FUNDAMENTAL CHEMICAL LAWS

(Laws in Chemistry)

Chemistry is a modern natural science and one of the major objectives is to explain
the fundamental laws. Chemical laws such as law of conservation of mass, law of
definite proportion, law of multiple proportions, Avogadro’s law etc. help us to understand
the composition and the bonding in substances, to predict their chemical
Antoine Lavoisier
behaviour and chemical interactions with other substances.
Antoine Lavoisier(*) was the scientist who carried out accurate
chemical measurements. He demonstrated that combustion requires
oxygen, and explained the oxygen role in the corrosion processes. His
observations led him to deduce the following general law of
conservation of mass also known as Lavoisier’s law or principle of
mass (matter) conservation (several definitions):
 In every chemical transformation, an equal quantity of matter exists before and
after the reaction;
 The mass of substances produced (products) by a chemical reaction is always
equal to the mass of the reacting substances (reactants);
 The total mass of all participants in a chemical transformation (reaction) remains
constant over time.
This principal is equivalent to the conservation of energy, in the sense when energy
or mass is enclosed in a system and none is allowed in or out, its quantity cannot
otherwise change (hence, its mass is "conserved"). The law implies that mass cannot be
created or destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space and changed into different
types of particles; and that for any chemical process in a closed system, the mass of the
reactants must equal the mass of the products.
Historically, the principle of mass conservation, discovered by Antoine Lavoisier in
the late 18th century, was of crucial importance in changing alchemy into modern natural
science.
Demonstration of the law:
Two solid substances are available; silver nitrate (AgNO3) and sodium
chloride (NaCl). By dissolution of these in water two solutions are Figure 1
prepared /Figure 1/. Both solutions are colourless homogeneous
Fig. 2 Fig. 4 mixtures. The total mass of the two
solutions (with the beakers) measured on
the balance (scale) is 92,95 g /Figure 2/.
A reaction takes place after mixing the
solutions. The appearance of a white
precipitate is an evidence for occurring a
chemical process between the two
solutions /Fig. 3/. Two new substances
are formed; silver chloride, AgCl (white
precipitate) and sodium nitrate, NaNO3. Measuring their masses on the Figure 3
scale showed that the total mass didn’t change /figure 4/, which
confirms experimentally the law of conservation of mass. The equation of this process is:
silver nitrate + sodium chloride  silver chloride + sodium nitrate
AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO3
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* Lavoisier was a tax collector and nobleman, so he was branded a traitor during the French Revolution and
beheaded in 1794.
 The law of definite (constant) composition also known as law of definite
proportions (Proust’s law) is the second basic law in chemistry.
The Main Concept: Water (H2O) contains two H atoms and one O atom. The ratio
between elements and their atoms too, is 2 : 1 (read: two to one). We would find the same
ratio of the elements in a water samples from England, France, Arctic even on Mars.
Similar, in any sample of sulphuric acid, H2SO4, the element’s ratio will be always 2:1:4.
These observations verify the fact that compounds have constant composition.
Proust’s discovery was historically important, because it suggested to chemists that
compounds consist of specific combination of elements (or atoms).
Problem: What is the element’s ratio in the following compounds?
a) FeS b) NO2 c) Fe2O3 d) Al2(SO4)3 e) CuSO4  5H2O

We said, the elements (atoms) in compounds combine in a specific ratio.

Does this mean that the ratio of their masses would be also the same?
Simply told - yes!
Each element has its own mass, so that the mass ratio between elements forming
the compound will be alwys same or the elements are always found in the same
proportion by mass. Such simple calculations can be done using relative atomic masses
(Ar or RAM). Take water for example. The atomic relative mass of hydrogen is 1 and that
of oxygen is approximately 16. To find out the entire mass of hydrogen in water
(expressed in grams), you have to multiply the atomic relative mass of hydrogen by 2
(because the number of H-atoms in water is 2). Hence, the mass of the 2 moles of
hydrogen present in water is 2 grams. The oxygen mass is than 16 grams. The above can
be expressed as: Notice, the grams are
H2O m(H) : m(O) = 2∙Ar(H) : Ar(O) = 2 : 16 = 1 : 8 not shown because are
canceled out (ratio)

