Common Colds: Most of this work has been done on two important mediators: 

histamine, which mediates the immediate inflammatory response to injury,

and prostaglandins which mediate the delayed phase of the response.

histamine is released in both allergies and colds, which causes swelling in the nose, as well as
coughing, and sneezing.
In humans histamine is found in nearly all tissues of the body, where it is stored primarily in
the granules of tissue mast cells. The blood cells called basophils also harbour histamine-
containing granules.
High levels of prostaglandins are produced in response to injury or infection and cause
inflammation, which is associated with the symptoms of redness, swelling, pain and fever. This
is an important part of the body's normal healing process.

When trying to calm mast cells, the key is to reduce the number of flares. Eliminating triggers,
lowering histamine levels
Components of WBC

 Neutrophils (cells that respond to stress, such as bacterial infection)

 Lymphocytes (cells that increase when the body fights a viral infection)
 Eosinophils (cells that increase when you have allergies)

The bronchus in the lungs are lined with hair-like projections called cilia that move microbes
and debris up and out of the airways. Scattered throughout the cilia are goblet cells that secrete
mucus which helps protect the lining of the bronchus and trap microorganisms.

The eustachian tube (ET) has three physiologic functions. These are (1) pressure regulation,
(2) protection of the middle ear from pathogens/foreign material in the nasopharynx, and (3)
clearance of the middle ear space

The eustachian tube is a canal that connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx, which
consists of the upper throat and the back of the nasal cavity. It controls the pressure within the
middle ear, making it equal with the air pressure outside the body

3. Valsalva maneuver

Pinch your nostrils closed with your fingers. Try to keep your cheeks neutral, or pulled in, rather than
puffed out. Next, blow air gently through your nostrils. This generates pressure in the back of the nose,
which may help open the Eustachian tube.

4. Toynbee maneuver
For this technique, pinch your nostrils closed with your fingers while swallowing. Some researchTrusted
Source indicates that the Toynbee maneuver is just as effective as the Valsalva maneuver, though results
differ from person to person. You may want to try both to determine which method works best for you.

Sinusitis:

The sinuses lighten the skull or improve our voices, but their main function is to produce a
mucus that moisturizes the inside of the nose. This mucus layer protects the nose from
pollutants, micro-organisms, dust and dirt.

There are 4 paired sinuses in humans. They are all in line with pseudostratified columnar
epithelium.
 The maxillary sinuses: Largest of the paranasal sinuses, located under the eyes in the
maxillary bones.
 The frontal sinuses: Located superior to the eyes within the frontal bone
 The ethmoid sinuses: Formed from several discrete air cells within the ethmoid bone
between the nose and eyed
  The sphenoid sinuses: Located within the sphenoid bone
The function of the paranasal sinuses is debated. However, they are implicated in several roles:
 Decreasing the relative weight of the skull
 Increasing the resonance of the voice
 Providing a buffer against facial trauma
 Insulating sensitive structures from rapid temperature fluctuations in the nose
 Humidifying and heating inspired air
 Immunological defense

Atelectasis
Pleural effusion, sometimes referred to as “water on the lungs,” is the build-up of excess fluid
between the layers of the pleura outside the lungs.
Atelectasis occurs from a blocked airway (obstructive) or pressure from outside the lung
(nonobstructive). General anesthesia is a common cause of atelectasis. It changes your
regular pattern of breathing and affects the exchange of lung gases, which can cause the air
sacs (alveoli) to deflate

Types of atelectasis
- Compression – occurs from the lesion of the thorax compresses the lungs
- It takes place in congenital emphysema
- Absorption- refers to the condition where the reduction of nitrogen concentration in the
lungs causes a collapse
- Relaxation- or passive atelectasis results when pleural effusion or pneumothorax
eliminates contact between parietal pluera and cisceral pleura
- Rounded- as consequence of diseases with chronic pleural scarring, especially in
asbestos-related pleural dse and TB
- Obstructive- mucus plug
- Foreign body inhaled by children who have inhaled an object into their lungs
- Blopd clot

Primary spontaneous pneumothorax is likely due to the formation of small sacs of air (blebs) in
lung tissue that rupture, causing air to leak into the pleural space. Air in the pleural space
creates pressure on the lung and can lead to its collapse
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