Teachers Mannual

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

For
\

Diploma Level Courses

For Department of Technical Education

Govt. of Uttarakhand

ALTERNATE HYDRO ENERGY CENTRE

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, ROORKEE

July 2008
 PREFACE

Lecture notes for the proposed Engineering Diploma Level Course entitled ‘Water Resources
Development’ for branches in Civil, Electrical, Mechanical, Industrial, Agriculture,
Environmental, Production, and Electric Engineerings is in accordance with the approved
syllabus. These have been prepared by Prof PK Pande, Former Provice Chancellor, Head and
Professor of Hydraulics Deptt. of Civil Engg., University of Roorkee (1960-2000) who has
been enclosed in various water resources projects in the country. Modern trends in design are
brought out. Copies of some relevant published/ unplublished papers on various aspects of
design are included. It may be noted that published design papers are relevant to the design
practice at the time of publication/ design and must be used/ modified with relevant to current
practice at the time of publication/ design and must be used/ modified with relevant to current
practice as per reference given in the text.

(ARUN KUMAR)
Head, AHEC, IIT, Roorkee

i
 APPENDIX 5

FOR ENGINEERING DIPLOMA LEVEL COURSE

For the branches in Civil, Electrical, Mechanical, Industrial, Agriculture, Environmental,

Production, Electric Engg.

1. Course Title: Water Resources Development

2.* Contact Hours: L: T: P:

3.* Examination Duration (Hrs.): Theory: Practical:

4.* Relative Weightage : CWS PRS MTE ETE

PRE

5.* Credit: 6.* Semester:

Autumn Spring Both
7. Pre-requisite: NIL

8. Details of Course:

Sl. Particulars Contact

No. Hours
1. Government Hydropower policies, environmental issues, SWOT- 3
(Strength weakness opportunity threatening) of hydropower projects,
type of clearance required for Hydropower project, master plan,
topography, catchments area, types of streams, allotment of site-(Open
bid, Mou, Joint venture).
2. Survey & investigation, PFR-(Pre-feasibility report), DPR (Detailed 4
Project Report), Process of development of site (announcement,
allotment, clearance, agreement, commissioning).Types of survey-
Topographical, metrological, hydrological, ecological, geological.
Arial Rainfall Measurement, Type of flow measurement Devices-
(Notch, weir, flume), dilution method, and Flow duration curve
(important), flood – discharge estimation kripitech formula, dickens
formula, English formula, hydrograph, unit hydrograph.
3. Financial institution, SOI Map, Cost / Estimation – wheeling charges, 2
Banking, Moratorium, PPA-(Power purchase agreement), SERC-
(State electricity regulatory commission) Hydrological cycle.
4. —Water Resources in India, Purpose & Classification of Water 2
Resources Development Projects, Functional Requirements of
Multipurpose Projects, Strategies for the Future.
5. HYDROLOGY—Hydrologic Cycle, Precipitation, Runoff, 3
Hydrograph Analysis.
6. PRECIPITATION & PRECIPITATION LOSSES—Forms & Types 3
of Precipitation, Rainfall in India, Measurement of Rainfall, Design
Storm, Evaporation & its Estimation, Reducing Reservoir
Evaporation, Evapotranspiration, Interception, Storage in Depression,
Infiltration, Watershed Leakage.
* These are to be decided by the respective University/Board
ii
 Sl. Particulars Contact
No. Hours
7. GROUND WATER—Subsurface Zoning, Water Bearing Material, 5
Aquifers, Steady, unsteady & Ground Water flow. Well Hydraulics,
Well Losses, Stream & Seawater Intrusion, Groundwater
Investigation.
8. STREAM FLOW—Terminology, Factors Influencing Runoff, Runoff 4
Computation, Runoff Simulation Models, Storage, Discharge
Measurements.
9. HYDROGRAPHS—Concepts & Components, Unit Hydrograph, S- 3
Hydrograph, Distribution Graph.
10. DESIGN FLOODS—Introduction, Design Floods, Flood Estimations, 3
Analysis of Regional Flood Frequency.

11. RESERVOIR PLANNING & DAM PLANNING—Investigation, Site 6

Selection, Zones of Storage, Storage Capacity, Sedimentation &
Control, Single & Multipurpose Reservoir, Flood Routing.
Classification of DAMS, Factors Influencing selection of Dam, Site
Selection.
12. SPILLWAYS & DIVERSION HEADWORKS—General, Types, 4
Energy Dissipation, Indian Standards Criteria, Gates, Outlet works.
Diversion Headwork Components, Weirs, Khoslas Theory, Silt
Control, Site Selection, Effect of Weir on Regime of River.
13. WATER POWER ENGINEERING—General, Classifications, 4
Principle Components, Site Selection of Hydro-Power Plants,
Turbines Power House, Water Power Potential Assessment, Design of
Hydel Channel.
14. REMOTE SENSING APPLICATION on WATER RESOURCES - 2
Preliminary Concepts

Suggested Readings:

1. Arakeri, H.R., Donahue, Roy, “Principles of Soil Conservation & Water

Management”.
2. Bower, H., “Ground Water Hydrology”.
3. Central Water Commission, India, “Water Sources of India”, Publication
No.30/88, CWC, New Delhi, 1988.
4. Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Publications on Water Resources.
5. Karanth, K.R., “Ground Water Assessment Development & Management”.
6. Patra, K.C., “Hydrology &Water Resources Engineering”.
7. Sharma, R.K., “A Text Book of Hydrology & Water Resources”.

iii
 CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO.

Preface i
Course Syllabus ii
Content iv

CHAPTER -1 WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND THE HYDROLOGIC 1

CYCLE
1.1 Hydrologic Cycle 1
1.2 Importance of Water Management 2

CHAPTER-2 Precipitation and Precipitation Losses 4

2.1 Types of Precipitation 4
2.2 Measurement of Rainfall 4
2.3 Rainfall in India 6
2.4 Design Storm 6
2.5 Precipitation Losses 7
2.6 Evaporation 7
2.7 Transpiration 8
2.8 Infiltration and Percolation 8
2.9 Depression Storage 9
2.10 Interception 9

CHAPTER-3 STREAMFLOW 10
3.1 Stage Discharge Curve 10
3.2 Flow Duration Curves 10
3.3 Discharge Measurement 11
3.4 Runoff Simulation Models 14

CHAPTER-5 HYDROGRAPHS 16
4.1 Flood Hydrograph 16
4.2 Unit Hydrograph 18
4.3 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs 21
4.4 Distribution Graph 22

CHAPTER-5 DESIGN FLOOD 24

5.1 Flood Estimation for Ungauged Watersheds 24
5.2 Flood Estimation for Gauged Watersheds 25
5.3 Regional Flood Frequency Analysis 26
5.4 Problem Maximum Flood 26

CHAPTER-6 GROUND WATER 27

6.1 Dary’s Law 28
6.2 Well Hydraulics 30
6.3 Pumping Test 31

32
iv
 TITLE PAGE NO.

CHAPTER-7 DAMS AND RESERVOIRS

7.1 Planning for a Storage Scheme 32
7.2 Investigations 33
7.3 Determination of Reservoir Capacity 34
7.4 Sedimentation of Reservoirs 35
7.5 Dams 35
7.6 Gravity Dams 35
7.7 Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam 35
7.8 Embankment Dams 38
7.9 Criteria for Safety of Earth Dams 39
7.10 Safety Against Overtopping 39
7.11 Stability of Slopes 40
7.12 Seepage Considerations 41
7.13 Foundation Shear 41

CHAPTER-8 SPILLWAYS AND DIVERSION WORKS 43

8.1 Spillways 43
8.2 Flood Routing 43
8.3 Types of Spillways 45
8.4 Terminal Structures – Energy Dissipation 49
8.5 Spillway Gates 51
8.6 Diversion Schemes 52
8.7 Diversion Schemes for Irrigation 52
8.8 Diversion Headworks 53
8.9 Surface and Subsurface Flow Considerations in Design of
Hydraulic Structures 57
8.10 Surface Flow Considerations 58
8.11 Subsurface Flow Considerations 60

CHAPTER-9 WATER POWER ENGINEERING

9.1 Diversion Schemes for Hydropower Generation 65
9.2 Power Generation from Storage Schemes 68
9.3 Turbines 70

CHAPTER-10 POLICY AND OTHER ISSUES IN HYDROPOWER 71

10.1 Small Hydropower (SHP) 71
10.2 Institutional Arrangement 71
10.3 Government Policy 73
10.4 The Reforms in Electricity Sector 73
10.5 Clearances Required 74

CHAPTER-11 REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS IN WATER RESOURCES 76

11.1 Remote Sensing 76
11.2 Applications in Water Resources 76

v
 CHAPTER-1

WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Water is an essential ingredient for sustenance of life. The total quantity of water
available on earth is estimated to be about 1400 million cubic kilometer, which is enough to
cover the earth with a layer 3 km deep. However, 97.3% of this is saltwater in oceans,
thereby leaving only 2.7% freshwater. Again, about 75% of the freshwater lies frozen in the
Polar Regions and about 22.6% is groundwater- some of it very deep to be economically
extractable. The surface freshwater is thus only about 0.007% of the total water occurring on
earth. With increasing population, while the demand for water increases, anthropogenic
pressures are rendering many water sources unfit for use because of the high level of
pollution. Development and management of water resources is thus one of the important
aspects of development at the present time.

1.1 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The conceptual model describing the movement and storage of water on earth is
known as the Hydrologic Cycle. The energy of the sun is responsible for this cycle (Fig.1.1).

Fig. 1.1: Hydrologic Cycle

There are five processes taking place in the Hydrologic Cycle viz.:

1. Evaporation and Transpiration (Evapotranspiration)

2. Condensation
3. Advection
4. Precipitation
5. Surface Runoff
6. Infiltration and Percolation

Water is evaporated from the oceans, inland water bodies and land surface because of
the energy supplied by sun. Water vapour also enters the atmosphere due to transpiration by
plants and animals.

1
 Condensation of this vapour on the nuclei present in atmosphere results in the
formation of clouds.

The clouds are transported by winds (Advection) and under appropriate conditions
result in precipitation in the form of rain, sleet, hail or snow.

Part of the precipitation flows overland (Surface Runoff) and through drains and
rivulets, joins a river and ultimately flows back into the oceans.

Part of the precipitation is intercepted by the leafs of plants (Interception), while the
rest falls on the ground and may infiltrate through the soil (Infiltration) or through fracture
and interstices of rocks (Percolation) and join the groundwater reservoir.

The freshwater available for use can be in the form of surface water i.e. the water in
lakes, streams and reservoirs or in the form of groundwater, which is extracted from aquifers.
There is a strong interaction between surface and groundwater as they feed each other.

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF WATER MANAGEMENT

As already mentioned, the fresh water forms a very small fraction of the total water
available on the earth and its management therefore assumes great significance for the
survival of life.

It is estimated that about 400,000 cu km. of water is evaporated annually. Of this, the
evaporation from oceans is about 340,000 cu km., while from land it is 60,000 cu km. The
rainfall, on the other hand, is 300,000 cu km. over oceans and 100,000 cu km over land. The
difference of 40,000 cu km between the evaporation and precipitation over land is thus the
renewable fresh water supply of the earth.

ATMOSPHERE 0.013 million cu km

(Water Storage)

EVAPORATION PRECIPITATION
PRECIPITATION 60,000 cu km 100,000 cu km
EVAPORATION 300,000 cu km
340,000 cu km

LAND
33.6 million cu km
(Water Storage)

OCEANS
1350 million cu km RUNOFF/ GROUNDWATER
(Water Storage) 40,000 cu km

Fig. 1.2: Water Availability

2
 In the Indian context, one of the major problems is the skew distribution of
precipitation both in time and in space. Thus most of the precipitation takes place in the
monsoon months. The average annual rainfall of India is 1143 mm. and nearly 75-90% of this
occurs in 25 to 60 days of monsoon. Further, while there are areas in the Northeast which
receive excessive rainfall- more than 11,000 mm- there are areas in Rajasthan that may be
receiving as little as about 220 mm. There is also a variability of upto about 20% in the
rainfall from year to year in most of the parts.

The Central Water Commission of India has made a basinwise assessment of the
water potential of the country. The total utilizable resources are estimated to be 1110 cu km
annually, of which surface water accounts for 690 cu km and groundwater the remaining 420
cu km. It is estimated that the water demand by the year 2025 will nearly equal or exceed the
availability. Thereafter, the alternative of interbasin transfer of water will have to be seriously
considered. There is thus an imperative need for proper management of the water resources
of the country.

Though surface water sources include rivers as well as lakes, rivers remain the major
source of the same. The strategies for development of this source can be based either on
diversion of the water available in the river at any point of time or on storing water when
available (such as in monsoon months) and drawing from the storage during lean flows. In
the former case, these are termed as diversion schemes, while the latter are called storage
schemes.

3
 CHAPTER-2

PRECIPITATION AND PRECIPITATION LOSSES

Precipitation refers to all the moisture that comes to the earth from atmosphere. This
may be in the form of rain, snow, sleet, fog, dew or hail. Precipitation can occur only when
the air containing moisture is cooled sufficiently to condense a part of the moisture which
grows around condensation nuclei which are present in the atmosphere.

2.1 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION

Adiabatic cooling resulting from the vertical transport of air mass is the primary cause
of condensation and hence of precipitation. Depending on the conditions responsible for the
vertical motion of the air mass, precipitation can be classified into the following four types:

2.1.1 Convective Precipitation

This takes place when the air mass is heated at the interface with the ground and
therefore rises resulting in subsequent cooling and formation of clouds.

2.1.2 Orographic Precipitation

This results from ocean air streams being deflected upwards by natural barriers such
as mountains and subsequent cooling. Most of the precipitation takes place on the windward
slopes.

2.1.3 Cyclonic Precipitation

Unequal heating of the earth’s surface creates low and high pressure regions.
Movement of air masses from the high pressure regions to low pressure regions displaces the
low pressure air upward to cool and cause precipitation.

2.1.4 Thunderstorms

Thunderstorm cells develop from vertical air movements associated with intense
surface heating and are usually local in nature but can produce intense precipitation. There
are three stages in the life history of a thunderstorm viz. cumulus, mature and dissipating. The
first is characterized by strong updrafts, while during the second heavy precipitation occurs
which also causes strong downdrafts. In the final stage, the downdrafts become predominant
and precipitation reduces and finally stops.

2.2 MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL

Rainfall can be measured either using raingauges or with a weather radar. Raingauges
can be non-recording or recording.

4
2.2.1 Non-Recording Raingauge

A typical non-recording raingauge (Fig.2.1) consists of a cylinder over which a funnel

is fixed. The funnel shank is inserted in a bottle which receives the rainwater. The water
collected in the bottle is measured by pouring it into a measuring cylinder which gives the
depth of rainfall in mm. These gauges however cannot give the intensity of rainfall.

