Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487

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Journal of World Business

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Facilitating expatriate adjustment: The role of advice-seeking from

host country nationals
Ashish Mahajan a,*, Soo Min Toh b,1
a
Odette School of Business, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada
b
University of Toronto Mississauga, Department of Management, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

The expatriation literature consistently suggests that expatriates on assignment require a great deal of
support to adjust to their new environment. This study examines the potential of host country national
Article history:
Available online 19 November 2013 (HCN) coworkers as an important yet often overlooked source of support for expatriates. Analysis of
survey data collected from 350 expatriates working in the U.S. indicated that expatriates who sought
advice from HCN coworkers reported higher levels of work and interaction adjustment. This study also
Keywords:
Expatriate adjustment found that expatriates were more likely to seek advice from HCN coworkers they perceived as being
Expatriate socialization credible and likable. Implications for research and managerial relevance are offered.
Host country nationals ß 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Expatriate-host country national relations
Host country national support

Despite the fallout of the recent global recession, organizations
continue to send expatriates on various assignments (Brookfield,
2013, 2012). However, expatriate assignment failures are costly. A
failed expatriate assignment (i.e., premature return of expatriates
to their home country) can be costly (Tungli & Peiperl, 2009),
disrupt projects, bruise relations with the host country, and tarnish
the image of the company. Therefore, it is not surprising that a
great deal of research has focused on identifying factors that affect
expatriate adjustment (for reviews, see Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harri-
son, Shaffer, & Luk, 2005; Harrison, Shaffer, & Bhaskar, 2004). This
research, however, has tended to focus more on the importance of
expatriate intrapersonal factors (e.g., personality traits, Caligiuri,
2000a, 2000b; Shaffer, Harrison, Gregersen, Black, & Ferzandi,
2006, and cross-cultural motivation of expatriates, Chen, Kirkman,
Kim, Farh, & Tangirala, 2010) and less on understanding how other
resources within the expatriate social network impact expatriate
adjustment (Harrison et al., 2004).
A growing body of literature has identified relatively dissimilar
or distant others, such as host country nationals (HCNs), as a
potentially valuable resource for expatriates trying to learn the
ropes of their new roles, the host organization, and the host
country (Adelman, 1988; Toh & DeNisi, 2007; Vance, Vaiman, &
Anderson, 2009). Among earlier studies on expatriate adjustment,
Black and his colleagues argued that building relations with HCNs
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 519 253 3000x3144; fax: +1 519 973 7073.
E-mail addresses: amahajan@uwindsor.ca (A. Mahajan),
soomin.toh@utoronto.ca (S.M. Toh).
1
Tel.: +1 905 569 4971.
and maintaining contact with HCNs is a significant predictor of
expatriate adjustment (Black, 1990, 1988; Black, Mendenhall, &
Oddou, 1991; Caligiuri, 2000a; Gregersen & Black, 1992).
Knowledge gained from HCNs may help expatriates manage the
experience of culture shock, deal with the demands of their
assignments, and socially integrate with the host society
(Takeuchi, 2010; Toh, DeNisi, & Leonardelli, 2012; Vance et al.,
2009; Varma, Budhwar, & Pichler, 2009). This body of literature
suggests that the advice HCN coworkers could give to expatriates –
in the form of work-related information and feedback – has the
potential to aid expatriate adjustment. Consequently, there has
been increasing interest in elucidating the factors that affect HCNs’
willingness to provide expatriates with knowledge and support
(e.g., Leonardelli & Toh, 2011).
Nevertheless, the willingness of HCNs to give advice should be
effective only to the extent expatriates are willing to seek out the
advice of HCNs and, subsequently, apply the advice sought.
Notably, some research finds that imposed support, such as advice,
tends to elicit negative reactions and rejection (Deelstra et al.,
2003). Advice that is sought is more likely to be accepted and
applied by the seeker than advice that is imposed upon. Even if
HCNs are willing to give advice, expatriates may not necessarily
view this as valuable or take heed, particularly when the advice
was imposed upon them rather than sought. Thus, the purpose of
the present study is to understand when expatriates are willing to
seek advice from HCN coworkers and whether such advice-seeking
facilitates expatriate adjustment. In this study, we examined two
key attributes about HCN coworkers that expatriates use to
determine whether or not to seek advice from HCN coworkers –
namely credibility and liking. We further examined how the advice

1090-9516/$ – see front matter ß 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2013.10.003
 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487
sought from the HCN coworkers differentially affects the dimen-
sions of expatriate adjustment.
This study contributes to the expatriate management literature
in at least four important ways. First, this study seeks to
understand how expatriate perceptions of the context, particularly
assessments of their HCN coworkers, affect expatriates’ decision to
seek advice from HCNs. Advice-seeking, though potentially
beneficial, also has perceived costs to individuals (Lee, 1997). As
such, individuals are more likely to seek advice from someone
when the perceived benefits outweigh the costs (Nadler, 1991).
