The timing of consultation is very important. In one organisation which manufactures defence aircraft,
new equipment was purchased but the manager responsible for site management was not consulted.
The equipment was delivered and only then it was discovered that it was too big to fit in the building it
had been allocated to. There were no other options and the end result was that a new building had to
be constructed specifically for this equipment. The cost was enormous and there were significant and
expensive delays in being able to utilise the new equipment. Had the relevant manager been involved in
the consultations prior to buying the equipment, the organisation could have responded better with a
planned approach.
Another very common example concerns the fitting out of new training rooms. It is commonplace for
members of the training department to be missed out in the planning and consultations around
equipping new training rooms. When the rooms are finished, often the equipment is installed in the
wrong place, or at the wrong height. Or the wrong equipment entirely has been installed. Or the
furniture is too big and impossible to move, etc. In these situations, the training department has to work
around the limitations and make the new rooms ‘work’, but this can be avoided simply by asking for the
relevant people’s input in the first place.
So, in order for the consultation to be effective, consideration needs to be given to the following:
 Who should be consulted
 When the consultation should take place
 How the consultation should be conducted, using what tools and methods
 What should happen to the results of the consultation.
Who?
The OD plan should highlight teams and departments which are affected by the activities in it, and this
should give a good indication of who should be consulted. Usually, this is fairly obvious. However, as in
the defence aircraft manufacturer, a key person – the site manager – was excluded from consultations
with dramatic results, and so it is important to think laterally about who else is a stakeholder in the
change that is taking place. In other words, who else is affected by the change? If there are others who
are affected, then they should also have the opportunity to contribute to the consultation. Very often,
someone in another department who is apparently disconnected from the main issue that is being dealt
with, can identify a valid point which may otherwise be missed.
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When?
The timing of the consultation is crucial. If it happens too late in the OD implementation process, it may
be too late to act on the output or findings from the consultations and this will weaken the process and
its credibility. People will feel that they have been asked for their input but that it wasn’t listened to.
This will make them reluctant to participate in future. However, equally, if the consultation happens too
early in the process, there may be too little information available for people to comment on.
Much depends on the nature of the consultation itself. If it is starting with a blank piece of paper with
‘Problem’ at the top, then the consultation can be open-ended and people can be invited for their views
about what’s causing the problem and their ideas for possible solutions. However, if the proposed
solutions have already been generated by the OD team (or others), then the nature of the consultation
will be around the viability of the different proposals. These are two very different approaches, each
presenting their own challenges in terms of the time required for the discussions and the management
and facilitation of them.
How?
Building on from the previous point, the tools and methods used for the consultation will depend on
who is being consulted, about what, and when. In some situations, a simple brainstorming session
would be effective. This is where a group is asked to generate ideas about a problem or a proposed
solution and these are recorded verbatim, without anyone judging or questioning the ideas. The goal is
to generate as many ideas as possible in a short period of time. When the ideas are exhausted, then the
list is reviewed and at this point, ideas can be challenged, ruled out, refined, etc. It is very common in a
brainstorming session that a seemingly ridiculous suggestion can lead to the development of a practical
solution as it sparked a thought in someone’s mind.
Another method is group discussions where groups are given a

topic to discuss and a limited period of time. They are required to
record and present back their findings.
If there are several points for discussion, split this into a series of tasks and split the group into smaller
teams. Then ask Group A to work on task 1; Group B with task 2; etc. Allow a few minutes to work on
the task and then move the groups around to the next task to build on the ideas generated by the
previous group. Repeat until all groups have contributed to all tasks, then review the results at the end.
This is a useful way of covering a lot of ground in a short space of time and ensuring that every person
gets the opportunity to contribute to every point. It also gets people on their feet and moving around
which helps the creative process.
Alternatively, a facilitator can ask a series of open-ended questions of the group, with a view to eliciting
their opinions and comments about the matter in hand. This can enable the facilitator to probe matters
that are raised in considerable detail, if necessary.
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Tips for running consultative sessions

When conducting consultative sessions, it is useful to forewarn attendees of the purpose and format of
the session. Many people find it difficult to generate ideas on the spur of the moment and so it is useful
to give them some information beforehand so that they come to the session already having thought
about the matter in hand.
Another tip is to make sure that everyone gets the chance to contribute. In
group discussions, there can be a tendency for one or two dominant individuals
to do all the talking and the others either say nothing or simply agree with
what’s being said. This defeats the purpose of the consultation as only a few
voices are being heard.
Good practice in facilitating consultation sessions includes:

 Warm the group up – have a short activity at the beginning to break the ice and ensure
that people are introduced to everyone else in the group
 Have clear ground rules at the outset that everyone has a useful contribution to make
and is expected to contribute
 Emphasise that there will be no interruptions while others are talking
 Invite those who are not contributing to do so in smaller group situations
 Be flexible – if it’s clear that the group has run out of steam on one topic, move on to
the next
 Use visuals such as a flipchart to record people’s contributions so that they remain on
display
 Design the consultation event with participation in mind – use tools which encourage
everyone to be involved
 Keep a close watch on time so that all of the key parts of the session receive an
appropriate amount of attention
 Use summaries to keep the group on track
 Use reliable methods to capture the group’s findings (e.g. bullet points on flipchart;
using a note-taker; audio-recording discussions; etc.)
 Tell the group what will happen to their contributions and when
 Tell the group what happens next in the OD program.

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What happens to the results of the consultation?

One very important final point is to ensure that feedback goes back to the group after their input has
been fed into the overall OD program. Let’s go back to the office refurbishment example. Imagine that
Mhairi suggested that the walls should be painted in lime green paint and that live plants should be on
display in the office. However, if this is ruled out (even for very practical reasons), it’s important that
Mhairi understands that her suggestion is not being taken up and the reasons for this.
This is important – when people are asked for their opinions or input, it creates an expectation that
their opinions may be acted upon. If their contributions are not acted upon and they are not given the
reasons why, this will dissuade them from contributing in future. Simply taking Mhairi to one side (or
mentioning it at a team meeting) is a simple and non-threatening way to let her know that, on this
occasion, her ideas aren’t going to be implemented because lime green would clash with the bright
orange flooring which can’t be changed, and the plants would take up valuable storage space, for
example. This way, Mhairi knows where she stands and has been given an explanation. This is far more
satisfactory than simply not telling her in the first place and leaving her wondering why her ideas
haven’t been taken up.
Other types of consultation