2.22 Recording Raingauges

Recording raingauges can measure the intensity of rainfall also and three types are
commonly used

1. Tipping Bucket Raingauge

This type of raingauge (Fig.2.2) comprises of a collector funnel which directs the
rainwater into a bucket with two compartments. Once the compartment below the
funnel is filled, it tips and empties the water into a reservoir and the other
compartment moves into the place below the funnel. As each bucket is tipped, it
actuates an electrical circuit causing a pen to mark on a revolving drum. The buckets
are designed to tip at given depth of rain and thus from the marks on the drum, the
total rainfall can be obtained.
2. Weighing Bucket Raingauge
In this type of raingauge, the collecting bucket is set on a weighing platform. The
weight of the bucket and its contents are recorded on a chart held by a clock driven
drum. The record thus gives the accumulation of rainfall with time.
3. Float Type Raingauge
In this type of raingauge, the collection chamber is provided with a float. The float
rises with the rise of water level in the chamber and its movement is recorded on a

5
 chart through a suitable mechanism. A siphon arrangement is also provided to empty
the chamber quickly whenever it becomes full.

Weather Radar

This is based on the detection of the reflected energy of high frequency

electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves are sent out and the echo intensity
recorded. Calibration of this with the rainfall gives the rainfall intensity.

2.3 RAINFALL IN INDIA

The rainfall in India has a very skew pattern- both in time and space. Thus while the
average annual rainfall in the country is 1143mm, nearly 75-90% of this occurs in 25 to 60
days of the monsoon period. Further, while there are areas which have an average annual
rainfall of more than 11000mm, there are others where it is as low as 220mm. Year to year
variability of 20% in the average is also not uncommon. Isohyetal maps of the country as
well as the coefficient of variability maps have been prepared by the India Meteorological
Department.

2.4 DESIGN STORM

All works constructed on a river require an estimate of the flood for which they are to
be designed. This is called the design flood. The design storm is an estimate of the rainfall
which is used to determine the design flood.

2.4.1 Standard Project Storm

In a large number of cases, such as bridges and minor dams, it is not necessary to
ensure protection against a flood of very high peak. In such cases the design is made
depending upon what is called a standard project flood and the storm from which it is
determined is termed the standard project storm. This by definition is the largest storm
reasonably characteristic of the region in which the basin under consideration is located and
is generally taken as the largest storm which has occurred in the region during the period of
rainfall records.

2.4.2 Probable Maximum Storm

For certain purposes such as determination of spillway capacity in major dams, one
requires an estimate of the physical upper limit of the flood that can occur. In order to
determine this one needs to estimate the probable maximum storm.

The probable maximum storm is generally estimated by selecting major storms in the
meteorologically homogeneous region of which the basin is a part. These storms are then
transposed to the basin and adjusted for the maximum moisture that could occur over the
basin. Envelop of the transposed adjusted storms then gives the probable maximum storm.

6
2.5 PRECIPITATION LOSSES

Not all precipitation taking place over an area results in runoff, as part of it is lost as
evaporation, transpiration, interception, infiltration and depression storage. Their evaluation
in practice thus assumes importance in any hydrologic study.

2.6 EVAPORATION

Moisture is evaporated from land and water surface because of the heat from the sun
and returned to the atmosphere. The important meteorological factors affecting evaporation
include solar radiation, wind, relative humidity and temperature. It is an important component
of the hydrologic cycle in that a large part of the precipitation is returned to the atmosphere
by evaporation. Its estimation and control of evaporation from reservoirs thus assumes
importance in water resources management.

2.6.1 Estimation of Evaporation

The methods used for estimation of evaporation include the energy-budget method,
mass-transfer method, water-budget method, use of empirical formulae and pan evaporation
measurements. While the first two require extensive data, which may not always be available
and very costly to collect, the water budget method is subject to effect of errors in estimating
its various components. The empirical formulae are generally applicable only to the regions
and conditions for which they have been obtained and thus not very useful under differing
sets of conditions. The pan evaporation method is the least expensive and can generally give
reasonably good estimates of evaporation.

There are different ways in which a pan can be used and depending on its placement
one could have a sunken pan, floating pan or a surface pan, with the surface pan being the
simplest and hence most common. The dimensions of the pan as well as its shape are
standardized and vary from country to country. Thus the US Weather Bureau Class A pan is
1.22m in diameter and 254mm deep. It is filled to a depth of 180mm and set on a timber
grillage with the pan bottom 150mm above ground level. The quantity evaporated over a
period of time is determined from records of water level changes.

There are many differences in factors affecting evaporation from a water body such as
a lake or reservoir and that from a pan. These include the exposure, mass and areas of the two
surfaces, advected heat absorbed by the water from the sides and bottom in case of a pan and
many others. The data from pan evaporation measurements therefore needs multiplication by
a factor to estimate the evaporation from a larger water body. This factor is generally of the
order of 0.7 to 0.75.

2.6.2 Evaporation Control

Reducing evaporation losses from a water body, such as reservoirs can go a long way
in making more water available for various uses. This can be achieved partly by afforestation
around the reservoir to reduce the wind velocities which have a pronounced effect on the rate
of evaporation. Formation of a monomolecular film of chemicals such as hexadecanol on the
water surface is amongst the artificial means of evaporation control. Such chemicals have
been found to reduce the evaporation by more than 60% in laboratory conditions. This
however is likely to be significantly less in large water bodies as the film can get damaged

7
by wind, wave action and dust and its repair is not easy. In any case, reductions of the order
of more than 20% have been observed in certain lakes.

2.7 TRANSPIRATION

The water lost through the plant leaves to the atmosphere is termed transpiration.
While plants draw a considerable amount of water through their roots, only a very small
amount (about 1%) is held by them in storage, the rest is lost as transpiration.

In any vegetated watershed, transpiration occurs along with evaporation and

separation of the two is quite difficult. The term evapotranspiration is used to denote the
combined evaporation and transpiration.

Evapotranspiration can be measured using a Lysimeter or obtained from empirical

formulae, but both have their own limitations.

2.8 INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION

When rain falls on the ground, it first wets the vegetation or the bare soil. If the soil is
porous, the water moves through the surface into the soil and this is known as infiltration.
Once water has infiltrated, it moves through the soil till it reaches the zone of saturation at the
phreatic surface. This is termed as percolation.

The maximum rate at which water can enter the soil at a particular point under a given
set of conditions is called the infiltration capacity and denoted by fc, while the actual rate of
infiltration is denoted by f and is less than or equal to fc.

There is a progressive reduction in the infiltration with time as the capillary pores of
the soil get filled and almost steady conditions are attained with infiltration equaling
percolation.

Besides the soil characteristics and its surface conditions, infiltration is also affected
by the rainfall intensity, initial moisture content of the soil and the ground slope.

2.8.1 Measurement of Infiltration

Infiltration can be measured using an infiltrometer, which is a wide diameter tube

surrounding an area of soil (Fig.2.3). It is generally provided with an outer ring also. The
rings are filled to a certain depth and continually refilled to maintain the depth and the inflow
measured, which gives the infiltration. The purpose of the outer ring is to eliminate to some
extent the edge effect of the surrounding dryer soil.

Another way to measure infiltration is to simulate rainfall by a sprinkler and collect

the runoff from the plot. The difference between the water supplied to the sprinkler and the
runoff collected is assumed to have infiltrated.

In practice, approximation of infiltration losses can be made using infiltration indices.

Of the various indices, the -index is the simplest to use. The -index is defined as the
average rainfall intensity above which the volume of rainfall equals the volume of runoff
(Fig.2.4). Although the -index does not account for the change in infiltration rate with time

8
and also incorporates some other losses, it is nevertheless a reasonably good approximation
for study of storm runoff from large watersheds.

2.9 DEPRESSION STORAGE

Precipitation can also become trapped in numerous small depressions on the ground.
The water thus stored ultimately is lost by evaporation and infiltration. Since the depressions
depend on the land form and land use practices, it is not possible to get any generalized
relationships for this loss.

2.10 INTERCEPTION

The part of precipitation which is stored or collected by the vegetal cover and
subsequently evaporated is called interception. The volume of water lost by interception
depends on the storm characteristics, density and type of plants and trees and the season.
Some equations for estimation of this loss are available.

9
 CHAPTER-3

STREAMFLOW

The availability of water in the streams – stream flow as it is generally referred to – is

very important from the point of view of water resources engineering. Knowledge of the
stream flow is essential for the planning and design of most of the water resources and
hydropower projects. This section presents some of the concepts and methodologies related
with stream flow such as the rating curve, flow duration curves, measurement of stream flow
and simulation. Another important concept viz. the hydrograph has been discussed in a
subsequent section.

3.1 STAGE DISCHARGE CURVE

The stage discharge curve (also known as the rating curve) shows the relationship
between the water surface elevation (also known as the stage) at any section of a river
channel and the corresponding discharge at that section (Fig.3.1). The discharge at any stage
however is slightly different at rising and falling stages of the river. Thus in reality the stage
discharge curve forms a loop as shown by the dotted lines in the figure. This difference is
because of the effect of the channel storage and the difference in water surface slope during
the rising and falling stages.

It is generally quite useful to mark the stages on permanent structures such as weirs or
bridges in a river and use the stage discharge curve for obtaining the discharge from the
reading of the stage.

3.2 FLOW DURATION CURVES

The flow duration curve for a particular section in the river represents the proportion
of time during which the discharge across that section equals or exceeds a particular value
(Fig.3.2).

The utility of the flow duration curves lies in estimating the availability of a particular
flow for some use and the time for which it is likely to be available. Such information is
particularly important in case of hydropower projects to decide upon the size of the power
plant.

10
3.3 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

The measurement of discharge at a river section – also called stream gauging– can be
made by various methods. Some are briefly described below:

3.3.1 Velocity Area Method

The method is conventional for medium or large rivers and involves the determination
of the cross section and average velocity at the measurement site. The river width is divided
into suitable intervals and the depth at each recorded by sounding with a graduated pole
(Fig.3.3). Velocity measurements at different points along each vertical are made. Generally a
current meter is employed for this purpose. The measurements are normally made from a
boat guided by a cable tied to supports on the two banks of the river.

The average velocity obtained from this profile along a vertical is considered to be the
average over an area extending halfway to the adjacent verticals. Thus with reference to
Fig.3.3, the average velocity vi along the vertical with a depth di is taken to be the average
over the area ai (=di xi). The discharge qi through this area will be given by ai vi. The total
discharge then is given by the summation of discharges through all such areas i.e.

Q= qi = ai vi

Many a times, it is not feasible to measure the velocity at many points along a
vertical. In such cases, one could either measure the velocity at a depth of 0.6d below the
surface or take the average of the velocities at 0.2d and 0.8d below the surface as these would
closely approximate the average over the depth.

11
3.3.2 Discharge Measuring Structures

These are suitable for small streams and consist of structures viz. V-notch and
rectangular weirs.

Suitable for measuring very small discharges, a V notch is shown schematically in

Fig.3.4. A plate across the channel has a notch cut in V shape and the water flows over this
notch. The discharge is given by

Q = (8/15) Cd (2g) H5/2 tan( /2)

where Cd is the coefficient of discharge of the notch, g is the acceleration due to gravity, H is
the head over the crest and is the apex angle of the notch. If the apex angle is a right angle,
tan( /2) becomes 1 and taking the coefficient of discharge as 0.6, the discharge can be
obtained as

Q = 1.41 H5/2

Thus a single measurement i.e. of H yields the discharge.

Rectangular weirs can be used for measuring discharges which are larger. These can
be either sharp crested or broad crested.

A sharp crested weir is shown in Fig.3.5(a). The discharge flowing over this can be
given by the equation

Q = (2/3) Cd (2g) B H3/2

in which B is the width of the weir. Generally the value of Cd can be taken as 0.6 and the
equation becomes

Q = 1.77 B H3/2

If the length of the weir in the direction of flow (L) is more than about twice the value
of H (Fig.3.5(b)), the weir is called a broad crested weir and the discharge formula for such
weirs is

Q = 1.70 B H3/2

12
 Many existing structures on large rivers will also behave as rectangular weirs and
hence can be used for discharge measurement.

It may be mentioned that the coefficient of discharge is not a constant but shows a
variation with many parameters. A detailed discussion of the same has not been carried out.
Also, the formulae given above are for a free flow and do not hold under conditions where
the flow over the weir is submerged. There are other types of weirs as well as some other
structures which can be used to measure stream discharges which have not been described
here.

3.3.3 Tracer Dilution Method

This method can be used in highly turbulent streams with depths and velocities which
are not appropriate for measurement by the velocity area method and where the construction
of discharge measuring structures may become unnecessarily expensive. Most of the hilly
streams will fall in this category.

The method consists of injecting a concentrated solution of some tracer (such as salt,
sodium dichromate or Rhodamine B dye) at a constant rate at some section of the stream and
measuring its concentration in the stream at a downstream station after complete mixing of
the tracer in the water has occurred. Knowing the concentration of the injected solution and
the rate of injection alongwith the concentration after mixing, the discharge in the stream can
be obtained.

Let the discharge in the stream be Q (Fig.3.6) and the concentration of the tracer in
the stream water just upstream of the injection point be ci (for most of the tracers this will be
zero). If the tracer is injected at rate q and concentration c at section A and the measured

13
concentration at section B, where full mixing has taken place is cf, one gets from the law of
conservation of the tracer mass

Q ci + q c = (Q+q) cf

which gives

Q = q(c- cf)/( cf - ci )

Thus knowing q, c, ci and cf, the stream discharge Q can be obtained.

Sometimes instead of injecting the tracer continuously, it is also injected in one shot
and the concentration measured at the downstream station. The stream discharge could be
worked out from these measured concentrations in a manner similar to the above.

3.4 RUNOFF SIMULATION MODELS

These models try to estimate the runoff volume and/or peaks, making use of the
mathematical expressions describing the rainfall runoff process. The data used for such
models includes the rainfall, catchment characteristics, abstractions from ground water and
channels etc. The models estimate the potential evapotranspiration, surface runoff, interflow
and base flow and also use flow routing to arrive at the runoff. Since exact mathematical
representation may not be possible for all parameters involved, empirical components are
also included for some of these.

The models could be classified into different categories depending on the criteria
employed for such classification. Thus the model could be deterministic or stochastic. While
the former will not have any variable which has a random component, the latter may have
one or more random variables. Likewise, the model could be termed as an event model if it
deals with only a single rainfall event or it could be a continuous model if it operates over a
period of time covering periods both of surface runoff as well as no surface runoff. Again one
could talk in terms of a calibrated model i.e. one in which some of the parameters are fixed
based on available records. This is possible only in catchments for which some rainfall runoff
data is available. For ungauged catchments, however measured parameter models can be
thought of. In these models some of the parameters are obtained from characteristics that can

14
be easily measured. Likewise, lumped parameter models do not account for the spatial
variability of the watershed characteristics and other parameters, while distributed parameter
models do take these into account.

There are a number of models available representing each of the above categories and
the detailed description of such models is beyond the scope of the present text. The selection
of any particular model is usually based on the data available, the information required and
the degree of accuracy sought to be achieved.

15
 CHAPTER-4

HYDROGRAPHS

4.1 FLOOD HYDROGRAPH

A hydrograph is a record of the discharge of a stream over a period of time. The

hydrograph resulting from a period of rainfall (storm) is called a storm hydrograph or a flood
hydrograph. A typical flood hydrograph is shown in Fig.4.1 along with the hyetograph of the
rainfall producing the same.