Accordingly, the perceptions expatriates form about their HCN
coworkers should determine whether HCN coworkers would be
sought after for advice. This study aims to identify these
perceptions and explain the mechanism by which such percep-
tions affect expatriate adjustment.
Second, this study takes the view that expatriates, like other
organizational newcomers, can be proactive in their adjustment by
seeking advice from HCNs (Feldman & Thomas, 1992). This proactive
role in the expatriate adjustment process has been relatively
overlooked in the literature. To date, much of the expatriate
management literature has focused on human resource practices
that support the expatriate and the expatriate characteristics that
best predict success. Drawing on proactive socialization literature,
this study identifies advice-seeking as a potentially useful strategy
for expatriates and contends that seeking advice for dealing with
specific problems is more useful for expatriate adjustment than
receiving copious amounts of unsolicited advice. Compared to
unsolicited advice, advice that is sought is more likely to be accepted
and in turn be more beneficial for adjustment.
Third, understanding how expatriates interact with HCNs,
particularly to gain advice from them, continues to be an area that
is under-researched (Takeuchi, 2010). With a few exceptions (e.g.,
Olsen & Martins, 2009), research examining both the factors that
explain the likelihood of expatriates seeking advice from HCNs and
the association of this behavior with expatriate adjustment is
relatively scarce. Existing research has also tended to focus on
more immutable characteristics, such as expatriate demographics
(Olsen & Martins, 2009) and cultural similarity (Farh, Bartol,
Shapiro, & Shin, 2010). The more proximal predictors of advice-
seeking (in particular, the perceptions expatriates hold of their
HCN colleagues) may yield additional insight into the decision of
expatriates to seek advice and from whom to seek this advice in
order to improve their chances of adjustment (Farh et al., 2010).
Furthermore, traversing cultural boundaries to seek out advice
from HCNs can be more complex and difficult when compared to
seeking out advice from similar others (Toh et al., 2012). Though
expatriates have a potentially wider network of advice sources
beyond HCN coworkers, and while these HCN coworkers may not
always be the most important source at all times (Farh et al., 2010),
this study contributes to the literature by examining an under-
researched yet important social interaction – the one between
expatriates and their HCN coworkers.
Finally, this study examines the experience of expatriates
working in the U.S. –a country not typically viewed as a host
country despite its significance as one, and not studied as such. The
literature has tended to view other countries outside of the U.S. as
overseas, when in fact the U.S. is a major recipient of expatriates
(Brookfield, 2013). Reports published by the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development show the U.S. to be the
largest recipient of inbound foreign direct investment of any
economy in the world (UNCTAD, 2012) – an important destination
for large number of businesses from other parts of the world.
However, in the past five years, the U.S. has been ranked by
expatriates as among the top five most difficult assignment
countries, and has been in the top four for countries with the
highest number of expatriate failure rates (Brookfield, 2013, 2012,
477
2011, 2010, 2009). Thus, understanding how expatriates adjust to
assignments in the U.S. is imperative.
In this study, we look at Indian expatriates working in the U.S.
and investigate how their advice-seeking from HCNs (i.e.,
American coworkers) facilitates their adjustment in the U.S.
Indian expatriates are among the largest expatriate groups in the
U.S. and is due primarily to the increasing role of Indian
companies in the U.S., especially in the information technology
(IT) and IT-enabled services sector (FICCI, 2010). The U.S. Bureau
of Consular Affairs (Nonimmigrant visas, 2012) indicates that
Indian nationals are the largest recipients of nonimmigrant visas
for specialty occupations in fields requiring highly specialized
knowledge (H-1B visas), as well as intra-company transferees (L
visas). Thus, this study examines the experience of the largest
pool of expatriates in the U.S. – Indian expatriates. Nevertheless,
we acknowledge that findings from this study may be unique to
this group of expatriates and more research on other groups is
needed for greater generalizability. The following section
presents this study’s research model and the theoretical rationale
for each hypothesis.
1. Theory and hypotheses
Existing research on socialization argues that socialization is a
two-step process comprising knowledge acquisition followed by
adjustment (Ashforth, Sluss, & Saks, 2007; Saks, Gruman, &
Cooper-Thomas, 2011). Consistent with this research, the current
study hypothesizes that advice-seeking – the act of gaining
knowledge in the form of work-related information and feedback
from others – from HCN coworkers facilitates expatriate adjust-
ment in terms of work (i.e., comfort with one’s job) and interaction
adjustment (i.e., comfort in interacting with HCNs), and in turn
general adjustment (i.e., comfort with the cultural and general
environment of the host country). This is so for two reasons. First,
the advice sought can help reduce informational uncertainties
expatriates often face in an unfamiliar host environment (Farh et
al., 2010). Research suggests that newcomers acquire more
knowledge through being proactive, as newcomers more precise-
ly seek out the information they need at the pace they are
comfortable with (Ashforth et al., 2007; Morrison, 1995). Second,
in addition to actively engaging their HCN coworkers in
generating advice needed to perform tasks and gain feedback,
expatriates are also forming social relationships with those
coworkers and becoming more socially integrated into the host
context. As such, advice-seeking potentially benefits expatriates
by facilitating their work, and interaction adjustment. In turn,
positive experiences at work are likely to spillover to increase the
overall comfort of living in the host country (i.e., general
adjustment). In sum, the research model for this study hypothe-
sizes that credibility and likability of HCN coworkers are
associated with greater advice-seeking by expatriates, which, in
turn, is directly associated with expatriate work and interaction
adjustment, and indirectly with expatriate general adjustment.