We should also consider methods of consultation other than face-to-face meetings and sessions.
Other process can be used such as:

 Questionnaires
 Surveys
 Voting systems, etc.
Questionnaires and surveys can be administered either as hard copies or electronically. They are
inexpensive to produce and administer, and analysis of the results is straightforward.
However, there are possible drawbacks:

 The design of the questions needs to be done with care, avoiding any ambiguous or
potentially leading questions
 The return rate can be low if people are not motivated to participate
 There is little or no scope for respondents to add additional comments beyond what is
asked in the questionnaire
 Questionnaires do not always give the opportunity for respondents to state their true
feelings, etc.
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Voting systems are slightly different in that respondents are given a limited choice of options against
which to vote. The founders of the highly successful Innocent Drinks company used a voting system
when selling their product at a music festival in the UK. They hung up a sign near their stall saying
‘Should we give up our jobs to make these smoothies?’ and then placed two rubbish bins beneath it, one
labelled ‘Yes’ and the other ’No’. Customers were asked to throw their empty drinks bottles into the bin
to vote. Overwhelmingly the customers voted Yes and a year later, the founders had established
Innocent Drinks.
Voting can be simple and quick to set up and run – it can be managed electronically and results can be
collated very quickly. The ease of use for respondents may make it more likely to get responses from a
larger number of people. However, as with questionnaires and surveys, this consultative process does
not give respondents to state their true feelings.
One misconception about the rate of returns that many people commonly hold is this: that low
numbers of responses must mean that the majority of people are indifferent about the matter in hand.
It is a mistake to think this.
There are many possible reasons for a low response rate:

 Respondents may not understand the significance and implications of what is being
asked of them (it may have been poorly explained or promoted – this is often the case
when an unpopular decision is being pushed through!)
 The consultation process may have been poorly publicised
 The timescales for returns may be unrealistic
 The consultative tools and processes may deter people from participating
 Respondents may believe that that their view doesn’t count, etc.
Here is a key point about consultation: if we ask for people’s input, we have to do something with it,
and then tell them what we’ve done with it. If we don’t do this, people will be understandably reluctant
to contribute in future.
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Activity 2A
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2.2 – Undertake team development and training activities to develop

collaborative approaches to problem-solving and development

 Supervise team development and training activities.
Training activities
As part of the implementation stage of the organisation development program, it is likely that some
form of training and development will be required as people need to develop new ways of working and
possibly new ways of working together.
The purpose and nature of the training activities will vary according to the learning objectives, the needs
of the individuals concerned and practical factors such as time, resources, budget, etc.
The following training approaches may be used depending on the needs of the organisation and the
individual:
 Computer-based training
 One-on-one sessions
 Informal coaching
 Mentoring.
Computer-based training
Computer-based training (CBT) uses technology to deliver underpinning knowledge as the user works
their way through the program.
More commonly referred to as ‘e-learning’, its benefits are:

 It is a highly accessible and cost-effective method of delivering core information to a
wide audience.
 Individuals can access specific modules or units which are unique to them – it is a way
of them accessing learning without it being part of an overall program
 It can take place just about anywhere, so long as the user has the correct equipment
which usually consists of a computer with sound and video functions
 Increasingly, smart phones can deliver e-learning content in the form of applications (or
apps) so that users can literally access the learning anywhere, any time
 It is a highly flexible mechanism for delivering knowledge.

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However, it does have some drawbacks:

 Some learners do not learn best from the one-way delivery of information and would
prefer interaction with others
 The e-learning module may be inflexible in terms of its content – it is difficult sometimes to
navigate backwards and forwards through a program to revisit previous material, for
example
 It is not possible for the user to ask questions if any arise while they are working through
the module
 E-learning does not effectively test knowledge and understanding in complex situations –
testing is restricted to multiple choice questions which don’t allow the user to express their
opinions on a matter
 E-learning cannot be used to develop skills a it is a cognitive method of learning rather than
a practical one, etc.
One-on-one sessions
One-on-one sessions have the benefit of being closely tailored to the individual’s needs so that
unnecessary content and repetition can be avoided, thereby reducing the amount of time required for
the training.
Its benefits are:

 It enables the learning to take place at the learner’s pace
 Learners are able to ask questions, repeat content, and practise with the benefit of an
experienced trainer or operator by their side
 The learner can receive specific, constructive feedback about their progress which both
builds their self-esteem and facilitates the learning process
 The learning can take place in the real work environment with the learner practising and
using live equipment and materials – this makes it very easy to transfer the learning from
the training environment to the real work environment.
However, as with all training approaches, there are possible drawbacks:

 It is more labour-intensive (and therefore costly) than other training methods due to the
1:1 ratio of trainer to learner
 It requires the trainer to have some basic training skills.
Informal coaching
Informal coaching is similar to one-on-one sessions as it uses a ratio of one coach to one
learner. The coaching role is to guide and support the learner to achieve their learning
objectives. A coach typically does this through the use of carefully-chosen questions
and giving help and guidance which may be practical in nature. Its benefits and
drawbacks are very similar to those for the one-on-one sessions.
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Mentoring
Mentoring is slightly different from coaching. It still involves a great degree of guidance and support and
is delivered on a one-on-one basis, but it is driven by the person being mentored (the ‘mentee’). The
mentee sets the learning agenda and they are responsible for driving the relationship. The mentee is
expected to set out and agree what they need from the mentor, and then they work together so that
the mentee ultimately achieves their learning goals. This does not necessarily mean that the mentor has
a hands-on role in the learning process – usually, the mentor is in the background, guiding, advising and
helping the mentee to reflect on their learning and plan their next steps. Again, it benefits and
drawbacks are very similar to the one-on-one sessions. In addition, a key drawback is that the mentee
can often lose momentum and expect the mentor to take the driving seat. The mentor’s role in this
scenario is to refocus on the learning objectives and encourage the mentee to identify what they need
to do next, and advise accordingly.
Group activities
When people work together, they usually generate better ideas and
higher-quality solutions to problems than when working
independently.
The following are typical approaches to team development

activities:
 Group work
 Sensitivity training.
In either approach, groups work together to resolve problems or to undertake training activities with
the help of a skilled facilitator or trainer. This is a highly effective way of working with intact teams to
encourage them to jointly problem-solve and develop new ways of working. When participating in a
group training session, attendees have a shared experience – they develop a common language and way
of thinking which is useful for everything that they do as a team from that point onwards.
The disadvantages of group activities is that they take people away from their day-to-day work and can
be expensive to run, particularly if they are held at premises away from the workplace. However, with a
well-run and purposeful group session, the benefits tend to outweigh the disadvantages.
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Activity 2B
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2.3 – Facilitate groups to articulate problems and to propose means for

resolving the problems

 Host problem solving groups and resolve any problems raised.
Resolving problems
When facilitating groups working together, it is important to have the skills to be able to encourage
people to contribute and to manage any difficulties that arise during the session.
Note: Some of the hints and tips given in section 2.1 are also relevant in this context.
Encouraging Group Input