4.1.1 Components of a Flood Hydrograph

The storm hydrograph consists of a “rising limb” during which the discharge in the
river increases and reaches a peak and a falling or “recession limb” during which the
discharge starts decreasing. The time difference between the peak of the rainfall and the peak
discharge is called the “basin lag time”

The discharge represented by the hydrograph can be divided into two components viz.
the base flow and the storm flow. Base flow represents the normal flow of the river resulting
from subsurface flow from earlier storm events or delayed subsurface flow from the current
storm. The storm flow on the other hand is caused by the current storm event (rainfall). The
storm flow can further be subdivided into the overland flow and the through flow. The
overland flow is the component of the discharge that reaches the river through surface runoff,
while the through flow reaches it through the soil and underlying rock layers.

16
4.1.2 Factors Influencing the Storm Hydrograph

The shape of a storm hydrograph is influenced by many factors. The important ones
are briefly described below:

1. Basin Characteristics
These include
(i) Relief or Slopes- Water can flow faster if the slopes are steep and hence in
a basin with steeper slopes the rising limb will be steeper resulting in
smaller lag time
(ii) Area – Larger basins will mean longer time for water to reach the river and
hence larger lag time. Further, the runoff will be more for a large basin.
(iii) Shape – The shape of the basin effects both the peak and lag time. Thus an
elongated basin means a smaller peak and larger lag time compared to one
which is close to a circular shape.
(iv) Rock and Soil Type – If the rocks and soil in the basin are less pervious,
then there will be more runoff resulting in a larger peak and smaller lag
time.
(v) Land Use – Urbanised basins will have more impervious surfaces and
which result in steep rising limb and smaller time lag. The presence of
vegetation and forest cover on the other hand intercepts the precipitation
resulting in shallow rising limb and larger lag time
(vi) Drainage Density – A higher drainage density results in rapid overland
flow and thus larger peak.

2. Precipitation

The rainfall intensity has a considerable effect on the runoff. Thus a short and intense
rainfall produces rapid overland flow and thus a steep rising limb. The antecedent
rainfall also affects the overland flow in as much as it determines the saturation level
of the soil. If the soil is not saturated, the infiltration increases yielding less overland
flow.

3. Temperature
Effects of temperature are manifested in the form of evaporation as well as the soil
condition and have an influence on the shape of the hydrograph.

It may however be mentioned that there is a strong interaction between the parameters
mentioned above and these keep on changing throughout the course of the river.

The above discussion is confined to the hydrograph resulting from a single isolated
storm. In case there are storms with peaks which are spaced closely apart in time, the
resulting hydrograph will look somewhat like the one shown in Fig 4.2.

17
4.2 UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The Unit Hydrograph Theory was propounded first by Sherman in 1932 and is a
mathematical concept. A unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of surface runoff
(storm flow) that results from a unit (1” or 1cm in SI units) of excess precipitation spread
uniformly in space and time over a watershed for a given duration.

There are a few points worth emphasising in the above. First, the theory talks of
excess precipitation i.e. precipitation after removing the infiltration. The duration considered
in the theory is the duration of excess precipitation and the unit hydrograph duration is the
same. Thus one may have a 1hr, 2hr or 6hr unit hydrograph depending on whether the
duration of excess precipitation is 1hr, 2hr or 6hr respectively. Also the excess precipitation is
assumed spread evenly over the watershed and constant over the time interval. The
hydrograph is for surface runoff only and thus does not include base flow. The area under the
hydrograph will therefore represent only the direct runoff and be equal to the product of the
watershed area and the excess precipitation.

4.2.1 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph from Storm Hydrograph

The unit hydrograph for a basin can be derived from the observed hydrograph for an
isolated storm and the hyetograph of the rainfall producing the same. The following steps are
involved (Fig.4.3):

1. Separation of the base flow – The base flow is first separated from the hydrograph.
The start of the rising limb is one point (A) on the base flow curve, while the other
point is generally taken as the inflection point (B) on the recession limb. In between
the curve may have any shape, though for simplicity it is many times taken as a
straight line as shown in the figure.
2. Plotting the direct runoff hydrograph – The ordinates of the hydrograph after
subtracting the base flow are plotted thereby yielding the direct runoff hydrograph.
While this is the direct runoff resulting from the storm, it need not represent unit
depth.

18
 3. Obtaining the unit hydrograph - The area under the direct runoff hydrograph is
calculated which gives the volume of direct runoff (Vd). This volume can be
converted into a depth by dividing it by the area of the basin (Ab). Thus the direct
runoff hydrograph represents a depth of d = (Vd)/ (Ab). Dividing each ordinate of the
direct runoff hydrograph by d, the unit hydrograph is obtained.
4. To obtain the duration of the unit hydrograph, one needs to compute the duration of
excess rainfall. For this the gross rainfall is computed first. In terms of depth (dr), this
is given by the area under the hyetograph. The difference (dr- d) represents the losses
due to infiltration. This is converted into an infiltration index given by = (dr- d)/
tr where tr is the rainfall duration.
5. A line representing the index is drawn on the hyetograph. The portion above it
gives the rainfall excess and hence the duration of the rainfall excess, which is the
duration of the unit hydrograph also.

4.2.2 Unit Hydrograph for Different Durations

From an available unit hydrograph of a specified duration one can derive unit
hydrographs of other durations. This can be done as follows:

1. Unit hydrograph for a larger duration

To derive the unit hydrograph of a larger duration – say 2tu - from one of a smaller
duration tu , two unit hydrographs of duration tu are taken and one lagged behind
the other by time tu. The ordinates of these are added to obtain a direct runoff
hydrograph. This DRH represents two units of direct runoff and therefore by
dividing each of the ordinates of this DRH by 2, one gets a unit hydrograph of
duration 2tu. This is shown in Fig.4.4 , where A and B are two unit hydrographs
each of one hour duration with B lagging A by one hour. D is the DRH obtained
by adding the ordinates and U the unit hydrograph for 2 hours obtained by
dividing each ordinate of D by 2. To get a unit hydrograph of duration 3tu one
would need three unit hydrographs of duration tu each lagged behind the preceding
one by time tu and dividing the resulting DRH ordinates by 3. It may be mentioned
that in this manner unit hydrographs only for durations which are integral
multiples of the original one can be obtained. Also, one cannot use unit
hydrographs of different durations and get a unit hydrograph for a duration which
is the sum of these e.g. one cannot get a 3 hour unit hydrograph from one of 1
hour duration and another one of 2 hour duration.

19
4.2.3 Unit hydrograph for a smaller duration – the S-curve

To get a unit hydrograph for a smaller duration from one of a larger duration one has
to use a S-curve.

If a number of unit hydrographs of a given duration are lagged, each by a time equal
to the duration of the unit hydrograph, one gets the S-curve (Fig.4.5).

In order to derive a unit hydrograph of a smaller duration from that of a larger

duration, one first gets the S-curve. Thus if the S-curve in Fig.4.5 is assumed to be derived
from a unit hydrograph of duration 3hrs, this could be used to get a unit hydrograph of 1hr
duration by lagging it by 1hr and plotting the difference between the two S-curves. This will
yield a 1hr DRH. Since the S-curve corresponds to a rainfall excess of unity in 3hrs, the DRH
will correspond to a 1hr rainfall excess, but the runoff will be one third of unity. Multiplying
each ordinate of the DRH by 3, one will get a unit hydrograph of 1hr duration (Fig.4.6).

20
4.3 SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPHS

While unit hydrographs can be derived from available rainfall-runoff data as

discussed above, there may be catchments for which no such data is available. One approach
to derive the unit hydrograph for such catchments was given by Snyder, who selected the
parameters of the hydrograph viz. base width, peak discharge and basin lag (Fig.4.7) as being
sufficient to define the unit hydrograph.

Analysing large number of hydrographs from the Appalachian Mountain region of the
United States Snyder developed the following relationships:

21
 tp = Ct (Lca L)0.3
tr = tp/5.5
qp = Cp A / tp
T = 3(1+ tp /24)

where tp is the time lag from the mid point of rainfall excess duration tr hours to the peak of
the unit hydrograph in hours
qp is the peak discharge in cumecs
A is the drainage area in sq.km.
T is the base length of the unit hydrograph in days
Lca is the river distance from the gauging station to the centroid of the drainage area in
km
L is the river distance from the gauging station to the upstream river boundary in km
Ct and Cp are coefficients depending upon units and basin characteristics which have
been found to vary considerably depending upon the topography, climate etc. and are
best determined by making use of unit hydrographs from adjoining gauged
catchments.

For any duration tr’ other than the standard duration tr the lag time is given by

tp’ = tp + (tr’ – tr )/4

and this can be used to get the peak discharge and the time base.

The critical points for the unit hydrograph are obtained from the above equations and
the synthetic unit hydrograph is sketched making sure that the total direct runoff amounts to 1
cm. Curves developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers, giving the width of unit
hydrograph at 50% and 75% of the peak discharge (W50 and W75), are an additional
assistance in sketching the unit hydrograph.

Unit hydrographs are useful in derivation of flood hydrographs resulting from given
storms.

4.4 DISTRIBUTION GRAPH

A distribution graph is a representation of the unit hydrograph in form of percentages

of total flow occurring in particular unit periods (Fig.4.8). This type of representation
becomes useful in certain applications.

22
23
 CHAPTER-5

DESIGN FLOOD

All hydraulic structures, be they weirs, bridges, spillways or any other have to be
designed to safely pass flood of a certain magnitude. The maximum flood that any such
structure can safely pass is called the design flood.

While a flood is described completely by its hydrograph, the single most important
property of the hydrograph concerning design of most of the structures is the peak flow.
Further, the importance of a structure and consequences of its failure have a very important
bearing on deciding upon the design flood. Thus while some works may be designed for a
flood with a smaller return period, some others may require safety against a flood of a much
larger return period. One generally talks of a flood with a return period of 50 years or 100
years to denote a flood which has a probability of occurrence once in 50 or 100 years. This
does not mean that the flood will occur after 50 or 100 years or that it cannot occur more than
once during that period, but only indicates the probability.

The estimation of the design flood for any basin depends on whether there is
sufficient stream flow data available for the catchment or not. The methods that can be
applied to gauged catchments are not useful for ungauged catchments. At the same time there
are a large number of ungauged catchments – small in size – for which no runoff data is
available. Estimation of flood for these requires different methods. Some of the methods
applicable to either kind of basin are discussed below.

5.1 FLOOD ESTIMATION FOR UNGAUGED WATERSHEDS

5.1.1 Rational Method

This method is based on the premise that the volume of runoff resulting from a given
rainfall is a certain percentage of the rainfall volume. The peak runoff can be written as

Q = 2.78 C I A

where Q is the runoff in cumecs, I the rainfall intensity in cm/h, A the basin area in sq.km.
and C is a coefficient representing the ratio of the volume of runoff to that of the rainfall.

It may be mentioned that the peak flow from a given storm will occur only after a
time equal to the time of concentration for the catchment. The intensity I to be used in the
above formula therefore has to be for a storm of duration equal to the time of concentration
and can be obtained from locally derived intensity-duration-frequency curves. The value of C
also depends upon a number of factors such as the nature of the surface, slope, storage etc.
and can be read from tables available for this purpose.

24
5.1.2 Empirical Formulae

Many empirical formulae have been developed, relating the peak flood to the area of
the basin. Obviously, these formulae are applicable to the regions for which they have been
developed. Most of these formulae are of the form

Q = C An

Where A is the catchment area in sq.km.and C and n are coefficients.

For Indian catchments, some of these are as below:

5.1.3 Dicken’s Formula

Commonly used in central and northern India, this gives the peak flow rate as

Q = C A3/4

The constant C varies widely from 2.8 to 5.6 for plains and 14 to 28 for hilly regions
and its selection can make a lot of difference to the estimates.

5.1.4 Ryve’s Formula

Applicable to south Indian conditions, this formula has the form

Q = C A2/3
with the value of C varying from 6.8 to 42.4 in different regions.

5.1.5 Inglis’ Formula

Applicable to Maharashtra and Deccan, this formula has the form

Q = 124 A/ (A+10.4)

There are many other empirical formulae developed for different regions. The major
limitation of these is their limited applicability and uncertainty in the coefficients.

5.1.6 Envelop Curves

Study of data for a number of basins indicated that the maximum flood per unit area
of catchment is likely to be the same for basins with similar hydrometeorological
characteristics. This led Kanwar Sain and Karpov to plot the observed floods for a number of
watersheds and draw their envelop curves. They thus developed two curves – one each for
north and south Indian rivers – giving the peak flow versus the drainage area, which can be
used to estimate the peak flood.

5.2 FLOOD ESTIMATION FOR GAUGED WATERSHEDS

For watersheds where runoff data is available for a reasonably long period, the flood
frequency method provides a convenient means of estimating the flood with a given return

25
period. This is based on the premise that the recorded data constitutes a random sample of the
parent population and thus would follow a given frequency distribution. Once the distribution
is established, it can be used to predict the required probability of occurrence of an event.

Two of the distributions generally employed in hydrologic work are the log-normal
distribution and the extreme value distribution. Gumbel’s method, based on the later is
considered one of the suitable methods for estimating the flood flows with a given return
period. In the method, the flood magnitude x for a given return period T is given by

x = Xmean + Ks

where Xmean is the mean of recorded floods, s the standard deviation of the data and K is the
extreme value frequency factor which is a function of the sample size and the recurrence
interval and can be read from tables.

In the log-normal distribution also the procedure remains the same, the only
difference being the frequency factors which have to be obtained after getting the coefficient
of skewness of the data.

Using the above procedures, a flood frequency curve for the site can be developed and
used to obtain the flood magnitude for a given frequency.

5.3 REGIONAL FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS

The development of regional flood frequency curves is in fact an extension of the

flood frequency curves developed for a basin to a region. This is based on the premise that
the ratio of the flood of any frequency to the mean annual flood will be same for a
homogeneous region. The analysis thus consists of two steps. The first is to develop basic
dimensionless frequency curve representing the ratio of flood of a given frequency to the
mean annual flood and the second to develop the relationship between the characteristics of
the drainage area and the mean annual flood. The combination of these two can then be used
for estimation purposes.

The most useful application of these curves is for estimating the floods with given
frequency in ungauged basins, where only the mean annual flood needs to be estimated by the
available means.

5.4 PROBABLE MAXIMUM FLOOD

The probable maximum flood is the flood that can be caused by the most extreme
combination of weather conditions. Its determination requires obtaining the probable
maximum storm as discussed earlier. The probable maximum storm alongwith the design unit
hydrograph for the basin yields the direct runoff hydrograph for the probable maximum
flood. Including the base flow into this direct runoff hydrograph will then result in the
hydrograph for the probable maximum flood.

26
 CHAPTER-6

GROUND WATER

Ground water is the water occurring under the earth’s surface and fills the pores and
fractures of the subsurface medium. It can be divided into two zones viz. the saturated or
phreatic and the unsaturated or vadose zones. The saturated zone has all its pores filled with
water while in the unsaturated zone pores contain gases alongwith water (Fig.6.1).