Further, expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers will
mediate the relationship between its antecedents (i.e., Perceived
credibility and likability of HCN coworkers) and expatriate work
and interaction adjustment (see Fig. 1).
1.1. Antecedents of expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers
An individual’s decision to seek advice from a source is made on
the advice-seeker’s judgment about the source. A common thread
across independent streams of literature in organizational theory,
psychology, and sociology suggests that individuals form inter-
personal judgments about others on two universal dimensions.
The first dimension is primarily cognitive and reflects how
478 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487
Perceived
Credibility
of HCN .36***
Coworkers
Expatriate
Advice-
seeking from
.21*
Perceived HCN
Likability of Coworkers
HCN
Coworkers
Fig. 1. Hypothesized Structural Model with Path Estimates. Standardized estimates are shown. Control variables have been omitted for ease of presentation. ***p < .001,
**p < .01, *p < .05. Full information maximum likelihood chi-square with 502 degrees of freedom is 1321.94 (p < .05). Root mean square error of approximation is .07.
N = 350.
individuals evaluate others in terms of their knowledge, compe-
tence, and skill mastery. The second dimension is primarily
affective and reflects how individuals evaluate others in terms of
their likability, warmth, and friendliness (Casciaro & Lobo, 2008).
Individuals use their judgments on these two dimensions to decide
whom to approach or avoid in their interpersonal interactions
(Casciaro & Lobo, 2008, 2005). Extending these findings to the
expatriate-HCN relationship, this study surmises that expatriates
are more likely to seek advice from HCN colleagues perceived as
credible and likable.
1.1.1. Perceived credibility of HCN coworkers
Source credibility is an important determinant of an indivi-
dual’s advice-seeking behavior. Source credibility is defined as the
perceived ability of sources to consistently demonstrate desirable
traits (e.g., intelligence, skill mastery), enabling them to build
legitimacy and earn a reputation for themselves (Casciaro & Lobo,
2008; Hofmann, Lei, & Grant, 2009). Seeking sources that are
competent is more likely to result in problem-solving (Elsbach &
Elofson, 2000), uncertainty reduction, and facilitate the support
seeker’s sense-making process (Hofmann et al., 2009). Further-
more, sources who feel they are credible also tend to be more
willing to share information with others (Wang & Noe, 2010), thus
decreasing the probability that advice-seeker requests for infor-
mation are rejected.
Accordingly, expatriates should be more likely to seek advice
from those HCN coworkers who are perceived to be credible. HCN
credibility is especially relevant within the expatriate context for
two reasons. First, findings from a global relocation trends survey
indicate that the decision of companies to send expatriates from
the parent to the host country is predominantly based on the belief
that expatriates have specific job skills that make them technically
and/or managerially more competent than their HCN colleagues
(Brookfield, 2013, 2012). Thus, status hierarchies based on
perceived competence (Bunderson, 2003; Ridgeway, 1984) in-
crease the psychological costs of seeking support and can prevent
expatriates from seeking advice from HCN coworkers. However,
credibility of HCN coworkers (ascertained through, for instance,
prior interactions with them or through the company’s internal
documents highlighting HCN coworkers’ achievements) can affirm
the competence of HCNs, reduce status differentials between
expatriates and HCN coworkers, and increase the likelihood that
expatriates will seek advice from HCN coworkers. Second, HCN
credibility cues expatriates about the trustworthiness of HCNs,
especially in establishing cognitive-based trust (i.e., good reasons
to believe in another’s actions because the other person is
perceived as competent; McAllister, 1995). In such situations,
Expatriate
Work
.58***
Adjustment
.18*
Expatriate
General
Adjustment
.23** .27***
Expatriate
Interaction
Adjustment
expatriates are likely to hold positive expectations about HCN
coworkers’ intentions and the probability that requests for advice
will be acceded; thereby increasing the likelihood that advice will
be sought from them.
Hypothesis 1. Perceived credibility of HCN coworkers will be
positively related to expatriates’ advice-seeking from them.