When working with a group, here are some guidelines to help you encourage the group to contribute
fully:
Preparation
Ensure that all those attending have information about where and when the session is taking place. It is
also really important to let people know what the purpose of the session is and its format. This enables
attendees to think about the subject matter beforehand and to come prepared to make a positive
contribution. By doing this, it saves time and avoids people sitting around pondering the topic for this
first time.
Atmosphere
It is important to set a positive atmosphere. If people think they are coming along to
have a good old moan about things, then that is what they will do! If they are given
the impression that this will be a business-like, but informal session at which they
are expected to produce an output of some description, this sets a different tone.
This can be achieved just by the way the facilitator sets up the session and the way they behave:
 Be welcoming when people arrive
 Start on time (and make sure you finish on time too)
 Set the room out in a suitable format – if there is to be lots of group work and moving
around, make sure the furniture is arranged to enable this to happen smoothly
 Keep a positive tone – explain what the session is about and how it will be run
 Reassure people about confidentiality, that people can speak openly without fear of
any unpleasant backlash
 Emphasise the need for open and honest contributions from everyone
 Tell the group that everyone’s voice is important and that everyone will be heard
 Explain that there are no right or wrong answers – just their views and suggestions
 Be enthusiastic.
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Introduction
Start the session by covering the following key points:
 Introduce yourself and explain why you are running the session
 Outline the purpose of the session and what you are aiming to achieve
 Explain the session timings, including any breaks and what time you
will finish
 Explain the format of the session – give a quick overview of how it

will work
 Briefly explain what will happen to the outputs from the session
 Cover any ‘domestic arrangements’ such as breaks and refreshments, where the toilets
are, if necessary, etc.
 Invite any questions from the attendees and deal with these as appropriate (note that
some questions may be answered naturally once you get into the session, so don’t be
afraid to ask an attendee to hold on to their question as it’ll be answered later).
Warm Up
Conduct a warm up activity to get people speaking early on in the session. This might involve people
getting to know each other if they work in different departments, etc. Icebreaker exercises can be useful
but be wary of choosing one that seems gimmicky or irrelevant to the topic in hand as people will
wonder what the point of it is, and may feel that it is a waste of their time. For a team that knows each
other well, the warm up may simply consist of introducing the session and getting on with it. For groups
where the participants don’t know each other, then it is important to at least conduct a round of
introductions so that each person in the room knows who they are working with.
Managing Activities
Managing group activities can be technically complex, but here are some guidelines below to help you
to prepare to run and manage group activities no matter what the subject matter is:
Preparation:
 Make sure that you have clearly defined the purpose of the activity so that you are
clear about what you are asking of the group
 Have an idea yourself as to the output you are expecting from the group – you need to
be able to answer the question “Are we doing this correctly?” etc.
 Decide how you are going to split the larger group into smaller groups, if this is
something that you want to do.
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Briefing the group:

 Tell the group what you want them to do, why and what you want from them by way
of an output (e.g. a list of ideas; a solution; a plan; etc.)
 Tell them how much time they have for the activity
 Give them any materials that they may need for the activity (e.g. paper; pens; written
information; etc.)
 If the instructions are complex, give them this in writing either on a board or in a
handout
 Sort them into smaller groups and allocate each group to a location in the room/venue
 Explain that you will circulate during the activity to resolve any problems, etc.
 Ask if they have any questions.
During the activity:

 Remain visible and engaged – do not use this as an opportunity to check emails and
make phone calls!
 Allow the groups a moment or two to settle into the activity and then visit each group
in turn
 Listen in to what’s going on in each group
 If there is confusion, reiterate the purpose of the activity and

help them get started
 If they know what they are doing, let them get on with it –
avoid the temptation to interfere
 If they are getting stuck, offer some prompts to get them

going again
 If they are going off onto another topic, remind them of what you have asked them to
do and refocus them on that
 Keep the emphasis on positive problem identification and problem-solving
 Let them know how much time they have left (and offer more time if it needed, and if
you are able to do so, or encourage them to work faster if necessary)
 Monitor what’s going on in the groups and offer guidance and encouragement where
necessary
 Let the groups know how you want them to report back the results of their efforts
 Tell them when to wrap up.

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Debriefing the activity:

 Tell the group how this part of the session is going to work
 Invite each group to report back their thoughts
 If groups have all been working on the same topic, invite one group to report back and
ask the others to tick off their list anything that the first group mentions. Then ask the
other groups to report back, in turn, any additional points that they had only. This
avoids unnecessary repetition if all groups have come up with similar ideas for example
 If any points are made which are not immediately obvious, ask the group to explain
their thinking behind it (sometimes what is written down is not what they actually
meant)
 Ensure that all groups have a chance to share their findings
 Summarise the key points at the end.
Closing the session:

 Make sure that you finish at the time you stated at the beginning
 Summarise the key points from the session
 Explain what will happen next (and when) in terms of how their contributions will be
used
 Be realistic – don’t leave people with the impression that everything that they have
said will be acted upon as this may lead to false hopes
 Thank all attendees for their contributions.