Water Table: The top of the saturated zone, where the pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure, is known as the water table. It is however worth mentioning that there
is a capillary rise depending on the pore size and the medium can be saturated even in the
capillary zone but the pressure there is below atmospheric.

Aquifer, Aquitard and Aquiclude: A geologic formation from which significant

quantities of ground water can be obtained is called an aquifer. The aquifers may sometimes
be separated vertically by formations which allow very little or no water to flow through
them. These formations are termed as aquitards if they allow very little flow through them
and called aquicludes if the flow through them is nearly zero.

Aquifers can be further divided into unconfined or confined (Fig.6.2). In an

unconfined aquifer, the water table can rise or fall with the change in the quantity of stored
water. A confined aquifer, on the other hand has an aquitard or aquiclude at top and thus the
water in the same is under a pressure greater than atmospheric.

27
 Ground water movement takes place both in unconfined and confined aquifers
depending on the hydraulic gradient. Thus an aquifer acts both as storage as well as a conduit
for ground water.

Some definitions, characterizing aquifers, useful in the study of ground water are
given below:

Porosity- is the ratio of the volume of pores to the total volume of the porous medium.

Specific Yield – A saturated soil formation will yield certain amount of water under
gravity. The ratio of this volume to the total volume of the formation is called the specific
yield of the formation.

Specific Retention – This is the ratio of the volume of water retained by the formation
after it has been drained under gravity to the total volume of the formation. The sum of the
specific yield and the specific retention thus are equal to the porosity.

Storage Coefficient – is defined for confined aquifers and is the volume of water a
confined aquifer will release per unit surface area of the aquifer for a unit change in the head.

Hydraulic Conductivity (K) – Also called the coefficient of permeability, is a measure

of the ease with which a fluid will pass through it. It is defined as the quantity of water that
flows through a unit cross sectional area of the medium in unit time under a unit hydraulic
gradient.

Transmissivity (T) – is generally used for confined aquifers and is the product of the
hydraulic conductivity and the thickness of the saturated portion of the aquifer.

6.1 DARCY’S LAW

The flow of liquids through porous media is governed by the Darcy’s law, which
states that the rate of flow through a saturated medium is proportional to the hydraulic
gradient and the cross-sectional area of flow.

Mathematically, Darcy’s law can be expressed as:

Q = - K A (dh/ds)

28
 In which, Q is the rate of flow, A the cross-sectional area and dh/ds represents the
hydraulic gradient which is negative as h decreases in the direction of flow, K being a
constant of proportionality which is equal to the hydraulic conductivity of the medium.

The aforesaid relationship applies so long as the flow is laminar, which is the case
most of the times as far as ground water is concerned. This law is considered to be valid in a
Reynold’s number range from 1 to 10, with the Reynold’s number Re being defined as

Re = V d /µ

In which V is the velocity, d the average grain diameter, and µ are the density and
viscosity of fluid respectively.

The above equation can also be written as:

V = - K (dh/ds)

where V is the apparent velocity of flow

The velocity components u, v and w in the x, y and z directions respectively can be

written as:

u = -Kx ( h/ x )

v = -Ky ( h/ y)

w = -Kz ( h/ z )

in which Kx, Ky and Kz are the coefficients of permeability in the x, y and z directions
respectively.

For a homogeneous, isotropic and incompressible medium, substitution of the above

in the equation of continuity for fluid motion yields the following equation, known as
Boussinesq’s equation, for a confined aquifer

( 2h/ x2) + ( 2h/ y2) + ( 2h/ z2) = (S/T) (( h/ t)

For an unconfined aquifer, one obtains the Dupuit’s equation, which is based on the
assumption that the free surface curvature is small enough so as to make the w component of
the velocity negligible. This equation has the following form

( 2H2/ x2) + ( 2H2/ y2) = (2n/K) (( H/ t)

H being the hydraulic head and n the porosity of the medium

For steady flow the aforesaid equations can be written as

( 2h/ x2) + ( 2h/ y2) + ( 2h/ z2) = 0

29
 ( 2H2/ x2) + ( 2H2/ y2) = 0

6.2 WELL HYDRAULICS

Wells are structures used to pump water from an aquifer. They consist of an intake
which is a slotted pipe with screen to prevent fine sediment from entering the well and a
vertical casing pipe to convey the water to the surface.

When water is pumped through a well, the water table/piezometric-head in the

vicinity of the well is lowered (Fig.6.3). The surface of the lowered water table/piezometric-
head is called the cone of depression and the distance from the centre of the well to the point
to which the cone of depression extends is known as the radius of influence of the well. The
vertical distance between the original water table/piezometric-head at any point and the same
after pumping starts is called the drawdown at that point. For given aquifer and well
characteristics, these quantities are a function of the pumping rate. The quantity of water
discharged per unit drawdown at the well is known as the specific yield of the well.

As the pumping from a well starts, the radius of influence and drawdown for an
extensive aquifer start increasing with time and attain a constant value once the rate of
pumping becomes equal to the rate of recharge. The well is then said to have attained
equilibrium conditions.

An expression for the discharge through a well can be obtained by writing the
Boussinesq/Dupuit equations for confined/unconfined aquifers in the radial coordinate
system and integrating them with the appropriate boundary and initial conditions. For
equilibrium conditions, this results in the following equations:

For confined aquifers

Q = -2 T*(h0 – hw) / (ln(r0/rw))

While for unconfined aquifers one gets

Q = - K*(H02 – Hw2) / (ln(r0/rw))

30
 For non-equilibrium conditions, the solution of the relevant equation for a confined
aquifer was obtained by Theis and takes the following form:

d = Q* W(u)/(4 T)

where d is the drawdown at time t since the beginning of pumping at a distance r from the
well and W(u) is known as the well function and is tabulated as a function of u, which is
given by

u = r2 S/(4Tt)

For a fully penetrating well in an unconfined aquifer, the solution was given by
Boulton and can be expressed as

d = Q * (1+Ck) * V(t’, r’)

Ck being a correction factor which depends on t’ and V(t’, r’) is the Boulton’s well function
the values of the same being available as a function of t’ and r’, which are defined as

t’ = Kt / (SH0)
and
r’ = r / H0

6.3 PUMPING TESTS

One of the important parameters in ground water development is the determination of

aquifer characteristics such as hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity. Pumping tests are
carried out for their determination. The arrangement consists of a pumping well and some
observation wells at different distances from the pumping well. The observation wells are
used to measure the water table/piezometric-head levels. These levels are recorded before the
start of pumping and subsequently at different times after starting pumping at a constant rate.
Under equilibrium conditions, knowing the drawdown at different observation wells and the
discharge Q, the value of K and T can be obtained from the relevant discharge equations.
Thus for two observation wells at distance r1 and r2 from the pumping well one can get the
following expressions:

For an unconfined aquifer

K = Q ln (r2 / r1) / (H22 – H12 )

and for a confined aquifer

T = Q ln (r2 / r1 ) / (2*(h2 – h1 ))

31
 CHAPTER-7

DAMS AND RESERVOIRS

Storage schemes, as already mentioned, are those wherein the water is stored when
available (say monsoon months) and drawn from the storage during lean periods. A reservoir
created upstream of a dam constructed on a river provides the storage in such schemes. The
purposes for which such schemes are constructed include:

Irrigation
Power generation
Water supply
Flood control
Navigation
Recreation

A scheme which serves more than one of the above purposes is termed as a
multipurpose project. The extent to which the requirements of the various purposes can be
met depends on the compatibility of the purposes. Thus power generation is the most
compatible with other purposes in as much as it does not involve any consumptive use of
water. The water released for power generation can always be used for other purposes.
Likewise, flood control is the least compatible as this requires availability of empty storage
space in the reservoir, while other purposes require availability of water.

7.1 PLANNING FOR A STORAGE SCHEME

The main elements of a storage scheme are the dam and spillway and the reservoir.
One therefore has to decide the type of dam to be constructed, the spillway type and capacity
as well as the reservoir storage capacity. The scheme may be for storing water during the wet
season and using it during the lean period in the same year or for using it during the next year
also. While the former is called “within year carryover storage”, the later is referred to as
“over year carryover storage”.

Planning for the elements of a storage scheme requires extensive data and
investigations to optimize the benefits. These include:

Estimation of demand – The water demand for different purposes the project is
supposed to fulfill has to be estimated separately for each purpose. Since the
projects take a long time in completion and are supposed to serve for a fairly
long period, the projected population has to be estimated while estimating the
demand.
Hydrologic studies including sedimentation – These include long term data on
stream flow, evaporation, water quality, sedimentation, downstream water
rights etc. The water availability can be estimated only based on these
investigations. Spillway capacity determination and sedimentation of the
reservoir is also based on these investigations.
Geologic studies – The nature of foundations and abutment and the
availability of construction material near the site which determine to a large

32
 extent the suitability of a given type of dam is a primary objective of these
investigations. Further determination of the suitability of the reservoir site,
stability of its rim and the possibility of landslides also requires detailed
geological investigations.
Economic aspects – One of the major guiding principles in any project is its
cost effectiveness. Estimation of the costs and benefits of the project in
economic terms is required for any decision making. Both the capital and
recurring costs need to be considered. The benefits cannot always be evaluated
in monetary terms as these include the direct benefits as well as what can be
called indirect ones. Some of the indirect costs and benefits can be assessed by
using a suitable metric wherever possible.
Social aspects – The construction of a major project at any site is likely to
have significant social impact. This may include beneficial effects such as the
improved economic conditions, creation of employment opportunities etc.
Some adverse effects like submergence of land, increased noise and other
activity will also be a part of this. All these impacts need to be evaluated.
Environmental impact – The environmental impact assessment of any major
project has become one of the most important considerations nowadays. The
factors to be considered in carrying out an environmental impact analysis are
numerous and include things such as submergence of agricultural land,
submergence of forest land and its effect on flora and fauna in the region, the
loss of biodiversity, the impact of the project on the overall water regime
including downstream channel etc. A well carried out study can at times result
in some modification of the project plan which minimizes any adverse
environmental impact while keeping the beneficial impacts nearly the same.

7.2 INVESTIGATIONS

Each of the aforesaid investigations requires a large amount of data and time. All the
data required will normally not be available to start with and needs to be collected – an
exercise which can be very costly and time consuming. Further, there are likely to be many
alternative schemes possible at or close to a given location, each requiring additional data. In
order to save time and expenses therefore, investigation for such project are made in three
stages.

7.2.1 Preliminary Investigations

These are investigations carried out considering all the abovementioned aspects with
the existing data. Some additional data may also be collected without spending much time
and with lesser accuracy. The purpose of this is to screen out some alternatives which are
considered poor and prepare a short list of promising alternatives and decide upon the
additional data to be collected.

7.2.2 Feasibility Investigations

This stage involves collecting data with the desired accuracy and analysis of the
alternatives shortlisted as a result of the preliminary investigations. This stage also will cover
all the pertinent aspects of the project and forms the basis of a provisional selection of the
project plan.

33
7.2.3 Detailed Investigations

Once the provisionally selected plan is approved, detailed investigations for the same
have to be carried out. Fixing up the size of various components of the project, their design
incorporating any additional information as well as collecting more data as required are all
part of this stage. The planning for construction is also part of the work to be carried out.

7.3 DETERMINATION OF RESERVOIR CAPACITY

7.3.1 For Conservation Purposes

The storage capacity required to support a given firm yield can be obtained using the
mass curve. Mass curve is a plot of the cumulative inflow into the reservoir – usually in
million hectare metres – over a period of time (Fig.7.1). The time is generally taken over a
period of years.

To determine the storage capacity, historical streamflow records are examined to

identify the most adverse sequence and hence to identify the critical period. The critical
period begins after a preceding high flow period when the reservoir gets full and ends when
the reservoir is refilled after the drought period. The mass curve for this period is plotted. The
slope of this curve at any time represents the inflow rate at that time. Likewise, a demand line
will have a slope equal to the demand rate. To determine the storage capacity required, a line
with a slope equal to the demand rate is drawn starting at the beginning of the critical period
till it cuts the mass curve again (AB in Fig.7.1). The maximum ordinate between the mass
curve and the demand line (CD) then yields the storage required for this demand rate. In case
there are more than one critical periods on record, this exercise may be carried out for all of
them and the largest value of storage adopted.

34
7.3.2 For Flood Control

Flood control requires empty storage space in the reservoir and hence the procedure
for determination of such space is somewhat different. The major factor in flood control
projects is to limit the peak overflow from the reservoir, which is dictated by considerations
of the safe carrying capacity of the downstream channel and prevention of flooding of
downstream areas. The procedure used for this is of flood routing through the reservoir. This
has been discussed later alongwith the discussion on spillways. The only point to be noted is
that if empty space is available in the reservoir then it will be filled up first and the outflow
during this period will be zero. Once the water in the reservoir attains the level of the
spillway crest, the procedure is similar to that discussed therein. The outflow hydrograph will
thus start at a later time and its peak will be lower compared to what it would have been if the
reservoir was full to start with. The outflow hydrograph with different values of empty space
can be obtained and the one which has a peak equal to that desired on the downstream side
then gives the storage to be reserved for flood control.

7.4 SEDIMENTATION OF RESERVOIRS

The creation of a reservoir in a river results in reduction of water surface slope and
velocities on the upstream side. Consequently the sediment transporting capacity of the
stream is reduced and sediment gets deposited in the reservoir. This tends to reduce the
storage capacity of the reservoir and is usually accounted for by reserving a portion of the
storage for sediment deposition. Sedimentation also determines the useful life of a reservoir.

The sediment deposition depends on the quantity of sediment brought by the river, the
size of the reservoir and sluicing arrangements. Since sediment load comes from erosion of
the catchment, reduction in rate of sedimentation of a reservoir can be achieved by an
appropriate catchment management programme to prevent the erosion. Sluicing through low
level outlets in the dam to flush the deposited sediment and construction of detention basins
for sediment at the inlet of the reservoir are other measures which can be useful.

7.5 DAMS

Dams can generally be classified into rigid dams and embankment dams. The
characteristics of the rigid dams and embankment dams are briefly discussed below.

7.6 GRAVITY DAMS

Gravity dams are rigid dams which ensure stability against all loads by virtue of their
weight alone. They transfer all the loads to the foundation and hence are built when the
foundation is strong rock. A typical section of a gravity dam is shown in Fig.7.2

7.7 FORCES ACTING ON A GRAVITY DAM

The forces generally acting on a gravity dam are (Fig.7.2):

35
7.7.1 Dead Load (WD)

The dead load includes the weight of the dam and is transmitted directly to the
foundations.

7.7.2 Water Pressure on the Upstream and Downstream Faces

The water pressure on the upstream face (PU) depends on the water surface level in
the reservoir and acts horizontally. In case the dam has a batter in the upstream side, the load
of water over the batter (Wwu) is also present and acts vertically. Similarly, the water pressure
on the downstream face (PD) is due to the tail water and acts horizontally while the weight of
water on the downstream face (Wwd) acts vertically

7.7.3 Uplift

There is always some seepage within the body of the dam as well as through the
foundations and this gives rise to an uplift force (U) acting vertically upwards. The uplift
pressure is assumed to be equal to the full water pressure at the upstream face and varying
linearly to the tail water pressure at the downstream face. Almost all gravity dams are
provided with internal drains which modify the uplift pressure distribution. Studies indicate
that the pressure at the drains drops to a value equal to the tail water pressure plus one third
the difference between the upstream and downstream pressures.