1.1.2. Perceived likability of HCN coworkers
Another determinant of expatriate advice-seeking from HCN
coworkers is likability – the extent to which expatriates like
working with their HCN coworkers. Individual likability could
result from an individual’s inherent attributes (e.g., warmth,
generosity, cheerfulness) or from context-relevant attributes (e.g.,
working together on a project; Casciaro & Lobo, 2005). Further-
more, cues such as perceived similarity with others can also
increase interpersonal liking (Byrne, 1961) and the willingness to
seek support from them (Kammeyer-Mueller, Livingston, & Liao,
2011). Within the expatriate context, Thomas and Ravlin (1995)
found that culturally adaptive behavior of expatriates was
positively related to perceived similarity among HCNs, which, in
turn, was positively related to HCNs’ intentions to associate with
and trust expatriates. Research also indicates that perceived value
dissimilarity and HCN ethnocentrism are likely to create social
schism between HCNs and expatriates, thereby reducing the
likelihood of mutual support (Florkowski & Fogel, 1999; Toh &
DeNisi, 2007, 2003).
Psychological research on social judgment shows that while
people judge interpersonal affective attributes such as likability
and warmth based on fleeting glimpses of behavior, such
judgments tend to be reliable and good predictors of future
behavior (Ambady, Bernieri, & Richeson, 2000; Ambady, Hallahan,
& Rosenthal, 1995; Ambady & Rosenthal, 1993). In an organiza-
tional context, liking is an important component of a high quality
dyadic relationship (Graen & Scandura, 1987). For example, high
quality leader-member exchange relationships are characterized
by mutual loyalty, respect, support, and liking for each other
(Graen & Scandura, 1987). Extending this framework to support
seeking among coworkers, Anderson and Williams (1996) found
that a high quality relationship among coworkers was a good
predictor of seeking support. Indeed, some research indicates that
likability trumps competence in individual decisions to approach
others for work-related matters (Casciaro & Lobo, 2008, 2005).
Likability also could indicate a greater likelihood of obtaining a
positive response to requests as well as greater accessibility
(Hofmann et al., 2009). Given the importance of likability in
 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487
interpersonal relationships, this study surmises that likability will
play an important role in the expatriate-HCN relationship –
expatriates are more likely to approach HCN coworkers for advice
if HCN coworkers are liked.
Hypothesis 2. Perceived likability of HCN coworkers will be posi-
tively related to expatriates’ advice-seeking from them.
1.2. Advice-seeking facilitates expatriate work and interaction
adjustment
The advice that is sought from HCN coworkers may comprise of
both work-related information and feedback. Information that
assists expatriates in functioning and problem-solving in the host
country (Farh et al., 2010) can be instrumental in assisting
expatriates to adjust to the new host company. Feedback on work
performance and appropriateness of social behavior provides
information on how well the expatriate is performing role behavior
and in interacting with colleagues and business partners of the
host culture. Advice-seeking by expatriates should then be most
relevant for expatriate adjustment in terms of work and interaction
adjustment.
Knowledge about one’s task and performance can be acquired
through a variety of ways. For instance, newcomers can gain
knowledge through primary or secondary sources of information
(Morrison, 1993a). An individual’s decision to seek help from a
given source reflects the tension between perceived costs and
benefits in seeking help (Bamberger, 2009; Flynn & Lake, 2008;
Hofmann et al., 2009; Mueller & Kamdar, 2011; Nadler, Ellis, & Bar,
2003). Newcomers initially prefer seeking out secondary sources of
information before approaching other individuals in the organiza-
tion and are more likely to approach those who are perceived as
similar to them (Kammeyer-Mueller et al., 2011; Morrison, 1993a,
1993b). Similarly, expatriates may be more comfortable initially
seeking information from similar others, such as expatriate peers
(Farh et al., 2010). However, it can be useful to also seek
information from dissimilar others because they are more likely to
possess unique information not known to similar others (Phillips,
Northcraft, & Neale, 2006). Dissimilar others may also help
expatriates overcome the tendency to seek preference-consistent
information and gain advice that can be truly useful in making
decisions and solving problems (Lu, Yuan, & McCleod, 2012). Thus,
although expatriates may be more comfortable in approaching
other expatriates, the knowledge gained from HCNs may not
necessarily be obtainable from expatriate peers.
Some research suggests that building relations with HCNs and
maintaining contact with them aids expatriate adjustment (e.g.,
Black et al., 1991; Caligiuri, 2000a; Osland, 1995), helps
expatriates gain critical host country specific knowledge (Toh &
DeNisi, 2005; Vance et al., 2009), and improves expatriate
effectiveness (Liu & Shaffer, 2005). HCN coworkers can advise
expatriates to make sense of the new environment and understand
acceptable or unacceptable workplace behaviors (Toh & DeNisi,
2005). HCN coworkers can assist expatriates in interpreting cultural
situations, communicating with host country business associates,
gaining access to informational and human resources, and facilitat-
ing the changes that expatriates are sometimes sent to effect (Vance
et al., 2009). Cross-cultural situations and the demands of new and
challenging assignments can be anxiety-provoking for expatriates,
and those with few coping resources may adopt dysfunctional
coping strategies (e.g., avoiding contact with HCNs, fantasizing
about going back to the home country, taking refuge in the
expatriate enclave; Selmer, 1999; Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005). Seeking
advice from HCN coworkers (e.g., proactively seeking information on
acceptable workplace behaviors and seeking feedback on their own
workplace behavior), on the other hand, is a proactive and functional
479
coping strategy that helps in obtaining information required to
function effectively in the host country.