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Activity 2C
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2.4 – Manage conflict between individuals and/or groups to achieve consensus

or agreement

 Establish ground rules to manage conflict.
Managing conflict
When people are working together on problems and solutions, it is very likely that they will have
different views and different priorities. This can be prevented to some degree by setting expectations
clearly at the start of the session, etc. but conflicts and differences of opinions can still occur.
Differences of opinion are healthy and they contribute to robust discussion. If they are regarded as
something negative and to be avoided, then there is a danger that debate will be stifled and people will
not feel able to express their true opinions about the matter being discussed. If participants feel
repressed, they will not value the process and are likely to feel cynical – they may take the view that
although their opinion is being asked for, no-one is actually seriously listening to it.
There is a fine line between robust debate and downright arguing and the facilitator’s job is to keep
differences of opinion on the right side of the debating line.
There are some simple steps that facilitators can take to manage conflict within a group session:
 Establish ground rules that everyone needs to let others finish speaking before making
their own point
 If anyone ignores that rule:
o ask the interrupter to stop for a moment
o invite the person who was interrupted to finish what

they were saying
o invite the interrupter to now make their point
 Where someone disagrees with another’s point, ask them to explain their reasons for
this or what positive suggestions they can make:
o someone who is arguing for the sake of it will have little to say and will back
down, having been exposed to the rest of the group
o someone with a genuine point will be encouraged to make it
 Make sure that all contributions are recorded, not just the ones that get the whole
group’s agreement – this gives you something to refer back to later if necessary
 If there are widely opposing viewpoints:
o ask each person to summarise their point and the reasons that underpin it
o give a verbal summary of the key points that have been made
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o invite any of the other participants to ask questions
o lead a discussion to invite all the participants to express their views about the
matter
o if the group view seems to be obvious, state this and get their agreement
o if the group view is still mixed, either revisit the key points and assess them in
terms of their validity; importance; relevance, etc. and then lead a brief
discussion to make a decision
o if no decision can be made, feed back the details of the opposing views to the
relevant person (OD Project Lead, for example)
 Emphasise areas of agreement – highlighting what people are in agreement with is a

simple way of getting them ‘alongside each other’ to work through the problem
 If discussion is becoming protracted, you may need to go with the majority view and
take a vote – if this is the case, make it clear to the group that this is what they are
agreeing to
 Create a record of areas over which there were queries or disagreements – sometimes
there is disagreement because there is a lack of information – in this case, record the
question to be dealt with at a later date, and move on
 Take a very short break if participants are becoming frustrated or stuck on one issue –
asking them to step outside and walk around for 2 minutes before continuing gives
everyone some breathing space and a shift of perspective which can help the
discussion
 If you take a break, reconvene when you said you would and with a brief summary of
progress so far
 Keep an eye on time and move things along if necessary – you could say things like
“Right, this needs to be the last point on this subject...” as this signals to people that
you are moving on
 If participants are working in smaller groups:
o deliberately sort groups to keep people

apart if they strongly disagree with each
other to prevent them from becoming side-
tracked during the small group sessions
o alternatively, deliberately put them together

in the smaller group to let them continue
their discussion in that situation instead of
the whole group forum
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 If any participants become aggressive or abusive, then this is more than just a conflict
of views and should be dealt with in accordance with your organisation’s procedures
for handling such behaviour.
 Remember that conflict can be a positive force and it can lead to better quality
decisions and recommendations which have been arrived at through robust debate.
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Activity 2D
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2.5 – Undertake interventions in accordance with the organisation development

plan

 Initiate interventions in-line with the organisational development plan.
Undertaking interventions
A wide variety of interventions can be undertaken in order to implement the OD plan.
These may include the following:

Action research
Action research involves carrying out studies to improve the existing methods and approaches used in a
particular area.
The key steps involved in carrying out action research are:

 Selecting a focus
 Clarifying theories
 Identifying research questions
 Collecting data
 Analysing data
 Reporting results
 Taking informed action
Action research can be used to investigate in detail a particular aspect of the organisation. It enables
those involved to gather information about a topic, from either inside or outside the organisation. The
results are then analysed and the information used as appropriate in taking further action.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a very simple yet effective technique for generating ideas regarding problems and
possible solutions. It consists of asking a group of people for their random thoughts about a topic and
then capturing these as they emerge. It usually works well when one person takes responsibility for
recording the suggestions on a whiteboard or flipchart so that everyone in the group can see them.
It is a very quick and simple technique but there are some basic rules to follow to make sure that it is
used effectively:
 The person recording the ideas must write them down verbatim, without paraphrasing
or altering the words
 Members of the group should not assess, question or criticise the ideas as they emerge
as this will stifle contributions
 The group may benefit from having some individual thinking time before starting the
brainstorming session
 The person facilitating the session should keep encouraging the ideas to flow
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 Encourage seemingly ridiculous ideas – great innovations can come about as a result of
a seemingly ridiculous suggestion
 The group should keep going till all the ideas are exhausted.
When the group has run out of ideas, then they can review the list and assess each idea on its own
merit, crossing out and revising the suggestions. The list then is whittled down to a shorter list of
possible items to take further. This shortlist may then result in further brainstorming, research or other
action, but it is an extremely useful starting point by getting lots of people’s input in a short period of
time.
Career planning
Career planning events and activities may be an activity within the OD program. If people’s jobs are
changing significantly, or if roles are being made redundant, then organisations often provide a program
of career planning activities.
These may consist of support in the following:

 Careers guidance
 CV writing
 Writing job applications
 Job search advice
 Interview practice and advice
 Career development planning, etc.
This type of support can be outsourced from experts in the career planning sector or it can be provided
internally by suitably qualified and experienced people. Not all affected employees will take up career
planning support, but it can be immensely beneficial to those who do.
Job redesign
This technique has been discussed in section 1.6.
Quality circles
A quality circle is a group of employees who do the same or similar work and who meet regularly to
identify, analyse and solve work-related problems. Groups are usually fairly small and are led by a
supervisor or manager. They present their solutions to managers. Where possible, the employees
implement the solutions themselves in order to improve the performance of the organisation and
motivate employees.
Typical topics for the attention of quality circles are:

 Improving occupational safety and health
 Improving product design
 Improvements in the workplace
 Improving manufacturing processes, etc.
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Re-engineering
Sensitivity training
Succession planning
Succession planning is a technique for future-proofing the skills and experience of the department or
organisation. It reviews the current skill-set and anticipates where and when skills may be lost (e.g. due
to relocations; staff turnover; retirements; etc.) and then identifies the potential skills gaps. The
succession plan is the forward plan which sets out how to fill those skills gaps. Typically, a succession
plan lists every member of a department and ranks their skills and experience on a scale (say, 0 – 10). It
then compares this with a ranking of the risk of losing them from the organisation (for whatever
reason). This data then identifies the highly-skilled people who are at risk of being lost from the
organisation. Steps can then be taken to either keep them in the organisation (e.g. if they are
demotivated; lacking in challenge; seeking to broaden their experience, etc.) or to recruit or train others
to fill their space.
A people profile can be used to capture this information as shown below:

People profile Summary
Department: _______________________________________________ Date: ________________
Name Length of Career Aspirations Risk of Loss Impact of Loss

Service
Low Medium High Low Medium High
Johnnie 3 ½ years Supervisor X X
Mildred 10 years Existing role X X
Ahmed 2 years Specialise in X role X X
By assessing the team in this way, it is possible to identify those people who are at risk of leaving and
who will have the biggest impact on the department/organisation.
An example succession plan is shown below:

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Succession plan template
Key Roles Skills/Knowledge Required People People Development Recruitment

in Roles with Needed? Needed?
Potential
ABC Operator ABC Production processes; Mildred; No x2

product knowledge BG; ST;
UA
Vacancy
Quality; team management;
ABC Supervisor Johnnie Yes No
supervising; etc.
XYZ Production processes; HK;

XYZ Operator product knowledge; XYZ MM; LJ; Ahmed Yes No
equipment TY
This plan highlights where development and recruitment are required to fulfil the skills requirements of
the department.
Surveys (with feedback)

Team building
Team building can take many different forms. It can involve intact teams (i.e. members of an existing
team working together with no other external members) or it can involve a mixture of different teams,
or it may involve several intact teams all working together at the same event.
Team building events may be led by experienced trainers and facilitators. This is important
when the objective of the event is to significantly change behaviours. For example, a team
building event may have an objective to help the team to air problems in working
relationships and to work towards finding some long-lasting solutions. This type of event
involves highly complex input and facilitation and should only be conducted by skilled
trainers. On the other hand, the purpose of the team building event may just be for
the team to spend time together away from the workplace where they can have fun
and get to know each other better. There is no need for a skilled facilitator to be present
at such an informal event.
The important factor to consider when planning and implementing team building activities is to clearly
identify its objectives and answer the question: “What are you trying to achieve?”
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Training
Training can also take many different forms, from formal education and courses to informal job-
shadowing with many variations in between. Again, the starting point should always be: “What are you
trying to achieve?”. With a clearly defined objective, the next step is to consider who needs training, the
best method of training and the practicalities of what happens, where, when and with what resources.
Transition analysis
Transition analysis involves assessing the effectiveness of the transition from A to B. In other words,
making a comparison between where the organisation started and where it is now, and analysing the
effectiveness of the steps that were taken during the transition.
This is a reflective process, looking back on what has already happened. However, this review and
reflection provides useful learning which can inform parts of the organisational program that are yet to
happen, and for general future use when planning and managing major change initiatives within the
organisation.
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Activity 2E
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2.6 – Brainstorm alternative proposals and negotiate and agree on outcomes

 Brainstorm alternative ideas and proposals
 Negotiate outcomes based on new proposals.
Reasons for alternative proposals

During the implementation phase of the organisational development process, it may be necessary for
alternative proposals to be identified.
This may happen for a variety of reasons:

 The original proposals may no longer be feasible, affordable or available
 Further information may have come to light which prompts a rethink
 Objections or resistance in the organisation may hinder or put at risk the
implementation of the original proposals
 A change in direction or a change in the objectives of the OD program would prompt a
review of the original proposals, etc.
Brainstorming is a useful technique for generating alternatives should the need arise.
The technique of brainstorming was explored in section 2.5.
The result of the brainstorming activity should be a list of possible alternatives. The
people responsible for the OD program should then be involved in evaluating those
proposals to reach agreement on which course of action to take.
The factors which should be taken into account when evaluating the alternative proposals include:
 The extent to which the proposals will deliver the objectives of the OD program
 Cost, time, resources required to implement each proposal
 Availability of expertise in delivering the alternative proposals (i.e. does the
organisation have the capacity?), etc.
Whilst it may be tempting for some proposals to be ruled out on the basis of personal preference or for
other subjective reasons, it is important for the team to work together to agree on the way ahead. All
parties need to be committed to the outcome, in the same way that agreement was needed for the OD
program in the first place. Commitment ensures that the necessary time, people, budget and resources
will be made available to implement the agreed actions.
A simple way of reaching agreement on the alternative proposals is to assess the advantages and
disadvantages of each option and to consider the relative weighting (or importance) of each factor
identified. Then it should be possible to objectively assess each proposal in a fair and transparent way.
Depending on the complexity of the proposals involved, the brainstorming and analysis of proposals
may be conducted in a single session. However, for particularly complex proposals or where further
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research is required, it may be necessary to split the session over two or more separate occasions to
allow for information to be gathered and distributed to the team.
If the group is finding it difficult to agree on the way forward, it is useful to maintain a focus on the
overall objective of the OD program. Keep coming back to this as it can help to eliminate unhelpful
digressions.
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Activity 2F
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3. Maintain organisation development program

3.1. Undertake surveys to identify any loss of support for organisational development programs and
activities
3.2. Maintain regular team meetings and individual feedback in accordance with communication
plan
3.3. Set out activities and interventions in the organisation development plan and maintain,
evaluate and modify them as required
3.4. Ensure senior management reinforces organisation development program by ongoing messages
of support and appropriate resource allocation
3.5. Evaluate organisation development plans in terms of costs and benefits, including opportunity
costs
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3.1 – Undertake surveys to identify any loss of support for organisational

development programs and activities

 Take surveys to establish loss of support.
Identifying loss of confidence in OD

Note: The use of surveys to elicit opinion is covered in section 2.1.
During the implementation of the organisation development program, support from key stakeholders
may wane.
Key stakeholders may include:

 Employees
 Senior managers
 Specialists
 Advisers
 Key OD program personnel
 Line managers and supervisors, etc.
Loss of support for the program may be due to:

 Stakeholders perceiving a lack of action arising from the program
 A perceived slow rate of progress as a result of the OD program
 Results not being as anticipated
 Problems arising which had not been considered previously
 Distractions due to other major events within the organisation
 Competing priorities
 A loss of drive or direction from the people responsible for implementing the OD
program, etc.
As highlighted in some of the reasons for a loss of support above, there may be a perception that there
has been a lack of action, or a perception that progress has been slow, or a perception that the desired
results have not been achieved, etc. It is not feasible to keep all stakeholders fully appraised of every
single step that is taken as part of the OD program, and so, despite a great deal of work taking place
‘behind the scenes’ it is not always apparent to the wider stakeholders that progress is being made.
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It is useful to take stock of people’s views and feelings about the OD program so that action can be
taken to address any problems and to maintain the momentum. Surveys are a useful way of gathering a
large volume of feedback and opinion in a short space of time.
The timing of surveys can be built into the overall OD plan so that there are regular checks on people’s
opinions.
Key times for gathering feedback include:

 After the implementation of a major action on the OD plan
 At the end of teambuilding and training sessions
 At the end of a set period of time (e.g. monthly; quarterly; annually; etc.)
 Via routine one-to-one discussions between employees and their line managers
 Using random sampling at predetermined points during the OD program, etc.
Surveys are a useful way of taking a temperature check for the OD program – checking the mood and
people’s feelings concerning the program. If the results are positive, then this indicates that people are
satisfied that progress is being made in the right direction and it gives the OD program leads the
confidence to continue as planned.
However, if the results are negative, then it may indicate a lack of:
 Faith in the OD program
 Interest in or enthusiasm for the program
 Awareness of actual progress made, etc.
Such feedback would require further action to be taken and this would depend on the nature of the
feedback and the seriousness of the points raised. Some feedback may be addressed simply by better
communication – for example, significant progress may have been made towards implementing X, but if
there has been little communication about this, then the stakeholders are very likely to have an opinion
that little progress has been made. However, some feedback may indicate flaws in the OD program
itself, or it may highlight problems that were overlooked earlier in the planning and implementation
process. Where the feedback is more complex, the people leading the OD program would need to
carefully review it and decide how to act.
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Activity 3A
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3.2 – Maintain regular team meetings and individual feedback in accordance

with communication plan

 Host regular team meetings
 Record feedback from individuals.
Purpose of communication
Note: Developing a communication plan was covered in section 1.7.
One of the key ways to maintain the momentum with the OD program is to keep communicating
progress to teams and individuals. Over a long-term project, such as the implementation of an OD
program, it is possible for people to lose sight of progress and if they are not directly involved in the
action, there is a danger that they believe that nothing is happening. This can lead to cynicism about the
program and a withdrawal of support or enthusiasm for it. This can be avoided by effective
communication throughout the period of the OD program.
The purpose of communicating during the implementation of the OD program is to:

 Keep people informed about progress and any problems encountered
 Advise people of any new actions arising during the implementation of the program
 Recognise people’s efforts and contributions towards implementing the program
 Ensure that people are receiving the correct messages about the OD program
 Maintain interest and motivation for the OD program, etc.
This can be achieved through individual feedback as a result of individuals’ efforts, and through team
meetings. We will explore each one of these methods in turn.
Individual feedback
There are many opportunities to give people individual feedback concerning their efforts in
implementing the OD program.
They include:
 After implementing key actions within the OD program
 As part of routine one-to-one discussions to talk about

performance and achievement of objectives, etc.
 After taking part in training or teambuilding activities, when

planning what actions to implement in the workplace, etc.
Feedback to individuals is an opportunity to:

 Recognise their efforts in connection with the implementation of the OD program
 Give them information about the progress with the OD program overall
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 Discuss any ‘next steps’ with them, both their input and suggestions for the OD
program as well as actions they need to take personally
 Agree any action that they will take as a result of attending any training or
teambuilding events, etc.
A useful way of structuring feedback to individuals is to use the EEC Model.
This works as follows:
Example Give examples of the actions or behaviours about which you would like to
give feedback
For example: “I realise that you were busy and didn’t know about this in
advance, but when you showed a visitor around earlier today, I noticed that
you gave them very little information and you didn’t make eye contact or
engage with them...”
Effect Explain the effect of the behaviour
For example: “I think that was very unwelcoming for our visitor and possibly
created a negative impression of our department...”
Change Explain what you would like them to do differently in future and ask them
how they intend to do this
For example: “In future, I’d expect you to give the visitor your full attention
and do all that you can to make them feel welcome. How do you think you
can do that?”
The example above is of developmental feedback, where the individual needs to do something
differently in future. This model can also be used to structure positive feedback where the individual has
performed well and you wish to point this out to them – in that case, ‘Change’ would become ‘Continue’
(for example, “I’d like you to continue doing.... “).
This is a very simple yet powerful way of structuring feedback as it enables the feedback-giver to
prepare what they want to say and be really clear about examples they are going to use to support their
judgement. It also gives the recipient some very clear information about their behaviour, how it has
been perceived and what they need to do next.
Team meetings
Whilst individual feedback is useful for giving specific, unique information to
team members, there will be some messages that can be communicated to the
whole team at a single session. A team meeting or team briefing is an ideal
opportunity to let people know what’s going on with the OD program, how it is
progressing and any action they need to take, etc.
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A team briefing can be structured around the 4Ps model as outlined below:
Progress  What progress has been made during the implementation of the OD
program?
 What results are being achieved?
 What feedback has been received?
 What problems have there been, etc.?
Policy  Have any policies changed as a result of the OD program?

 If so, which policies, what are the changes, what are the implications for the
team/individuals, etc.?
People  Any changes in the personnel leading the OD program?

 Are there any implications or changes affecting people in the team?
 Are there any training opportunities affecting the team, etc.?
Points for action  What actions are to be taken, when and by whom, etc.?
An effective team brief is a two-way process. This means that the team is given information by the
person leading the briefing, but they should also have the opportunity to ask questions and comment
on the information given. Any questions that cannot be answered and comments about the OD program
should be forwarded to the relevant person for action or a response.
By doing this, people are kept informed about progress, the OD program is a ‘live’ event and they are
being updated on actual progress and problems, etc.
Keeping people ‘in the dark’ is a sure way of alienating them from the program and losing momentum.
This can be avoided with regular and effective communication to keep people informed and maintain
enthusiasm for (and interest in) the OD program.
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Activity 3B
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3.3 – Set out activities and interventions in the organisation development plan
and maintain, evaluate and modify them as required