7.7.4 Silt Load

Sediment deposition in the reservoir results in a force (WS) acting horizontally on the
upstream face. This force is assumed to have a hydrostatic distribution.

36
7.7.5 Earthquake Force

Earthquakes impart a horizontal as well as a vertical acceleration to the dam and the
stored water. This results in additional forces, both in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Horizontal and vertical “seismic coefficients” are used to appropriately modify these forces to
account for the effect of earthquakes.

7.7.6 Other Forces

These include the force due to the impact of waves on the upstream face of the
dam, ice loads in case of dams in extremely cold regions where a sheet of ice
may form in the reservoir and thermal loads. Methods for estimation of these are available.

7.7.7 Causes of Failure of Gravity Dams

A gravity dam can fail because of the following three reasons

7.7.8 Overturning

If the moments of the destabilizing forces (such as water pressure on the upstream
face and uplift) about the toe of the dam exceed those of the stabilizing forces (mainly the
weight of the dam), the dam can overturn. This condition, however will not arise if the
condition (iii) discussed below is taken care of.

7.7.9 Sliding

A gravity dam may fail in sliding at any horizontal plane if the sum of the actuating
horizontal forces above that plane is less than the resistive forces. The actuating forces are
due to water pressure, silt load etc. while the resistive forces are due to friction and the shear
strength of the material of the dam. A measure of the stability against sliding is the shear-
friction factor of safety (SFF), defined as

SFF = (C*A + µ* W) / H

Where C is the cohesion, A the area of the horizontal plane, µ the coefficient of friction and
W and H is the sum of the vertical and horizontal forces respectively.

The value of SFF should obviously be more than 1 and the actual value required
depends on the loading conditions considered in the analysis.

7.7.10 Tension at the heel or excessive compression at the toe

If a vertical load W acts on the base, the normal compressive stress at the base will be
W/A, A being the area of the base. This however is true only if the vertical load acts through
the centre of the base. In case the load W is eccentric, the maximum and minimum stress will
be given by (W/A)*(1+6e/b) and (W/A)*(1-6e/b) respectively, where e is the eccentricity and
b the base width. Thus while for e less than or equal to b/6 no tension will develop, for e
larger than this there will be tension at the heel and even the compressive stress at the toe
may become quite large. This condition is to be avoided and thus the design is made

37
such that the resultant of all forces crosses the base within the middle one third i.e. an
eccentricity of less than or equal to b/6.

7.7.11 Design and Analysis

The preliminary design of a gravity dam starts with assuming its section. The
elementary profile can serve as a guide for the same with provision of freeboard, finite crest
width, batter near the bottom of the upstream face etc. The section thus obtained then needs
analysis to determine the stresses in the section and other factors of safety. This can be a
simple two dimensional analysis which can be carried out using the gravity method for
different loading combinations. An actual dam however, will hardly exhibit two-dimensional
behaviour and will also have inspection and drainage galleries and many other features which
cannot be accounted for in the gravity analysis. One will then have to resort to a much more
complicated three dimensional analysis such as the trial load method or a finite element
analysis, before finalizing the design. The details of the design procedure and methods of
analysis are beyond the scope of the present discussion.

7.8 EMBANKMENT DAMS

Embankment dams are made of earth material and are suitable for situations where
the valley is wide and the foundation is weak rock or thick soil deposit and/or the abutments
are also weak. This type of dam is more flexible than the rigid dams and can withstand some
degree of foundation deformation more easily.

Embankment dams can be of two types:

(i) Earthfill dams

(ii) Rockfill dams

While earthfill dams or earth dams as they are generally called comprise primarily of
soil material, rocks form the bulk in a rockfill dam. The design principles of both these being
similar, only those for the earth dams are discussed here.

Earth dams can also have two types of sections viz. homogeneous or zoned.

Homogeneous earth dams are constructed of only one type of material and are used
only when the height of the dam is small and only one type of material is available
economically. In case the height of the dam exceeds about 6m, a modified homogeneous
section is used. The modified homogeneous section has some drainage arrangement provided
at the downstream side to provide stability as well as help in controlling the effects of
seepage. Typical sections of homogeneous dams are shown in Fig.7.3.

Fig.7.3

Zoned earth dams consist of an impervious core flanked by zones of more pervious
material called the shelll. The permeability of the material goes on increasing as one moves
away from the core. This is the most common type of earth dam and many high earth dams
such as Nurek (300m), Oroville (224m) and Ramganga (125m) are of this type. The
impervious core may be centrally placed or sloping. Both have their advantages or
disadvantages depending on the site conditions and availability of material. While the core

38
makes the section impervious thereby reducing seepage through the dam, the shell supports
and protects the core. Typical sections of zoned earth dams are shown in Fig.7.4. The top
width of the dam depends on the height and typically varies from about 2.5m to 6m but can
be much more for high dams.

7.9 CRITERIA FOR SAFETY OF EARTH DAMS

The design of earth dams is carried out to conform to the criteria of safety for the
same. These are based on observations on existing dams and study of failures. The main
criteria can be listed as below:

(i) No overtopping i.e. water must not flow over the dam under any
circumstances as this could lead to certain failure of the dam.
(ii) The slopes, both upstream and downstream must be stable under all conditions
(iii) The upstream face must be protected against the action of waves and the
downstream one against action of rain.
(iv) The seepage line must be well within the downstream face
(v) There should be no free flow of water through the dam body.
(vi) The seepage through the foundations must be controlled and not allowed to
cause piping
(vii) The foundation shear should be within permissible limits

7.10 SAFETY AGAINST OVERTOPPING

Majority of the failures of earth dams have been a result of overtopping. In order to
avoid this, two steps are necessary. The first involves providing adequate spillway capacity.
Liberal provision of spillway capacity in earth dams as compared to rigid dams is mostly

39
resorted to in order to keep the maximum reservoir level within estimated limits. The second
step is to provide adequate freeboard – the vertical distance between the dam crest and the
still water level in the reservoir. Since the normal reservoir level will be less than the
maximum reservoir level i.e. the level when the design flood occurs, the freeboard with
respect to the former is termed as the normal freeboard while that with respect to the latter is
called the minimum freeboard. The freeboard is also supposed to take into account the safety
against overtopping due to the settlement of the dam and foundations. The parameters on
which the computation of freeboard is based are the wave height, wave run up and wind set
up with an additional margin added for uncertain effects such as settlement, earthquakes etc.
The freeboard is given by:

Freeboard = Greater of design wave height or wave run up + wind set up + margin for
uncertain effects

7.11 STABILITY OF SLOPES

Both the upstream and downstream slopes of an earth dam need to be tested for their
stability under different conditions. The conditions for which the testing is required are listed
below:

(i) End of construction

Soils derive their strength for withstanding shear from cohesion and friction.
The friction is a result of the effective stress between soil particles. The pore
spaces between the soil particles are filled with water and this exerts a
pressure called pore pressure. The effective intragranular stress is the total
stress minus the pore pressure. The shear strength of the soil can be given
by:
s = c + ( – u) tan

In which s is the shear strength, c the cohesion, the total stress, u the
pore water pressure and is the angle of internal friction for the soil.

During construction, soil is compacted after pouring water over it and

therefore large pore pressures develop, thereby reducing the effective stress
and hence the shear strength. The pore pressures dissipate with time and the
shear strength increases. In case of rapid mechanized construction, there is not
enough time for the pore pressures to get dissipated and hence it is important
to ensure the stability of slopes during construction as well as at the end of
construction.

(ii) Reservoir partially filled

The stability of the upstream slope needs to be checked for the condition when
the reservoir is partially filled. This is so because under this condition, the
upstream slope will be partly submerged and partly dry. The checking is
generally done at different levels of water in the reservoir.

(iii) Sudden drawdown

This condition pertains to the rapid removal of water from the reservoir. If a
full reservoir is suddenly emptied, the upstream face will not have any weight
of water on it thereby reducing the intragranular stress. The pore water

40
 pressure will however correspond to the full reservoir level and will take time
to dissipate. The effective stress will thus be reduced considerably resulting in
decreased shear strength which could lead to the failure of the upstream slope.
The upstream slope is therefore checked for this condition.

(iv) Steady seepage

When t he reservoir is full and seepage is taking place through the dam, the
downstream slope is affected by the seepage. It therefore needs checking for
the case of steady seepage.

Besides the above, the stability of slopes also to be ensured for conditions such as
earthquake, heavy rainfall with seepage etc. These are however not included in the present
discussion. Amongst the various methods of stability analysis, the method of slices is quite
often employed.

7.12 SEEPAGE CONSIDERATIONS

An earth dam being composed of earth material, water is bound to seep through it as
well as through the foundations. Though an impervious core is provided in the earth dams,
this is never truly impervious, but only has a low permeability compared to the shell. Certain
quantity of water thus will seep through the core also. Controlling the quantity of seepage and
the effects of seepage through the dam and its foundations is thus very important both from
the point of view of water conservation as well as the safety of the dam.

All earth dams are provided with some drainage at the downstream end. This ensures
that the phreatic line does not cut the downstream face thereby preventing the chances of
sloughing of the downstream slope. In addition, such a drain also control the outgoing
seepage water such that it does not remove soil particles i.e. prevents piping.

The seepage through the foundations can become an important parameter, specially if
the dam is founded on pervious material. Reduction of the quantity of water seeping through
the foundations is important in such cases. This can be done by use of cutoffs- partial or
complete. Other means such as a slurry trench filled with clay and bentonite mixture, sheet
piles or concrete cut off wall can also be used for somewhat larger depths of pervious
material. In case the depth of the pervious strata is large, a horizontal impervious blanket can
be used to reduce the quantity of seepage through the foundations.

The seepage water should not get a free flow path through the body of the dam,
because in such a case the flowing water can dislodge soil particles and create a cavity within
the dam body by piping. This could ultimately lead to the failure of the dam. Such a free flow
path can generally be available along the outside of outlet pipes etc. embedded within the
dam and as such these are best avoided in an earth dam. In case it becomes necessary to
embed the same, extreme care has to be taken.

7.13 FOUNDATION SHEAR

The foundation of an embankment dam must be safe in shear. Thus the shear strength
of the foundation material should be more than the shear to which it is subjected. The
distribution of shear on the foundation is not uniform. The factor of safety being the ratio
between the shear strength and the shear intensity, it will vary with the distribution and

41
should be more than one at the location of maximum shear. Simplified procedures are
available, which can give a good idea of the shear as well as its distribution and should be
used to check the safety of the foundation.

7.13.1 Design Procedure

The design of an embankment dam starts with an assumed section based on the
availability of material, foundation conditions etc. and its modification based on the criterion
of safety as discussed above. Economy also plays a very important role in selecting from a
number of alternatives available before the section is finalised.

42
 CHAPTER-8

SPILLWAYS AND DIVERSION WORKS

8.1 SPILLWAYS

Spillways are structures constructed to provide safe release of flood waters from a
dam to a downstream area - normally the river on which the dam has been constructed.

Every reservoir has a certain capacity to store water. If the reservoir is full and flood
waters enter the same, the reservoir level will go up and may eventually result in overtopping
of the dam. To avoid this situation, the flood has to be passed to the downstream and this is
done by providing a spillway which draws water from the top of the reservoir. A spillway can
be a part of the dam or separate from it.

Spillways can be controlled or uncontrolled. A controlled spillway is provided with

gates which can be raised or lowered. Controlled spillways have certain advantages as will be
clear from the discussion that follows.

When a reservoir is full, its water level will be the same as the crest level of the
spillway. This is the normal reservoir level. If a flood enters the reservoir at this time, the
water level will start going up and simultaneously water will start flowing out through the
spillway. The rise in water level in the reservoir will continue for some time and so will the
discharge over the spillway. After reaching a maximum, the reservoir level will come down
and eventually come back to the normal reservoir level. The top of the dam will have to be
higher than the maximum reservoir level corresponding to the design flood for the spillway,
while the effective storage available is only upto the normal reservoir level. The storage
available between the maximum reservoir level and the normal reservoir level is called the
surcharge storage and is only a temporary storage in uncontrolled spillways. Thus for a given
height of the dam, part of the storage – the surcharge storage – is not being utilised. In a
controlled spillway, water can be stored even above the spillway crest level by keeping the
gates closed. The gates can be opened when a flood has to be passed. Thus controlled
spillways allow more storage for the same height of the dam.

Many parameters need consideration in designing a spillway. These include the

inflow design flood hydrograph, the type of spillway to be provided and its capacity, the
hydraulic and structural design of various components and the energy dissipation downstream
of the spillway. The topography, hydrology, hydraulics, geology and economic
considerations all have a bearing on these decisions.

For a given inflow flood hydrograph, the maximum rise in the reservoir level depends
on the discharge characteristics of the spillway crest and its size and can be obtained by flood
routing. Trial with different sizes can then help in getting the optimum combination.

8.2 FLOOD ROUTING

Flood routing through a reservoir involves determination of the outflow over the
spillway and change in reservoir elevation corresponding to a given inflow hydrograph. Any

43
inflow into the reservoir causes a change in the reservoir elevation as well as in outflow and
the continuity equation dictates that the inflow must equal the outflow plus the change in
storage. This forms the basis for flood routing. The known quantities being the inflow
hydrograph, the reservoir elevation versus storage curve and the reservoir elevation versus
the spillway discharge curve (Fig.8.1).

44
 The basic book keeping equation can be written as

( I1 + I2 )* t/2 - ( O1 + O2 )* t/2 = ( S2 – S1 )

where t is a interval of time, I, O and S are the inflow, outflow and storages respectively
with the subscript 1 corresponding to the beginning and 2 to the end of the time period
respectively.

To carry out the process, a suitable time interval is chosen, beginning at the start of
the inflow hydrograph. The inflows at the beginning and end of this interval are obtained
from the inflow hydrograph. The initial reservoir level – usually the same as the spillway
crest level – being known, the outflow and storage corresponding to this is read from the
relevant curves. A value for the reservoir elevation at the end of the period is then assumed
and the outflow and storage corresponding to this are also read. If these values satisfy the
continuity equation as given above then this becomes the reservoir elevation at the end of the
period, otherwise the trial elevation is revised till the above equation is satisfied. This value
then gives the elevation and outflow for the end of the time period. With these values as the
initial values, the process is repeated for the next time interval and so on till the whole of the
outflow hydrograph has been obtained. This computation also yields the maximum reservoir
elevation.

8.3 TYPES OF SPILLWAYS

There are different types of spillways that can be provided depending on the
suitability of site and other parameters. Generally a spillway consists of a control structure, a
conveyance channel and a terminal structure, but the former two may be combined in the
same for certain types. The more common types are briefly described below.