Further, advice-seeking from HCN coworkers can facilitate the
acquisition of social knowledge that is largely tacit and systemic
in nature (Bhagat, Kedia, Harveston, & Triandis, 2002), and can
also cue HCNs that expatriates value them as an important
resource. This is likely to alleviate social hindrance beliefs of
HCNs and reduce the anxiety and stress during interpersonal
encounters between expatriates and HCNs. Some research also
indicates that seeking advice from HCN mentors was positively
related to increased perceptions of teamwork between expatri-
ates and HCNs (Carraher, Sullivan, & Crocitto, 2008). With access
to such advice, expatriates can develop greater comfort in
performing their tasks, as well as in social and work interactions
with HCNs.
Proactive advice-seeking by expatriates better ensures they
will gain the information they require and that the acquisition of
this information is at a pace set by the expatriate. This has been
suggested to be more useful than having information imposed
upon the recipient, receiving information when the recipient is
not ready for it, and thus avoiding the resentment that
sometimes accompanies the receipt of unwelcomed advice
(Deelstra et al., 2003). Furthermore, the mere awareness that
support is available and can be accessed when needed is by itself
adaptive and improves adjustment (Bolger, Zuckerman, &
Kessler, 2000). On the other hand, not seeking advice from
HCN coworkers when it is needed could hinder expatriate
adjustment.
Hypothesis 3. Expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers will
be positively related to expatriate (a) work, and (b) interaction
adjustment.
1.3. Spillover effects of expatriate work and interaction adjustment on
expatriate general adjustment
Thus far, we have considered advice-seeking as most relevant
for work and interaction adjustment. However, it is likely that
positive experiences at work will spill over to increase expatriate
general adjustment. Research indicates that boundaries between
work and home are more permeable in international assignments,
and thus individual mood, attitude and behavior in one domain are
carried over to another domain and concomitantly affect outcomes
associated with that domain (Caligiuri & Lazarova, 2002; Caligiuri,
Hyland, Joshi, & Bross, 1998; Lazarova, Westman, & Shaffer, 2010).
Expatriates experiencing greater work adjustment are more likely
to be generally satisfied with the host environment; whereas
negative experiences (e.g., role ambiguity) have spilled over to
negatively affect general adjustment of expatriates (Takeuchi, Yun,
& Tesluk, 2002). In a similar vein, if expatriates cultivate good
relationships with their HCN colleagues, it is likely that positive
experiences at work will spill over to increase expatriate general
adjustment. In addition, expatriates comfortable in interacting
with their HCN colleagues are likely to be more aware of social
activities happening in the local community and other events in
which they and their families can get involved; thus, facilitating
general adjustment of expatriates.
Hypothesis 4. Expatriate (a) work, and (b) interaction adjustment
will be positively related to expatriate general adjustment.
1.4. Mediating role of expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers
In addition to studying the direct relationship between expatri-
ate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers and expatriate adjustment,
this study argues that expatriate advice-seeking from HCN
480 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487
coworkers will mediate the relationship between the antecedents of
expatriate advice-seeking (i.e., perceived credibility and likability of
HCN coworkers) and expatriate work and interaction adjustment.
Two reasons support this argument. First, the antecedents of
expatriate advice-seeking are relatively distal factors and therefore
less likely to be directly related to expatriate adjustment (which
captures the extent to which expatriates have adapted to host
country settings). While it is possible that the perceptions of HCN
credibility and likability can have some bearing on how adjusted the
expatriate feels, it is more likely that these perceptions affect
adjustment to the degree that expatriates obtain advice from these
sources – a more proximal factor. Second, several studies have found
employee help-seeking to be directly related to several employee
outcomes, such as employee socialization and adjustment (Morri-
son, 1993a, 1993b), employee performance (Bamberger, 2009;
Nadler et al., 2003), and employee creativity (Mueller & Kamdar,
2011). As noted earlier, information acquisition mediates adjust-
ment in the newcomer socialization experience (Ashforth et al.,
2007). Extending these findings to expatriate advice-seeking, it is
likely that advice sought from HCN coworkers would mediate the
effects of perceived credibility and likability of HCN coworkers on
expatriate work and interaction adjustment.
Hypothesis 5. Expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers will
mediate the relationship between the perceived credibility of HCN
coworkers and expatriate (a) work, and (b) interaction adjustment.
Hypothesis 6. Expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers
will mediate the relationship between the perceived likability of
HCN coworkers and expatriate (a) work, and (b) interaction
adjustment.