In any sample of pure water we would always find the same elements, hydrogen and
oxygen, in a mass ratio of 1 : 8, irrespective of the water source. For each gram of
hydrogen needs 8 g of oxygen. Similar the mass ratio of the elements found in sulphuric
acid will be respectively:
H2SO4 m(H) : m(S) : m(O) = 2 ∙ Ar(H) : Ar(S) : 4 ∙ Ar(O) = 2 : 32 : 64 = 1 : 16 : 32
So, the three elements in a mole of sulphuric acid would be always found in the same
proportion by mass; 1 : 16 : 32.
Let’s summarize:
The law of constant composition / definite proportion by mass states that:
 Compounds have definite (constant) composition and the elements in a
compound would be always found in the same mass ratio.
 In any sample of a compound, we always find the same elements in the same
mass ratio /definite proportion by mass/
The law of multiple proportions is the third basic law in stoichiometry, alongside
the law of definite proportions. It is sometimes called Dalton's Law after its discoverer. In
this law states that:
 If two elements form more than one compound then the ratio of the masses of
the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be
ratio of small whole numbers.
 When two elements form a series of compounds, the masses of one that
combine with a fixed mass of the other are in the ratio of (small) integers to each
other.
E.g.1. In addition to water, hydrogen and oxygen form another compound called hydrogen
peroxide, H2O2. The mass ratio in this compound is 2 : 32. Hence, the mass of oxygen
combined with the same mass of hydrogen is in a ratio of small whole numbers, 1:2
(16:32).
The oxygen mass in water and hydrogen
H2O m(H) : m(O) = 2 ∙ Ar(H) : Ar(O) = 2 : 16 peroxide, that combine with a fix mass of
hydrogen, is always a ratio of small
H2O2 m(H) : m(O) = 2 ∙ Ar(H) : 2 ∙ Ar(O) = 2 : 32 whole numbers; 16 : 32 = 1 : 2.

E.g. 2. Iron forms two compounds with sulphur; iron(II) sulphide, FeS and iron(III) sulphide,
Fe2S3. What is the mass ratio of sulphur which combine with fix mass of iron?
Ar(Fe) = 56 Ar(S) = 32 The mass ratio of sulphur
united with a fix mass of
FeS m(Fe) : m(S) = Ar(Fe) : Ar(S) = 56 : 32 iron in iron(II) and iron(III)
sulphide would be:
Fe2S3 m(Fe) : m(S) = 2∙Ar(Fe) : 3∙Ar(S) = 112 : 96 = 56 : 48 32 : 48 = 2 : 3

Avogadro’s law is the fourth of the series laws in chemistry. It states that:
 Equal volumes of all gases under same conditions (temperature and pressure),
contain equal number of particles.
 One mole of any gas contains equal number of particles at standard conditions.

Simple illustration of
Avogadro’s law

Homework
1. Which one of the following pair of substances illustrates law of multiple proportions?
a. Calcium oxide (CaO) and calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
b. Sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium bromide (NaBr)
c. Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
d. None of these
2. Avogadro’s law is related to:
a) the number of atoms in one gram of element
b) the number of particles in a mole of any gas at standard condition
c) the number of molecules present in one gram molecular mass of a substance
d) all are correct
3. The percentage of copper and oxygen in samples of “CuO” obtained by different
methods were found to be the same. This illustrates the law of:
a) constant proportion
b) conservation of mass
c) multiple proportions
d) Avogadro’s law
4. In the procedure shown down, a calcium chloride solution (CaCl2) is mixed with a
sodium sulphate solution (Na2SO4) to create the products shown. Which of the following is
illustrated by this activity?

This illustrates the law of:

a) constant proportion
b) conservation of mass
c) multiple proportion
d) Avogadro’s law
5. To burn a piece of magnesium ribbon, 6,4 g of oxygen gas is used. If 16 g of
magnesium oxide ash is obtained, calculate the mass of used magnesium ribbon. Write
the word equation of the chemical reaction!
6. An amount of methane gas, CH4, reacts with 6,4 g of oxygen and masses of the water
and carbon dioxide, CO2, produced are found to be 3,6 g and 4,4 g respectively. Calculate
the mass of methane gas reacted. Write the word equation of the chemical reaction!
7. 46 g of silver oxide, Ag2O, is heated and completely decomposed into elements,
oxygen and silver. If 3,2 g of oxygen is produced by this reaction, what is the mass of
produced silver? Write the word equation of the chemical reaction!
8. When sulphur reacts with oxygen, sulphur dioxide, SO2, is produced. The reaction of
3,2 g of sulphur found to give 6,4 g of sulphur dioxide. What is the mass of reacted
oxygen? Write the word equation of the chemical reaction!
a) 1,6 g b) 2,4 g c) 3,2 g d) 6,4 g e) 9,6 g
9. a) Opredeli go odnosot na masite na azot i kislorod vo navedenite
soedinenija: N2O, NO, N2O3, NO2 i N2O5.
b) Opredeli go odnosot na masite na kislorod {to se svrzuva so ista masa
azot.
10. Opredeli go odnosot na masite na kislorod {to se svrzuva so ista masa
sulfur vo oksidite SO2 i SO3.

Dictionary
accurate – to~ni
occur, take place – se slu~uva, se odviva
in addition to – pokraj
balance, scale – vaga
precipitate – talog, te{ko rastvorliva supstanca
ash – pepel
irrespective – nezavisno
respectively – soodvetno