8.3.1 Ogee Spillway

The Ogee spillway is generally provided in rigid dams and forms a part of the main
dam itself if sufficient length is available. The crest of the spillway is shaped to conform to
the lower nappe of a water sheet flowing over an aerated sharp crested weir. The profile
has been studied extensively by the United StatesBureau of Reclamation (Fig.8.2).

45
 The profile to the right of the crest is given by

y/H0 = -k ( x/H0 ) n

where the value of k and n depends on the slope of the upstream face of the spillway
and is available in the form of curves, being 0.5 and 1.87 respectively for a vertical upstream
face.

The profile to the left of the crest is given by a double circle as shown in the figure.
The values of the parameters defining these circles can also be read from curves given by
USBR.

The profile given by the above equation to the right is continued till a point at which
the tangent to the curve has a slope equal to the slope of the downstream face of the dam.
Thereafter it continues at the same slope and given a reverse curve near the bottom.

The discharge over an ogee crest is given by

Q = C L H3/2

Where L is the effective length of the crest, H the head over the crest and C is a coefficient
which depends- besides other factors – on the ratio of H to the design head H0.

If the spillway is operated at heads less than the design head, the sheet of water will
have a tendency to press against the spillway surface resulting in positive pressures over
the surface and reduced value of C. At the design head, the pressures over the surface will be
atmospheric and at larger heads, these will be below atmospheric i.e. negative. The negative
pressures will result in increased value of C and thus are advantageous from the discharging
capacity point of view. Large negative pressures could however cause stability problems.

The operating head therefore is not allowed to exceed the design head by more
than a certain amount. This can be ensured by designing the crest for a head which is
about 75-80 % of the head expected for the design flood.

8.3.2 Chute (Trough) Spillway

In this type of spillway the water, after flowing over a short crest or other kind of
control structure, is carried by an open channel (called the “chute” or “trough”) to the
downstream side of the river (Fig.8.3). The control structure is generally normal to the
conveyance channel. The channel is constructed in excavation with stable side slopes and
invariably lined. The flow through the channel is supercritical. The spillway can be provided
close to the dam or at a suitable saddle away from the dam where site conditions permit.

46
 This type of spillway is ideally suited for embankment dams and for rigid dams in
narrow valleys where the river bed immediately downstream of the dam is of erodible
material.

8.3.3 Side Channel Spillway

Side channel spillways are located just upstream and to the side of the dam (Fig.8.4).
The water after flowing over a crest enters a side channel which is nearly parallel to the
crest. This is then carried by a chute to the downstream side. Sometimes a tunnel may be
used instead of a chute.

47
 The crest is usually an ogee profile and generally straight in plan though shapes like
“L” or “U” have also been sometimes used.

This type of spillway is specially suited in dams on narrow valleys where sufficient
length for the spillway crest may not be available otherwise or when a large crest length
is required to keep the rise in reservoir level low.

8.3.4 Shaft (Morning Glory or Gloryhole) Spillway

This type of spillway utilizes a crest circular in plan, the flow over which is carried by
a vertical or sloping tunnel on to a horizontal tunnel nearly at the streambed level and
eventually to the downstream side (Fig.8.5). The diversion tunnels constructed during the
dam construction can be used as the horizontal conduit in many cases.

The crest can be a standard crest or a flat crest. While the former has a larger ischarge
coefficient, the later requires smaller funnel diameter and hence economical if excavation
has to be carried out. The standard crest conforms to the lower nappe of flow over a
circular sharp crested weir. The ideal condition favouring this type of spillway is when there
is a rock outcrop in the reservoir somewhat upstream of the dam.

Problems frequently encountered in this type of spillway are vortex action, instability
of flow and cavitation. Radial piers are generally used at the crest to suppress vortex
formation.

8.3.5 Siphon Spillway

As the name indicates, this spillway works on the principle of a siphon. A hood
provided over a conventional spillway forms a conduit (Fig.8.6). With the rise in reservoir
level water starts flowing over the crest as in an ogee spillway. The flowing water however,
entrains air and once all the air in the crest area is removed, siphon action starts. Under this

48
condition, the discharge takes place at a much larger head. The spillway thus has a larger
discharging capacity. The inlet end of the hood is generally kept below the reservoir level to
prevent floating debris from entering the conduit. This may cause the reservoir to be drawn
down below the normal level before the siphon action breaks and therefore arrangement for
depriming the siphon at the normal reservoir level is provided.

One of the important aspects of the siphon spillway is its priming and therefore
priming devices such as a joggle or baby siphon are used to ensure early priming.

Cracking of the hood can lead to depriming by allowing entry of air. The spillway is
therefore provided in batteries so that the whole spillway does not get deprimed by the
cracking of one portion of the hood.

While this kind of spillway has a larger discharge for the same rise in reservoir level,
it has problems of vibration and noise. Cavitation can also be a problem in some
cases.

8.4 TERMINAL STRUCTURES – ENERGY DISSIPATION

The water flowing over a spillway loses a large amount of its potential energy. A
good percentage of this is converted into kinetic energy and subsequently the flow at the toe
of the spillway is a high velocity flow. If allowed as such to flow to the river, it is likely to
cause considerable bed erosion and as such some sort of energy dissipation is required before
allowing this flow into the river. Generally two major types of energy dissipating devices are
used for spillways. These are the hydraulic jump type stilling basin and the bucket type
energy dissipators.

8.4.1 Hydraulic Jump type Stilling Basins

As the name indicates, these basins employ the hydraulic jump as the energy
dissipation mechanism. The characteristics of the jump- such as the length, efficiency in
energy dissipation etc.- depend on the initial Froude number and the tailwater conditions.
Appurtenances such as chute blocks, baffle blocks and end sill are also used to increase the
efficiency as well as to decrease the length of the basin (Fig.8.7).

A comprehensive study of this type of basins was carried out by the United States
Bureau of Reclamation and certain types of basins have been recommended by them for
various initial Froude numbers and inflow velocities. These basins- referred to as USBR Type
II, Type III etc.- are suitable for different ranges of initial Froude numbers. The
appurtenances to be used in each type are also specified. The dimensions of the basin as well

49
as of the appurtenances to be employed in each case are given in the form of curves, which
can be used to design the basin for a given set of conditions.

8.4.2 Bucket Type Energy Dissipators

These are used when the tailwater depth is either too low or too high for the formation
of a hydraulic jump, rendering a jump type basin uneconomical. The bucket can be a ski-
jump bucket or a roller bucket.

1. Ski Jump Bucket

This type of bucket is used when the tailwater depth is quite low for the formation of
a jump. The water leaves the bucket as an upturned jet (Fig.8.8) and strikes the river bed
somewhat downstream of the spillway. During its trajectory, the jet splits into smaller jets
and part of the energy is dissipated due to air friction. The bulk of the energy dissipation
however takes place due to the impact of the jet on the water and river bed downstream. This
also requires that the river bed be comprised of hard rock to withstand the impact of the jet.

2. Roller Bucket

This type of bucket is used when the tailwater depth is too large for the formation of a
jump. The water entering the bucket forms a roller- called the bucket roller- within the bucket
and another one – called the ground roller- just downstream of the bucket (Fig.8.9 a).
While the former is anticlockwise, the latter moves in a clockwise direction. Energy
dissipation takes place because of the interaction between the two rollers and the
intermingling of the inflow with the same. The ground roller has a tendency to pile up loose
material against the bucket lip and if some of this enters the bucket, it will keep moving with
the bucket roller and can cause objectionable abrasion in the concrete surface. To avoid this,
a slotted bucket is sometimes used instead of a solid bucket. The slotted bucket has teeth and
gaps (Fig.8.9 b) and leads to better flow conditions downstream, besides allowing any
material that may enter the bucket to leave through the gaps.

50
8.5 SPILLWAY GATES

There are three major types of gates provided in spillways. These are (Fig.8.10):

51
 1. Vertical Lift Gates

These gates are made of steel plate and move in gate grooves provided in the
supporting piers. They move vertically in their own plane and are operated from a
hoist chamber, which has to be at a higher elevation than the raised position of the
gates.

2. Tainter Gates

Also called radial gates, these are segments of a cylinder made of steel plate and
connected to a trunnion at the centre of the arc. The hoist chamber is suitably
located and normally does not have to be as high as in case of vertical lift gates.

3. Drum Gates

These are in the form of a floating drum which is hinged at the top and sits in a
float chamber within the spillway crest. Raising of the gate is accomplished by
allowing water under pressure into the float chamber, while for lowering the same
another valve is used to empty the float chamber.

8.6 DIVERSION SCHEMES

While surface water sources include rivers as well as lakes, rivers remain the major
source of the same. The strategies for development of this source can be based either on
diversion of the water available in the river at any point of time or on storing water when
available (such as in monsoon months) and drawing from the storage during lean flows. In
the former case, these are termed as diversion schemes, while the latter are called storage
schemes.

While diversion schemes are quite popular for irrigation, they may also serve the
purpose of power generation and water supply. Diversion schemes for power generation
alone are also in existence.

8.7 DIVERSION SCHEMES FOR IRRIGATION

Diversion schemes are quite common for irrigation and the following discussion
primarily pertains to irrigation schemes.

A diversion scheme for irrigation will essentially consist of the following:

Diversion Headworks- These are the works constructed across the river at the point
where a canal takes off (head of the canal).
Distribution Network- This will include the main canal, branch canals, and
distributaries to covey water to the fields.
Canal Regulation Structures- These are works such as canal falls, cross-regulators,
distributary head regulators etc.
Cross Drainage works- Works required at places where a canal crosses a drain or a
river.

52
8.8 DIVERSION HEADWORKS

A canal will normally be taking off from a river and the works constructed at the point
of take-off are called the headworks. A diversion headwork performs the tasks of diverting
the river water to the canal as well as regulating the quantity of water entering the canal.
Control of the sediment entering the canal may also be a function of the headworks.

The major components of a typical diversion headworks are:

Weir or Barrage
Undersluices
Divide Walls
Fish Ladder
Canal Head Regulator
Sediment Excluder
River Training Works

Fig.8.11 shows the layout and the main components of a typical headworks.

8.8.1 Weir

The weir is a structure built across the river to raise the water level on the upstream
side to ensure easy diversion of water to the canal. The raising of water level is carried out by
providing a raised crest in the weir and with the help of shutters over the crest. In some
works, the crest height is very small or even zero and the control is by means of gates, in
which case the work is known as a barrage. Typical sections of weir and barrage are shown in
Fig.8.12.

53
 There are three interrelated parameters that need to be fixed while designing a weir or
barrage. These are the afflux, the waterway and the pond level.

Afflux is the difference between the flood level on the upstream and downstream of
the weir/barrage under free flow conditions and is a consequence of the construction of the
same. Since the flood level on the upstream goes up by an amount equal to the afflux, a larger
value of afflux means higher flood levels and hence more submergence on the upstream side.
It is therefore aimed to keep the afflux as low as possible and the value generally adopted is
1.0m or less, except in reaches where the river has a very flat gradient, where values of the
order of 0.3m are considered adequate.

Waterway is the length of the weir from abutment to abutment. This is the passage
available for water to flow over the weir and is generally fixed based on the Lacey’s regime
perimeter. According to the Lacey’s theory, the regime perimeter is given by:

P = 4.75 Q

In which P is the regime perimeter and Q the flood discharge of the river. The
waterway is chosen so as to be close to the regime perimeter.

Pond level is the water level maintained on the upstream side of the weir to facilitate
the diversion of water into the canal. This is governed by the full supply level of the canal
and is generally kept above the full supply level of the canal at the head. The difference
between the pond level and the full supply level of the canal- called the working head- is
usually kept about 1.0-1.2 m. Since the full supply level of the canal depends on the
command and is determined once the canal longitudinal section has been fixed, the pond
level also gets more or less determined.

The pond level is maintained with the help of a raised crest and falling shutters in a
weir and gates in case of a barrage. When water has to be passed over the weir- as in case of
floods- the shutters are dropped and flow takes place over the crest. The discharge over the
weir is given by:

Q = C L H3/2

54
Where Q is the discharge, L the length (waterway) of the weir and H is the head over the
crest. C is a constant depending upon the crest width and is usually taken as 1.71 in metric
units.

Once the afflux has been decided, the level of the total energy line (TEL) on the
upstream is obtained by adding the afflux to the level of the total energy line before the
construction of the weir. The latter is available from the stage-discharge curve of the river at
site. Knowing this level and choosing a waterway, H can be obtained from the Eq. The value
of H subtracted from the level of the upstream TEL gives the crest level of the weir. Ponding
is carried out by providing a solid crest upto the level so obtained and providing shutters for
the remaining height. Variations of these parameters can be tried to obtain a satisfactory
combination. Falling shutters with heights more than 2.0m pose many problems and hence
are avoided by suitable combination of the afflux, waterway and pond level.

In case of a barrage, however there is no limitation to the height of gates and as such
the crest height can be very small. Sometimes barrages can even be designed with no solid
raised crest at all.

Having fixed the parameters mentioned above, the design of the weir/barrage is
carried out. This requires designing from surface flow as well as subsurface considerations.

8.8.2 Undersluices

Undersluices are gate controlled openings provided in continuation of the

weir/barrage adjacent to the canal head regulator. If there are two canals taking off on either
side of a headworks, undersluices are provided on both the sides. The crest level of the
undersluices is kept lower than the weir and they are separated from the weir portion by a
divide wall. These serve the following purpose:

1. To maintain a still pond of water near the canal entry

2. To flush out the sediment deposited in the pond for maintaining a deep water channel
on the canal side
3. To pass smaller floods without the necessity of dropping the weir shutters. This is
done as raising the weir shutters after passing a flood is a cumbersome process, while
gates can be raised easily.

The undersluice capacity is fixed on the basis of the above considerations and is
generally kept equal to the maximum of the following:

1. Twice the canal full supply discharge- this is to ensure sufficient sediment scouring
capacity
2. 10 to 20% of the high flood discharge of the river
3. Low floods- which the undersluices should be able to pass while maintaining the pond
level on the upstream side

8.8.3 Divide Wall

The divide wall is constructed to separate the weir portion from the undersluices and
serves the following purposes:

55
 To provide, alongwith the undersluices and head regulator, a still pond of water in
front of the head regulator. This helps sediment to settle down and reduce its entry
into the canal.
To prevent cross currents that may develop along the weir and cause damage.
To isolate the undersluice floor from the main weir that has a higher floor level.

8.8.4 Fish Ladder

This is a narrow opening provided between the divide wall and the undersluices to
allow fish to migrate. In order to keep the velocity of flow in the fish ladder reasonably low
to allow the fish to swim against the current, the fish ladder is provided with baffles
(Fig.8.13). The design of this needs consideration of the type of fish in the river.

8.8.5 Canal Head Regulator

The canal head regulator, as the name implies, is intended to regulate the supplies to
the canal. It also serves to control the entry of sediment into the canal. A typical section of a
canal head regulator is shown in Fig.8.14.

56
 The fixing up of the crest level and width of waterway are amongst the first steps
towards the design of the head regulator. The crest of the canal head regulator is kept above
the sill level of the undersluices. The difference between the two is also governed by the
provision or otherwise of a sediment excluder at the headworks. The discharge through the
canal head regulator is given by:

Q = C (L – KnH) H3/2

In which Q is the discharge, L the width of the canal head regulator, n the number of
end contractions, H the head over the crest and K is a coefficient depending upon the shape of
the nose of piers.