2. Methods
2.1. Sample and procedures
The sample for the present study was drawn from Indian
expatriates working in the U.S. subsidiary of an Indian IT company
which provides consulting services in IT and routinely sends Indian
expatriates to the U.S. These expatriates work as consultants with
U.S. companies to implement or change their IT-related services or
infrastructure, such as their management information system or
billing system. An online survey was the method for collecting
information. Five hundred and sixteen Indian expatriates responded
to the online survey.2 In answering questions pertaining to the
perceived credibility and likability of HCN coworkers, expatriates
were instructed to refer specifically to their HCN colleague with
whom they work the most (Leonardelli & Toh, 2011).
A total of 516 expatriates responded to the survey. One hundred
and sixty-six of the respondents only completed Item 1 on the
survey, requiring them to indicate their willingness (yes or no) to
participate in this study. Those cases were thus deleted, reducing
the sample size to 350. The remaining data was then examined to
assess the percentage of missing values on item responses. The
percentage of missing values ranged from 1.40% to 21.40% on
different items on the survey. Further, the pattern of the missing
data was examined to assess its randomness. Little’s (1988) test
was non-significant (x2 = 1108.75, df = 1191, ns), indicating that
the data were missing completely at random (MCAR). As the data
2
In order to recruit the sample used in the present study, a link to an online
survey was sent to the HR Director of the U.S. subsidiary who then forwarded it to
the Indian expatriates located in the U.S. Direct access to the employee directory by
the researchers was not permitted due to the confidentiality concerns raised by the
company. This made it difficult to ascertain the total number of expatriates who
received the request for participation. Therefore, the response rate on the survey
cannot be determined.
were MCAR, the choice of using one among many estimation
methods, as suggested by Enders (2006), was possible. Because
listwise deletion has been considered an inefficient method for
parameter estimation, even when the MCAR assumption holds
(Schafer & Graham, 2002), and would have further reduced the
sample size to 236, the full information maximum likelihood
(FIML; Finkbeiner, 1979) method for hypotheses testing was
employed. FIML uses all available data (without any imputation for
missing values) for parameter estimation and has been found to
produce unbiased parameter estimates under MCAR and missing
at random (MAR) patterns of missing data (Newman, 2003; Schafer
& Graham, 2002).
2.2. Sample demographics
Expatriates were mostly male (86%) with an average age of 30
years. On average, expatriates had worked for 3 years in the U.S.
Sixty-six percent of expatriates held positions at the middle level,
and 22% were at the senior level of the organization. Fifty-eight
percent were married. A highly educated sample, all the
participants had graduate degrees. Forty-five percent reported
having undergone some form of training to better adjust in the U.S.
This training was provided by their current organization either
before or immediately after their arrival in the U.S.
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Perceived credibility of HCN coworkers
The credibility of HCN coworkers was measured with a 5-item
scale comprising of 3 items from Fisher, Ilgen, and Hoyer (1979)
and 2 items from McCroskey (1966). Expatriates indicated on a 7-
point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree) their
agreement or disagreement with statements such as, ‘‘This person
really knows a lot about my line of work’’ or ‘‘This person really
knows what he is talking about.’’ An estimate of internal reliability
(Cronbach’s alpha) for this scale was .88.
2.3.2. Perceived likability of HCN coworkers
The perceived likability of HCN coworkers was measured with a
six-item scale (Turban, Jones, & Rozelle, 1990). Expatriates
indicated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree;
7 = strongly agree) their agreement or disagreement with state-
ments such as, ‘‘I enjoy working with this person,’’ ‘‘I am happy
with our working relationship,’’ or ‘‘I would like to work with this
person again.’’ An estimate of internal reliability (Cronbach’s
alpha) for this scale was .81.
2.3.3. Expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers
There are no extant scales that measure specifically the advice
that expatriates seek from HCN coworkers. It was thus necessary to
develop a measure for this study. Development of this measure
proceeded in several steps. First, interviews were conducted with
15 Indian expatriates working in the U.S. (different from those
included in the survey) to understand the nature of expatriate
advice-seeking from HCN coworkers. All the interview participants
were male with an average age of 29 years, ranging 26–33 years of
age; and worked in the U.S. for an average of 3 years, ranging 6
months to 6 years. Participants were asked to narrate incidents in
the recent past when they had approached their HCN coworkers for
seeking work-related help. Based on these interviews, an initial
pool of 15 items was developed.
Then, using data from 97 foreign students at 2 universities
located in the southwest U.S., an exploratory factor analysis was
conducted on the initial scale. Care was taken to ensure that only
foreign students working on their graduate degrees and who had
worked with HCN coworkers in the past were sampled. This was
 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487 481

Table 1
Means, standard deviations, correlations and coefficient alphas.