 Set up activities and interventions
 Maintain and evaluate activities as required.
Interventions to OD plan
The organisation development plan sets out the actions and activities required for the overall OD
program. It is important that this is maintained as a ‘live’ document and is updated as progress is made.
There is a danger that a great deal of effort goes into developing the plan only for it to be put aside
while the organisation gets on with other, more pressing things.
The OD plan is the central document which outlines (as a minimum) what action is to take place and by
when. This enables detailed planning of each step to be undertaken by the individuals responsible for
them, but it is essential to maintain an overarching plan which gives an at-a-glance view of what should
be happening and when. This enables the people in charge of implementing the plan to ask relevant
questions of those with responsibility for individual actions and to track progress on an ongoing basis.
The plan should be maintained and updated on a regular basis. The frequency will be determined by the
nature and scope of the OD program. In some short-term plans, it may be necessary to update the plan
on a weekly, if not daily, basis. In other instances, a monthly update would be sufficient.
A useful way of updating the plan is to use a RAG status system which is based on traffic light colours. It
can be used to give a visual update of progress with a task in a project.
The meanings attached to the colours are as follows:
Red There are significant issues with the task and corrective action is required to meet the
objectives of the plan. The matter should be escalated to senior decision-makers for
action.
Amber There is a problem associated with a task but it can be dealt with by the OD program
team. Action can be taken to resolve the issue or a decision is made to monitor the
situation closely.
Green The task is progressing according to the plan and no special action is required.
Very often with OD programs, there is a requirement for the person leading the
project or for the project delivery team to report to senior managers on a regular
basis. Using the RAG status against each of the key items in the OD plan is a highly
effective yet simple way of summarising progress to senior people. In effect, the
Green items can be ignored as they are progressing well, and attention should be
focused on the Red items as a priority and the Amber tasks accordingly.
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By reviewing the progress of each task within the plan, it enables the progress towards the overall OD
plan to be monitored closely and action to be taken where necessary.
Key questions to ask when evaluating each task or action include:

 Has this action been completed on time?
 Has it been completed within budget?
 Has the action achieved the expected results?
 What are the actual results that have been achieved?
 How do actual results compare with the planned/expected results?
 What problems, if any, have been identified?
 What are the possible consequences if problems are not dealt with?
 What further action, if any, is required?, etc.
Maintaining the OD program requires constant monitoring. It’s a bit like driving a car along a motorway
– depending on the traffic conditions, weather and the actual course of the road, the driver pretty much
holds the steering wheel steady, finely-tuning its direction to take account of what’s happening at the
time. The same can be said for a well-developed OD plan – the project manager lets the plan unfold
according to its pre-determined route and uses regular reviews and evaluation to identify where fine-
tuning is required. The nature of the fine-tuning or modifications will very much depend on the actual
tasks and problems involved.
It may include some of the following types of changes:

 Timescales and deadlines
 Budgets and resources allocated to tasks
 Personnel responsible for tasks
 Stakeholders (e.g. Suppliers; contractors; etc.)
 The actual tasks to be carried out
 The priority given to the tasks, etc.

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Activity 3C
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3.4 – Ensure senior management reinforces organisation development program

by ongoing messages of support and appropriate resource allocation

 Recruit support from senior management
 Secure needed resources.
Senior management support

Senior manager support is crucial to the success of any OD program. If senior managers are actively
engaged, there is a pressure to report back to them on a regular basis, they are asking questions of
relevant personnel and they are looking for progress to be demonstrated.
However, if they are seen to be uninterested or lacking in support for the program, others will notice
this and follow their lead. At best, others will find it harder to support the implementation of the
program if senior managers are demonstrably indifferent about it or if they actively oppose it.
A lack of senior manager support can result in:

 Conflicts of priorities – senior managers may not allow their teams to carry out the
work that is necessary for the OD program, as they believe that this would be at the
expense of the team’s core work
 Lack of resources – senior managers may

prevent appropriate resources being
allocated to the OD program in terms of
budget; access to equipment/facilities;
provision of expertise/personnel, etc.
 Loss of momentum – if senior managers

are not supportive of the program, there is
a danger that it can lose momentum and
stop completely.
Here are some tips for ensuring that senior managers are supportive of the OD program:
 Involve senior managers in identifying the need for the OD program and identifying its
aims
 Keep reminding senior managers of the aims and purpose of the OD program, outlining
what it is aiming to achieve in terms of tangible results
 Talk to senior managers individually, if necessary to gain their support – emphasise

how the OD program will benefit the organisation and their department specifically
 Gain the support of a few key senior managers first before tackling those who are less
so – the supportive senior managers will help to build support for the program through
peer pressure
P a g e | 93
 Involve senior managers in the planning of the OD program so that they feel it is
something that they are contributing to rather than it being something that is done to
them
 Be honest and realistic about what is being asked of senior managers – if they are
required to commit a budget of $XX or several key personnel for long periods of time
for example, then they need to understand that before they can make a commitment
to it
 Keep senior managers informed about the progress of the OD program, letting them
know what is working well, the results that are being achieved and any problems that
are occurring
 Ask some or all senior managers to take accountability for a key part of the OD
program so that they have an active role to play
 Help senior managers to prepare and deliver some core messages about the OD
program, both before it is implemented and during the implementation phase
 Make sure that the right people are delivering messages of support and avoid asking
anyone to do this who is actively disengaged – the audience will detect their lack of
engagement and their message will lack credibility
 Ask senior managers what they need in order for them

to engage with the process – they might want more
information about the costs and benefits of the
program, for example.
P a g e | 94
Activity 3D
P a g e | 95
3.5 – Evaluate organisation development plans in terms of costs and benefits,

including opportunity costs

 Analyse cost/benefits of the OD plan.
Cost/benefit analysis
At the start of the OD planning process, there is a requirement to collect
and analyse data in order to define what the OD program is trying to
achieve and how it is going to do that. At the planning stage, in order to
gain senior manager approval to implement the OD program, it would be
common practice to conduct a cost/benefit analysis where the costs of
the proposed OD program can be compared with the benefits that is it hoping to realise.
A cost-benefit analysis is a simple tool which enables an assessment to be made to establish whether an
OD program is going to be, or has been, worth the investment required.
To complete a cost/benefit analysis, complete the following steps:

1. List costs and benefits
List all of the costs associated with the proposed OD program and then do the same for all of the
benefits of it. You should also try to anticipate any unexpected costs and any benefits that you may not
initially have expected. You should also consider the costs and benefits over the lifetime of the OD
program, not just the initial start-up costs, etc.
2. Assign a monetary value to the costs

Costs include the costs of any physical resources needed, as well as the cost of the human effort
involved in all phases of implementing and sustaining the OD program.
Costs are often relatively easy to estimate and may include things like the cost of:
 New equipment and materials
 New or altered premises
 Recruitment and/or training
 Rebranding, etc.
It's also important to consider any associated intangible costs. For example, there may be a temporary
decrease in productivity whilst new equipment is installed and the workforce learns how to use it.
Ongoing costs should also be factored into the calculations – this might include things like ongoing
training and recruitment or other increased overheads such as energy use, etc.
Another factor to consider is the ‘opportunity cost’. This is the cost of what is sacrificed when one
option is chosen over another. An everyday example is that of a gardener who decides to grow carrots
in their allotment. The opportunity cost here is the alternative crop which they might have grown
P a g e | 96
instead, with potentially a better yield, better quality produce, etc. In other words, it answers the
question: “What are we potentially giving up by choosing this particular OD program?”
3. Assign a monetary value to the benefits