Since H will be the difference between the pond level and the head regulator crest
level, the width should be such that the full supply discharge of the canal can pass over the
head regulator with this head over the crest. In order to keep provision for future expansions
etc., the width provided is such that the canal may be able to draw its full supply discharge
with about 50% of the working head H. The width is divided suitably onto a number of bays,
normally 8 to 10m span, and separated by piers. Each bay has gates to control the discharge.
The gates, generally of steel, move in gate grooves provided in the piers. The height of gates
is kept equal to the difference between the pond level and the head regulator crest level. In
order to prevent spilling of water over the gates during floods, an RCC breast wall is
provided, spanning between adjacent piers, from the pond level to the high flood level. This
is done so as to keep the height of the gates, which would otherwise have to extend upto the
high flood level, within a reasonable value and achieve economy.

8.8.6 Sediment Excluder

A sediment excluder in provided in some headworks to control the entry of excess

sediment into the canal. The excluder is provided adjacent to the canal head regulator.

8.8.7 River Training Works

Almost all headworks will require river training works like guide banks, afflux bunds,
spurs etc.

8.9 SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE FLOW CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN OF

HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

The design of hydraulic structures, specially the ones constructed in rivers or canals
has to be based on both surface and subsurface flow considerations.

The water flowing over the structures may result in hydrostatic pressures on some
parts of the structure. Formation of a hydraulic jump is another possibility while talking of
surface flow. Also the flowing water, specially during floods, can cause scour in the river bed
upstream or downstream of the structure. All these have to be accounted for in the design and
come under the surface flow considerations.

Water can seep underneath the structure unless it is founded on solid rock, which is
very rare in rivers and canals. The seeping water results in an upward pressure on the floor of
the structure and this uplift pressure needs to be taken care of in the design. Piping or

57
undermining is another effect which has to be considered. Piping occurs if the seeping water
has enough force when it emerges so as to be able to displace particles at the exit point. This
may continue upstream and form a cavity underneath the structure and result in the collapse
of the structure.

Some general principles dealing with the above are discussed briefly in this section.

8.10 SURFACE FLOW CONSIDERATIONS

As mentioned above, these will include hydrostatic pressure, hydraulic jump and
scour on the bed. While the first two will apply to both rivers and canals, the third is relevant
only for rivers.

8.10.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

Static water exerts a pressure on any surface against which it is standing. Thus if one
considers a surface as shown in Fig.8.15 against which water stands to a depth h, the pressure
exerted by the same will have a triangular distribution as shown. The pressure intensity at any
depth y below the surface is given by wy, where w is the unit weight of water. The total
force due to this on unit width of the surface will be given by ( wh2)/2. The surface must be
designed to withstand this pressure.

8.10.2 Hydraulic Jump

Flow in an open channel can be supercritical, critical or subcritical. This depends on

the velocity (V) and depth (y) of flow and is characterized by a dimensionless parameter
called the Froude number (F) defined as

F = V/ (gy)

In which g is the acceleration due to gravity.

The flow is called critical if F is equal to 1, while for Froude numbers greater than one
it is termed as supercritical and for F less than one as subcritical.

58
If the flow in a channel is supercritical and the downstream control indicates a subcritical
flow, then the change from supercritical to subcritical is rather abrupt and a hydraulic jump
takes place (Fig.8.16).

A hydraulic jump is accompanied by a lot of turbulence and energy loss and therefore
it is useful as a means of dissipating excess energy downstream of hydraulic structures before
allowing the flow to pass to unprotected river or canal bed.

The pre-jump supercritical depth y1 and the post-jump subcritical depth y2 for jump
on a horizontal floor are related by the expression

y2 / y1 = 1/2 ( (1+8F12)-1)

where F1 is the pre-jump Froude number and y2 and y1 are called the conjugate depths.
The length of jump is approximately 5(y2 - y1 ) and the head loss in the jump is given by

hL = (y2 – y1 )3/(4y1y2)

If the tail water depth available (yt) is less than the conjugate depth y2 for a given
value of y1, the jump may be repelled downstream. In such situations, the jump can be forced
to form upstream by use of appurtenances (Fig.8.17) such as baffle blocks, end sill etc. This
kind of a jump is called a forced hydraulic jump. Extensive studies have been carried out on
the forced jump and many standardized designs for stilling basins to be adopted for energy
dissipation downstream of hydraulic structures under different conditions have been evolved.

8.10.3 Bed Scour

The bed of an alluvial river does not remain at its low flow level during floods. Scour
takes place on the bed and the bed level goes down. This can lead to a failure of structures
unless their foundations and/or the vertical cutoffs are carried below the scoured level. For

59
safe design therefore, it is necessary to estimate the scour on the bed. This can be done using
the Lacey’s theory which gives the value of R in terms of the discharge Q and the silt factor f.
For a wide river the value of R can be treated as its depth and hence knowing the water
surface elevation, the bed level and hence the scour can be obtained. In practice however, the
scoured bed is taken to be kR below the water level, where k is a factor greater than 1 and its
value depends upon factors such as the curvature of flow and the possibility of severe scour at
any point. Computing the value of R for the highest flood and using an appropriate value of
k, the deepest scour can be obtained (Fig.8.18) and the design carried out accordingly.

It may however be worth mentioning that a canal carries fixed discharges and the bed
is not subject to scour as in the case of a river and as such the above consideration does not
apply to works constructed on canals.

8.11 SUBSURFACE FLOW CONSIDERATIONS

Most of the works in rivers and canals are built on permeable foundations. The water
can thus seep under the structure and the safety of the structure against the effects of the same
must be ensured. As already mentioned, safety against uplift and undermining are the two
main considerations in this regard.

The flow of water through porous media is governed by the Laplace equation and thus
the solution of the Laplace equation for the given geometry and boundary conditions can
provide all the necessary information about the same. While the Laplace equation can be
solved graphically- resulting in the flownet- or numerically, the present discussion will be
confined to some of the methods that have been applied to the design of hydraulic structures
for a long time.

8.11.1 Uplift Pressure

Water seeping underneath a structure will loose head during the flow. Thus if one
considers the geometry shown in Fig.8.19, water enters at A and emerges at B and the head
lost in this is equal to H. At any location between A and B, such as C, there is a residual head
h, which is less than H and this will result in an upward pressure on the floor equal to h per
unit area of the floor. The value of h is in fact the intercept between the bottom of the floor
and the hydraulic grade line for the flow.

60
 In order that the floor be safe against this uplift, its weight must be at least equal to
the uplift. If the specific gravity of the material of the floor is G and its thickness t, the weight
per unit area will be Gt. This then yields for safety against uplift

Gt > h
or Gt > h
or Gt-t > h-t
or t > h’/(G-1)

where h’ is the intercept between the top of the floor and the hydraulic grade line, which can
be obtained easily if the hydraulic grade line is known.

8.11.1 Undermining

Undermining starts if the seepage water emerging at the exit retains enough force to
dislodge sediment particles at that location. This then continues upstream and creates a cavity
below the structure which can result in the collapse of the structure.

If one considers an elementary cylinder of area of cross-section dA and length dl,

aligned along a streamline (Fig.8.20), the force on this along the direction of flow will be –
dpdA. At the exit this force will act vertically upwards. In order that undermining does not
take place, the weight of the sediment acting downwards must be more than this force. If the
specific gravity of the sediment is s and the porosity n, the submerged weight of the
elementary cylinder will be given by w dAdl (s-1) (1-n). Thus one gets

dAdl (s-1) (1-n) > -dpdA

61
or -dh/dl < (s-1) (1-n)

-dh/dl represents the gradient at the exit point and is called the exit gradient. Also for most of
the sediment particles s= 2.65 and n is of the order of 0.4, thereby yielding a value of about 1
for the right hand side. Thus the safe exit gradient for no undermining assumes a value of 1.
In practice however, the value of the safe exit gradient adopted is between 1/4 and 1/6.

From the above, it is clear that in order to ensure safety against uplift and
undermining the hydraulic grade line and the exit gradient need to be determined for a given
geometry of the structure. While both can be determined by solving the Laplace equation,
two methods that have been used for the same are discussed below.

8.11.2 Bligh’s Creep Theory

Bligh postulated that seeping water follows the boundary of the floor of the structure
i.e. creeps along the boundary and that the head is lost at a uniform rate along the entire
length the water traverses. The total length traversed was called the creep length. Thus for the
geometry shown in Fig.8.21, the creep length is b+2d and the gradient works out to H/(b+2d).
Bligh postulated that the structure will be safe if this gradient is less than a value C, which he
specified depending upon the sediment and is of the order of 1/6 to 1/8.

It is evident that Bligh’s theory does not distinguish between horizontal and vertical
creep and assumes a uniform gradient throughout. While many structures were designed
using Bligh’s theory, it is no longer used for any major structure as the basic assumptions are
not borne out by actual analysis.

8.11.3 Khosla Theory

Subsequent to damage to the floors of lower Chenab works in Punjab, Khosla and co-
workers undertook a study and found that the uplift pressures measured on these works did
not match with those predicted by Bligh’s creep theory. They also found that the outer faces
of vertical cutoffs were more effective than the inner ones or the horizontal floor- contrary to
what Bligh’s theory assumed- and that a reasonably deep vertical cutoff was necessary at the
downstream end to prevent undermining.

They obtained solutions of the Laplace equation for a few simple shapes and the
results were presented in the shape of curves. These curves give the value of at certain key
points in the profile- being the residual head as a percentage of the total. The profiles

62
analysed by them were a horizontal floor with a cutoff at the upstream end, a horizontal floor
with a cutoff at the downstream end, a horizontal floor with a cutoff at an intermediate
position and a depressed floor (Fig.8.22). For each of these profiles the values at the key
points (E, C, D, E1, C1, D1 etc.) are given as a function of (=b/d), with b1/b being another
parameter for the case of cutoff at an intermediate point. The results for these profiles can be
used for an actual profile (such as the one shown in Fig.8.23) after applying corrections
specified for thickness of the floor, mutual interference between sheet piles and slope of the
floor. The variation between key points is assumed to be linear and hence the hydraulic grade
line can be obtained. This can then be used to find the uplift at any point and the floor
designed accordingly.

63
 The exit gradient is given by

GE = (H/d) (1/ )

Where H is the total head, d the depth of the downstream cutoff and =
2
(1+ (1+ ))/2. It is thus clear that a finite exit gradient requires a non-zero value of d - the
downstream cutoff.

64
 CHAPTER-9

WATER POWER ENGINEERING

The basis of generating power from water is to convert the energy of water flowing in
the rivers to electricity. To this end, a head has to be created at some location in the river.
Water under this head is then conveyed to turbines, which convert the energy into mechanical
energy and are used to drive generators which produce electrical energy. One thus requires
certain head and discharge to produce water power. This can be done in many ways and the
two common methods are discussed in this section.

9.1 DIVERSION SCHEMES FOR HYDROPOWER GENERATION

The concept of generating power from a diversion scheme involves making use of the
difference in slope required in a canal as compared to the river slope. Thus, with reference to
Fig.9.1, if a reach of river from the point A to B is considered, the drop in elevation between
A and B will be LRSR , in which LR is the length of the river from A to B and SR is the
average slope of the river in the reach. If a diversion headwork is constructed at A from
which a canal takes off, say upto a point P, the drop in elevation from A to P will be LCSC
where LC and SC are the canal length and slope respectively. The lengths LR and LC will be
nearly equal, while the slopes SR and SC will be quite different, because a canal requires much
lesser slope. This will be particularly true if the reach AB is in hills or the foothills where the
rivers generally have large slopes. There will thus be a difference of elevation equal to (LRSR
–LCSC) between the points P and B and this is the total head available for power generation.
If the head is H and the discharge available is Q, the power generated can be obtained as
Q H, where is the unit weight of water and is the overall efficiency of the system.

The channel taking off from such a headwork is meant solely for power generation
and as is evident, it is advantageous to have a channel at as small a slope as possible to
maximize the head available. In view of this, power channels are invariably lined as such a
channel has a smaller resistance compared to unlined channels and hence require smaller
slope for a given set of conditions.

A typical layout of such a diversion scheme is shown in Fig.9.2 and the main
components are briefly described below:

65
9.1.1 Diversion Works

The diversion works can comprise a weir or barrage alongwith a canal head regulator
and sediment excluder as in the case of irrigation schemes. The details for the same have
already been discussed.

66
 Another alternative, specially useful in boulder streams is the use of a trench weir. A
trench weir is a trench in the bed of the river with the top having closely spaced steel bars
(Fig.9.3). The water enters the trench from the bottom of the stream and is led to a settling
chamber on the side. The steel bars prevent the entry of very coarse material into the trench
which alongwith large boulders can roll over the steel bars and this minimizes the chances of
damage to the works. The coarse sediment can settle down in the settling chamber from
which the water enters the power channel.

67
9.1.2 Power Channel

The power channel, also called the head race channel, is provided with as small a
slope as consistent with proper conveyance of the desired discharge. It is invariably lined and
free of any falls in order to conserve head.

9.1.3 Settling Basin

The water entering a powerhouse has to be free of sediment above a particular size as
specified by the turbine manufacturer. In order to do so, a settling basin designed to exclude
all sediment above the specified size has to be provided at a suitable location as close to the
powerhouse as possible.

9.1.4 Forebay

The power channel terminates into a tank called the forebay. The forebay is provided
with a spilling arrangement to maintain a constant level and also a bye-pass channel to escape
the discharge if the powerhouse has to be closed. It can also serve as a settling basin in
certain cases. Water enters the penstocks from the forebay. A fine trash rack is used to cover
the intake of the penstocks to prevent entry of floating debris.

9.1.5 Penstocks

These are pipes which carry water under pressure from the forebay tank to the turbine,
where the potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy to rotate the turbine.
Design of the penstock is very important from the considerations of economy and power
generation. Thus while a smaller diameter penstock may be cheaper, it will result in greater
head loss and consequently lesser head available for power generation. An optimal solution
has to be worked out for the same. The material for penstocks may vary from mild steel to
High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) or Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC), the choice depending on
cost, availability, climatic considerations, design pressure, ease of installation etc.

9.1.6 Powerhouse

This is a building that houses turbines, generator and controller units.

9.1.7 Tailrace

The tailrace is a channel that carries water back to the stream after it flows through the
turbine. The bye-pass channel also joins the tailrace at a suitable location.

9.2 POWER GENERATION FROM STORAGE SCHEMES

When water is drawn from a reservoir for power generation, the available head is the
difference in elevation between the water surface level in the reservoir and the level of the
turbine in the power house. The water is drawn directly through intakes provided within the
reservoir and conveyed by penstocks to the powerhouse (Fig.9.4a). Since the water drawn
from the reservoir is relatively sediment free, settling basin is not a requirement in such cases
nor is a forebay needed as the level is maintained constant by the reservoir. A trash rack is
however provided at the inlet of the penstocks.