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 Expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers 4.50 1.11 (.76)

2 Expatriate general adjustment 5.50 .94 .09y (.82)
3 Expatriate interaction adjustment 4.65 1.60 .17** .35** (.93)
4 Expatriate work adjustment 5.75 1.09 .11* .62** .13* (.89)
5 Perceived credibility of HCN coworkers 5.03 1.15 .49** .10y .13* .10y (.88)
6 Perceive likability of HCN coworkers 5.63 .83 .40** .13* .15** .15** .66** (.81)
7 Host language fluency 6.56 .61 .13* .23** .22** .36** .03 .17**
8 Time in the host country 2.88 2.61 .20** .28** .10y .15** .01 .09y .15**
9 Pre-departure traininga 1.55 .50 .05 .15** .16** .11* .14** .11* .21** .17**

Entries in parentheses are coefficient alphas.

N = 350
a
1 = yes, 2 = no.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
y
p < .10.

important to ensure that the foreign students were a close 3. Results

representation of expatriates working in the real world. As the data
came from two different universities, differences in age and gender
were compared along with the factor scores between the two
groups before the data was pooled. A one-way ANOVA did not
reveal any significant differences across the groups. Therefore, data
was pooled to perform an exploratory factor analysis. An
exploratory factor analysis with principal axis factoring using
oblimin rotation was performed. Six items loading on a single
factor with strong factor loadings (ranging from .54 to .86) were
extracted. These 6 items were used for hypothesis testing on the
final sample.
Expatriates indicated on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) their agreement or disagreement
with the statements relating to their advice-seeking (e.g., ‘‘I seek
this person’s opinion on certain aspects of my job’’ and ‘‘I ask for
advice from this person to better understand acceptable beha-
viours at my workplace’’) from HCN coworkers. The Cronbach’s
alpha for this measure was .76.
2.3.4. Expatriate adjustment
Expatriate adjustment was measured with a 14-item scale
comprising of the three key dimensions of expatriate adjustment
(Black & Stephens, 1989). Expatriates were asked to rate their
adjustment in the U.S. on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = very
unadjusted to 7 = very adjusted). Seven items measured expatriate
general adjustment in the U.S. (e.g., ‘‘housing conditions’’, ‘‘food’’).
Interaction adjustment was measured by four items (e.g.,
‘‘socializing with host nationals,’’ ‘‘interacting with host nationals
on a day-to-day basis’’). Work adjustment was measured by three
items (e.g., ‘‘specific job responsibilities’’, ‘‘supervisory responsi-
bilities’’). Cronbach’s alphas for general, interaction, and work
adjustment were .82, .93, and .89, respectively.
2.3.5. Control variables
Three variables were included in the analysis to control their
influence on expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers, as
well as on expatriate adjustment. Time spent in the host country
was measured by asking expatriates to indicate the time they
have spent in the U.S. Host language fluency was measured by
asking expatriates to indicate on a 7-point Likert scale
(1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree), their comfort level
in speaking English. Pre-departure training was measured by
asking expatriates to indicate their participation (1 = Yes
and 2 = No) in a training/orientation program provided by
their company either before or immediately after starting their
overseas jobs.
Table 1 reports the means, standard deviations, correlations,
and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for all the variables in this study.
Prior to testing the hypothesized model, the measurement model
was assessed following Andersen and Gerbing’s (1988) two-step
approach. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses were
conducted using LISREL 8.80 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2004).
3.1. Measurement evaluation
To assess the adequacy of all measures in the model and to
warrant their use for further analyses, a confirmatory factor
analysis was run, using LISREL 8.80 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2004). For
single-indicator variables (i.e., control variables), correction for
measurement error was performed according to established
procedures in the SEM literature (e.g., Hayduk, 1987; Netemeyer,
Johnston, & Burton, 1990). The factor loadings for each of the
single-indicator variables were set to the value of the square root of
the indicator reliability. Error variances for these indicators were
set to a value of 1 minus the reliability of the indicator multiplied
by the variance of the indicator. A conservative reliability of .70
was assumed for all single-indicator variables.
The model fit the data well (x2FIML = 1260.19, df = 494, p < .05)
as assessed by a root-mean-squared error of approximation
(RMSEA) of .06. Because invoking the FIML method in LISREL
8.80 does not compute other fit indices, 90% confidence intervals
(CI) of RMSEA were estimated as a further assessment of model fit.
According to MacCallum, Browne, and Sugawara (1996), CI of fit
indices provides information about the precision of the estimate
and helps in drawing appropriate conclusions about model quality.
MacCallum et al. (1996) suggest that if upper-bound CI value of
RMSEA is less than an arbitrary value of RMSEA (i.e., conventionally
accepted values such as .05, .08, or .10) the model is indicative of
close fit. In the present research, the measurement model yielded
90% CI of RMSEA with bounds of .06 and .07. The upper bound value
of this CI, .07, was less than .08 (a value of RMSEA = .08 or less
suggests ‘‘a reasonable error of approximation’’; Browne & Cudeck,
1993: 144) suggesting a good-fitting measurement model. All
indicators loaded significantly on their respective factors with
standardized loadings exceeding .34 (see Table 2).