This step is more challenging than Step 2. It's often very difficult to predict revenues accurately,
especially for new products. Also, alongside the anticipated financial benefits, there are often intangible
benefits that are important outcomes of the OD program. An example of an intangible benefit might be:
‘greater customer goodwill’ or ‘better brand awareness’. These are valuable benefits but difficult to
quantify. Similarly, an OD program may impact on employee satisfaction or health and safety, for
example.
4. Compare costs and benefits

The final step is to compare the total value of your costs to the total value of your benefits, and use this
to identify whether or not the benefits outweigh the costs. This analysis will help you to decide your
course of action. It is important at this stage to consider the ‘payback time’. That is, how long it will take
to reach the point at which the benefits have repaid the costs.
Decisions can sometimes be made on the basis of ‘gut feel’. In other words, a decision feels right
intuitively. This can sometimes work, but a more robust and systematic approach is to conduct a
Cost/Benefit Analysis. This shows that you have been thorough in your thinking and that you have
objectively analysed the data. Senior leaders who will be required to support the OD program by
committing a budget to it are going to want to see the proposed benefits of your plan weighed against
the costs of it. The cost/benefit analysis is a simple and effective way of making this case to senior
leaders.
Towards the end of the implementation of the OD program, repeating the cost/benefit analysis is a
useful way of assessing to what extent the OD program has delivered what it was expected to. Where
the results are positive, this should be promoted to employees and other stakeholders in terms of the
positive results that have been achieved. Where there has been a shortfall in the actual results
achieved, then this should also be communicated in terms of what positive successes there have been
and how the learning from the program will be applied in future.
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Activity 3E
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Summative Assessments
At the end of your Learner Workbook, you will find the Summative Assessments.
This includes:
 Skills Activity
 Knowledge Activity
 Performance Activity.
This holistically assesses your understanding and application of the skills, knowledge and performance
requirements for this unit. Once this is completed, you will have finished this unit and be ready to move
onto the next one – well done!
P a g e | 99
References
These suggested references are for further reading and do not necessarily represent the contents of
this unit.
Websites
Action Research: http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/100047/chapters/What-Is-Action-

Research%C2%A2.aspx
Facilitation Guidelines: http://seedsforchange.org.uk/tools.pdf
Icebreaker Exercises: http://www.icebreakers.ws/
Organisation Culture Questionnaire: http://cimail15.efop.org/documents/OCAQParticipantManual.pdf
Organisation Culture: http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/management-principles-v1.0/s12-02-

measuring-organizational-cultu.html
Organisation Redesign: http://www.centerod.com/2012/02/what-is-organizational-design/
Organisational Behaviour Theories: http://www.myorganisationalbehaviour.com/theories/
Questions on Organizational Behaviour: http://iris.nyit.edu/~shartman/mba0299/120_0299.htm

(30/01/17)
Management: perspective and practice:

http://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/mod/oucontent/view.php?printable=1&id=1446 (30/01/17)
All references accessed on and correct as of 12/11/2015, unless other otherwise stated.

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BSBMGT615

Unit of Competency .......................................................................................................................... 4

Management and Leadership – Management

1. Develop organisation 1.1 Analyse strategic plans to determine organisation

2. Implement 2.1 Identify and implement consultative processes to maximise

 Selects and interprets a range of mathematical information to analyse performance, determine

Interact with others:

Get the work done:

Evidence of the ability to:

Assessment must be conducted in a safe environment where evidence gathered demonstrates

 Relevant legislation and regulation

Assessors must satisfy NVR/AQTF assessor requirements.

Companion volumes available from the IBSA website: http://www.ibsa.org.au/companion_volumes

Companion Volume implementation guides are found in VETNet -

1. Develop organisation development plan

1.7. Develop communication/education plans to achieve communication objectives in relation to the

1.1 – Analyse strategic plans to determine organisation development needs and

By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

 Identify organisational needs and objectives.

What is organisation development?

Key points about organisation development are as follows:

 OD is concerned with managing planned change in a flexible manner that can be

 OD aims to improve organisational effectiveness by:

o promoting high performance including financial returns, high quality products

 OD work contributes to the sustained health and effectiveness of the organisation

 OD practitioners help to create alignment between different activities, projects and

 OD work involves groups of people in the organisation to maximise engagement,

Organisation Development Cycle

Analyse strategic plans

 Recruitment of new staff

 Training and development of staff to manufacture the new product

 Quality controls to manage the quality of the new product

 Communication and consultation to preserve good working relationships across the

This may involve the following actions:

 Advertise the new positions

 Conduct testing of applicants

 Training managers to conduct recruitment interviews

 Interviews and taking up references

 Selection of successful candidates

 Training and induction of new starters

 Performance management of new starters, etc.

Identify organisation development objectives

 To create an opportunity for organisational problems to be dealt with openly (as

 To develop the skills and talents of people within the organisation

 To increase the level of personal satisfaction and

 To increase the levels of responsibility and

Organisational Behaviour Theories

The principal ones are summarised below:

These are listed below:

6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest – the interests of one

7. Remuneration of personnel – salaries should be fair and provide satisfaction both to

8. Centralisation – the degree of centralisation varies according to the dynamics of each

12. Stability of tenure of personnel – in order to attain the maximum productivity of

14. Esprit de Corps – teamwork is fundamentally important to an organisation. This is

He believed that all bureaucracies have certain characteristics:

 Division of labour and specialisation – all responsibilities in an organisation are

 Impersonal relationships between managers and employees – Weber believed it is

Taylor claimed the primary motivation of an employee was to earn money.

The Hawthorne Experiment

Beginning in 1927 a second group of experiments commenced with a group of

Acceptance Theory of Management

Maslow's theory of human needs has three assumptions:

McGregor’s Theory X and Y

McGregor believed there are two basic kinds of managers:

 Since employees do not like working, they have to coerced,

 The average employee is lazy, shuns responsibility, is not

 Employees are responsible for accomplishing their own work objectives