68
 The powerhouse in such schemes could be located just at the foot of the dam or close
to it or could be a considerable distance away from it. In the later case, the penstock has to be
a long one. The discharge flowing through the turbines may have to be increased or decreased
suddenly, depending on the power requirements. The sudden decrease of discharge causes an
increase in the pressure upstream on the penstock – a phenomenon called water hammer –
and the penstock must be designed to withstand this high pressure. In case of long penstocks,
this can prove to be uneconomical. Also the flow takes some time to establish in case of
sudden increase in demand, the time increasing with the length of the penstock. To take care
of these situations, a large diameter vertical open tank – known as a surge tank – is generally
provided in cases where the power house is considerable distance away from the dam (Fig.
9.4b). The surge tank is provided as close to the powerhouse as possible. Its function is to
supply water in case of sudden increase in discharge till the flow gets established. In case of
sudden decrease in discharge, the excess water gets stored in the surge tank and the length of
penstock affected by water hammer is just the one between the powerhouse and the surge
tank and only this portion needs to be designed to withstand high pressures. Surge tanks can
be of different designs such as simple, restricted orifice or differential.

Other components of the powerhouse are similar to that for a diversion scheme.

A variation of the storage schemes is the pumped storage scheme (Fig.9.5). In this, the
water released from the reservoir after passing through the powerhouse is led to a
downstream storage during peak demand periods. During off peak hours this water is pumped
back to the upstream reservoir, using the extra power being generated, for use again during
peak hours.

69
9.3 TURBINES

Turbines convert the energy of water to mechanical energy by bringing about a

change in the momentum of the water flowing through them. The water strikes the blades of
the turbine and produces the force necessary to rotate the runner of the turbine. Depending on
the action of water on the blades, turbines are classified into the following two categories:

9.3.1 Impulse Turbines

In this type of turbine, the end of the penstock has a nozzle fitted to it which converts
the energy of water into kinetic energy and the jet so produced hits the blades and causes the
rotation of the runner. The water strikes the blades as a free jet. Pelton wheel is a turbine in
this class.

9.3.2 Reaction Turbines

In this type of turbine, water enters the turbine under pressure and causes the rotation
of the runner, again by hitting the turbine blades. These turbines always run full. Francis
turbine and Kaplan turbine fall under this category.

Besides the above classification, turbines can also be classified as axial flow, radial
flow, tangential flow or mixed flow, depending upon the path of water as it flows through the
turbine.

Each of the turbines is suitable under certain set of conditions of head and discharge
and selection of a turbine is an important component of water power engineering. In general
the impulse turbines are more suitable for high heads and low discharges while for low heads
and high discharges the reaction turbines would be more suitable.

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 CHAPTER-10

POLICY AND OTHER ISSUES IN HYDROPOWER

Electricity sector comprises of three major activities viz. Generation, transmission and
distribution. The two major sources of generation are hydropower and thermal power.
Hydropower presents some advantages over thermal power, which are mentioned below:

1. It is a renewable resource
2. Is pollution free
3. Higher efficiency compared to thermal plants
4. Plant can be started/shut down at short notice in keeping with the demand

There are however certain drawbacks also which include higher investments, longer
gestation period and larger requirement of land, specially for storage projects.

10.1 SMALL HYDROPOWER (SHP)

The definition of small hydropower varies from country to country. In India, a plant
having capacity less than 25MW is classified as small hydro.

India has a century old history of hydropower and the beginning was from small
hydro. The first hydro power plant of 130 KW set up in Darjeeling during 1897 marked the
development of hydropower in the country. With the advancement of technology, and
increasing requirement of electricity, the thrust of electricity generation was shifted to large
size hydro and thermal power stations. However, during the last 10-15 years there is a
renewed interest in the development of small hydro power projects due to its benefits
particularly concerning environment and ability to produce power in remote areas. Small
hydro projects are economically viable and have relatively short gestation period. The major
constraints associated with large hydro projects are usually not encountered in small hydro
projects.

10.2 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

The institutional arrangements for dealing with the subject of power in the Union and
the States are as below:

1. The Ministry of Power is responsible for formulation of policy and programmes

and all matters in the sector of Power. The Ministry of Power is responsible for
the Administration of the Electricity Act, 2003 and the Energy Conservation Act,
2001. The Ministry is concerned with perspective planning, policy formulation,
processing of projects for investment decision, monitoring of the implementation
of power projects, training and manpower development and the administration and
enactment of legislation in regard to thermal, hydro power generation,
transmission and distribution.
2. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy in responsible for formulation of
policy and programmes for all matters of new and renewable energy including

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 Small Hydropower development (up to and below 25 MW) and offering different
incentives.
3. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) is a statutory organization constituted
under Section 3 of the repealed Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948. It is to perform
such functions and duties as the Central Government may prescribe. The CEA is
the technical wing of the Ministry of Power and advises that ministry on matters
of policy, national planning, programmes etc.
4. Central Electricity Regulatory Commission is to regulate the tariff of generating
companies, to regulate interstate transmission of electricity, to issue licenses to
function as transmission licensees, to adjudicate upon disputes involving
distribution companies or transmission licensees, to specify grid code etc.
5. Central Transmission Utility is a government company to undertake transmission
of electricity through the interstate transmission system
6. “State Transmission Utilities” means the Board or the government company
specified as such to undertake the transmission of electricity through the State
transmission system.
7. For better utilization of resources, Power Grid Corporation of India (PGCIL)
which is a Government of India company is entrusted with the responsibility of
creating national transmission grid. Besides developing transmission system
themselves, they are offering it to independent power transmission companies in
joint venture or independently for development. PGCIL has also entered into bulk
power agreement with state transmission corporations to transmit energy from
Central Sector Stations and/or any other agency(ies) to the Bulk Power
Beneficiaries/long term transmission Customers and Central Sector Generating
Companies and/or any other agency(ies) willing to sell energy or desirous of
receiving energy through power grid transmission system.
8. A Power Trading Corporation (PTC) has been established. The PTC would
purchase power from the identified private projects and sell it to the identified
State Electricity Boards. PTC may also supply power directly to a 'cluster', like
licensees and industrial establishments. PTC acts as a single-window service
provider that manages both financial as well as operational risks for the buyer and
seller entities in its trading transactions, which in turn will bring down the tariff
from such projects and will ensure timely payment to sellers. This will also ensure
that a definite quantum of power is delivered to buyers. A number of private
companies have also come up for power trading.
9. Rural Electrification Corporation, a Government of India company assists the
Departments of Energy and Power of various State Governments and the State
Electricity Boards in the development and financing of programmes of rural
electrification.
10. Power Finance Corporation, a central public sector undertaking, to assist various
electricity Boards and other organizations in the power sector.
11. Central Water Commission is an autonomous Commission under the Ministry of
Water Resources and is responsible among other things to gauge important rivers
and keep discharge data.
12. Besides the above major organisations, the power sector has also a few
professional organisations like Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Council of
Power Utility, Central Power Research Institute, Power Engineers Training
Society, Energy Management Centre etc.
13. The Ministry of Power has divided the country in to five power regions.

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10.3 GOVERNMENT POLICY

The electricity sector is governed mainly by the Electricity Act 2003. The
Government has prepared a policy also. Its objectives include encouraging competition,
protecting consumers, providing power for all and creating an enabling framework for
accelerated and efficient development of the power sector. It also provides for national
electricity policy, rural electrification, open access in transmission and distribution, power
trading, mandatory metering and penalties for theft of electricity. It envisages private sector
participation, fixation of tariff by regulatory commission etc. and freeing key areas from
political influences.

The Ministry of Power has set an agenda of providing power to all by 2012. It seeks
to achieve this objective through a comprehensive and holistic approach to power sector
development envisaging multi level intervention strategy at the National, State, SEB,
Distribution, Feeder and Consumer levels as below:.

a) Government Policy on energy in general, particularly on entry of foreign companies

in India for equipment supply, consultancy and involvement in construction for
hydropower and foreign investments in hydropower.
b) Type of subsidies including financial
c) Taxation structure for Small Hydropower
a) Special incentives for Export and Import duties / VAT
b) Corporate Taxation Structure for Hydropower Plants
d) Feed-in Tariff

The near monopoly of the state in the power sector until reforms were introduced in
1990s had resulted in much slower growth than the demand. This led the Government to
introduce a series of reforms. The reforms are comprehensive touching almost every aspect
affecting the performance of this sector. These are regularly reviewed and necessary changes
are made to optimize results.

10.4 THE REFORMS IN ELECTRICITY SECTOR

Promulgation of the Electricity Act 2003 was a very important step as it dealt
comprehensively with all the major aspects of electricity sector and provided a framework for
conducting all activities in this sector. The act declared the philosophy and policy of the
government. It took care to incorporate the various reforms that had already been initiated.
These included measures such as prescribing the principles for deciding the electricity tariff,
planning 100% metering, providing for energy audit, setting up regulatory commission.
National electricity policy (2005) followed.

The objectives of the Electricity Act and the National Policy are to introduce
competition, protect consumer’s interest and create an enabling frame work for accelerated
and efficient development of the power sector. Above all, it seeks to provide access to
electricity for all the population including rural population by 2010, meet the demand fully by
2012, supply of quality and reliable power, increase the per capita availability to 1000 kWh /
annum by 2012. The objectives also include providing open access in transmission and
distribution, power trading, mandatory metering and penalties for theft of electricity. It
envisages private sector participation, fixation of tariff by regulatory commission etc. The
main provisions are summarized below:

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 1. An independent regulatory mechanism for the power sector by constitution of
state electricity regulatory commission with powers of tariff fixation, licensing,
regulation on working of licensees, performance standards etc.
2. Introducing newer concepts like power trading, open access, Appellate Tribunal
etc.
3. Making special provisions for the rural areas and setting a target for electrification
of all villages.
4. Captive generation freed from controls. Open access to captive generating plants
subject to availability of transmission facility.
5. Generation from Non-Conventional Sources/ Co-generation to be promoted.
Minimum percentage of purchase of power from renewable may be prescribed by
Regulatory Commissions.
6. Open access to the transmission lines to be provided to distribution licensees,
generating companies.
7. Distribution to be licensed by State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs).
8. Distribution licensees have a freedom to take-up generation and generating
company free to take-up distribution licenses.
9. Trading of power permitted as a distinct activity with licensing
10. Constitution of Appellate Tribunal to hear appeals against the orders of
CERC/SERC and to exercise general supervision and control over the central/
state commissions.
11. Regulatory Commission to determine tariff for supply of electricity by generating
companies on long/ medium term contracts.

10.5 CLEARANCES REQUIRED

Setting up of a hydropower project is subject to obtaining many statutory clearances

from appropriate agencies. The major clearances required and the agencies responsible for
these are listed below. It may however be mentioned that all the following clearances are not
required in every case as some of these are applicable only to projects with a capital outlay
exceeding a certain amount as specified by the Central Government. Likewise, small hydro
projects are exempt from some of these.

1. Techno-Economic Clearance – This involves an examination of the technical and

economic aspects of the project by the Central Electricity Authority, which after it is
satisfied with these gives the clearance.
2. Environmental Clearance – This requires an environmental impact study of the
project. The study is to be submitted through the state government to the Ministry of
Environment and Forests of the central government, which is the agency to grant the
clearance.
3. Forest Clearance – Forest clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests of
the central government is required under the provisions of the Forest Conservation
Act. The proposal has to come through the state government for consideration by the
ministry.
4. Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Project affected Families – This is considered
alongwith the Forest Clearance. The state government also has to examine the Relief
and Rehabilitation schemes.

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Besides the above, there are issues of the registration of company, water availability, land
availability etc. which need examination by the relevant agencies of the state government.

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 CHAPTER-11

REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS IN WATER RESOURCES

11.1 REMOTE SENSING

Remote Sensing as understood nowadays implies the sensing of earth’s surface from
space by making use of the properties of the sensed objects to emit, reflect or refract
electromagnetic waves.

Remote sensing is called passive if the electromagnetic radiation from the sun or
emitted by the object is used, while if electromagnetic radiation is produced to illuminate the
object, it is termed as active.

Electromagnetic radiation incident on a surface can be reflected, refracted or absorbed

and this interaction depends on the properties of the object besides the wavelength of the
radiation. This interaction forms the basis of identification of the object and is called its
signature. The signature mostly used is the spectral variation i.e. the change in reflectance etc.
as a function of the wavelength of the incident radiation.

The spectral signatures of a target can change with time as well as space. Thus these
would depend on the atmospheric conditions, the illumination conditions as well as with the
change in target conditions with time.

Remote sensing would thus require a source of electromagnetic radiation and a sensor
placed on a platform to receive the reflected or emitted energy. The sensors can be active if
they also generate electromagnetic waves or passive if they rely on the radiation from the sun
or the object itself. The platform normally is a satellite. The data sensed by the sensors is
converted into data products either in digital form or as photo products which are used for
further analysis. The digital products are available in various formats, while the photo
products are normally available as black and white or false colour composites (FCC).

The satellite imageries are available in public domain from a number of sources such
as the LANDSAT series satellites of USA, the IRS series of Indian Space Research
Organisation and a number of others.

11.2 APPLICATIONS IN WATER RESOURCES

Remote sensing data can be used with advantage for the development and
management of a variety of natural resources – water being one of them. Some of the areas of
application to water resources are briefly mentioned below:

11.2.1 Delineation of Surface Water Bodies and Wetlands

Water absorbs all infrared radiation and thus appears dark in the near infrared band in
contrast to the land. This helps mapping of surface water bodies such as lakes, ponds,
reservoirs etc. Further, in FCC the shade in which water appears is also a function of its
depth, turbidity etc. Thus one could use remote sensing for determination of the spread of the

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water body, its seasonal fluctuations, volume, turbidity and emergent and floating vegetation.
The same applies to the identification of flood inundated areas and wetlands also.

11.2.2 Snow Studies

Most of the perennial rivers are snowfed. Study of the change in area under snow is
thus an important parameter for hydrological applications and runoff forecasting. Because of
the problem of accessibility for most of the snow covered areas, remote sensing provides a
very convenient tool for such studies. FCCs can also be used for glacial studies such as
glacial melt, the advance or retreat of glaciers and mapping of crevasses etc.

11.2.3 Flood Management

The use of meteorological satellites for forecasting heavy rainfall and snowmelt as
well as the movement of fronts helps in predicting the likelihood of floods. This data along
with Digital Elevation Models (DEM) also leads to identification of areas likely to be
inundated. Selection of site for structural measures to control floods is another area where
satellite data is immensely useful.

11.2.4 Selection of Dam Sites

The selection of an appropriate site for dams requires a thorough study of the drainage
pattern, availability of water, geological configurations, land use pattern and the terrain.
Remote sensing data can be very conveniently used for such studies and evaluating
alternatives.

11.2.5 Ground Water Occurrence

While satellite imageries do not show the potential groundwater areas directly, they
are very helpful in detecting the surface features associated with aquifers. Such surface
features include valley fills, alluvial fans, dykes etc. Hydro-geomorphologic maps that show
these features can be prepared easily using remote sensing data and the areas so identified can
then be subjected to a detailed geophysical investigation to assess the ground water
availability.

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