In order to assess that expatriate advice-seeking from HCN
coworkers was empirically distinct from other variables included
in this study, discriminant validity was assessed following
procedures described in Netemeyer et al. (1990). The factor
correlation between expatriate advice-seeking from HCN co-
workers and other latent variables included in this study was
482 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487
Table 2
Results of confirmatory factor analyses.a
Variables
Expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers
I seek this person’s opinion on certain aspects of my job
I request help from this person when I get behind in
performing my job
I ask this person for information necessary to complete my job
When in doubt about performing my job, I ask for
advice from this person
I ask for advice from this person to better understand
acceptable behaviours at my workplace
I seek advice from this person regarding the
appropriateness of my social behaviour at work
Perceived credibility of HCN coworkers
This person really knows a lot about my line of work
I consider this person to be a credible source of
information in my subject area
This person really knows what he is talking about
I believe that this person is quite intelligent.
This person has substantial experience in my subject area
Perceived likability of HCN coworkers
I enjoy working with this person
I would like to meet this person socially
I am happy with our working relationship
I hope never to meet this person againb
I like this person as a human being
I would like to work with this person again
Expatriate general adjustment
Living conditions in general
Housing conditions
Food
Shopping
Cost of living
Entertainment/recreation facilities and opportunities
Health care facilities
Expatriate interaction adjustment
Socializing with locals
Interacting with locals on a day-to-day basis
Interacting with locals outside work
Speaking with locals
Expatriate work adjustment
Specific job responsibilities
Performance standards and expectations
Supervisory responsibilities
a
Lambdas are reported from a completely standardized solution. Full informa-
tion maximum likelihood chi-square with 494 degrees of freedom is 1260.19
(p < .05). Root mean square error of approximation is .06.
b
Item was reverse scored.
constrained to 1, the model was refitted, and a chi-square
difference test was performed.
Constraining the factor correlation to 1 between expatriate
advice-seeking from HCN coworkers and perceived credibility of
HCN coworkers (x2FIML = 1547.10, df = 495, RMSEA = .08;
Dx2FIML = 286.91, df = 1, p < .001), perceived likability of HCN
coworkers (x2FIML = 1593.13, df = 495, RMSEA = .08; Dx2FIML =
332.94, df = 1, p < .001), expatriate general adjustment (x2FIML =
1952.78, df = 495, RMSEA = .09; Dx2FIML = 692.59, df = 1, p < .001),
expatriate interaction adjustment (x2FIML = 1680.06, df = 495,
RMSEA = .08; Dx2FIML = 419.87, df = 1, p < .001), expatriate work
adjustment (x2FIML = 1795.94, df = 495, RMSEA = .09; Dx2FIML =
535.75, df = 1, p < .001) significantly worsened the fit of the model,
as indicated by a significant chi-square difference test. This provides
some evidence regarding the discriminant validity of expatriate
advice-seeking from HCN coworkers by indicating that the
hypothesized model with expatriate advice-seeking from HCN
coworkers as a distinct construct is a better-fitting model.
Because data for this study was collected from one source (i.e.,
expatriates) using one method (i.e., online survey), it was important
to ascertain the extent to which common method bias contributed to
significant correlations among study variables. In order to ascertain
Lambdas the impact of common method bias, the marker variable technique
as implemented in LISREL was used. In the marker variable
.59 technique, a method factor (i.e., a marker variable) theoretically
.79 unrelated to other variables is modeled along with other variables in
a study. Any correlation between this marker variable and other
.63
variables can be attributed to the presence of common method bias.
.74
This technique is among the recent and recommended techniques to
.39 assess common method bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsak-
off, 2003; Williams, Hartman, & Cavazotte, 2010).
.34
An assessment of common method bias is made by examining
the significance of parameter estimates both with and without the
marker variable in the model. In the present study, level in the
.68
organization (1 = junior, 2 = middle, and 3 = senior) was included as
.79
a method factor. The expatriates responded to the statement,
.82 ‘‘What is your position at work?’’ and indicated their response as
.83 ‘‘junior’’, ‘‘middle’’, or ‘‘senior’’. Each response was subsequently
.77 coded as ‘‘1 = junior’’, ‘‘2 = middle’’, and ‘‘3 = senior’’ and included
as a method factor to assess common method bias. The expatriates
.86 reported their level in the organization as 12% junior, 66% middle,
.52 and 22% senior (mean = 2.11, SD = .58). Using level in the
.76
.43
organization as a marker variable, the items were allowed to load
.67 on their theoretical constructs as well as on the marker variable.
.84 This allowed for the estimation of measurement error and
indicated the extent to which common method could bias the
.84 results. A chi-square difference test between this model and the
.83 one without the marker variable was non-significant
.52 (Dx2FIML = 11.88, df = 9, ns), indicating that common method bias
.74
was less likely to impact the results of this study.
.51
.62
.49 3.2. Model testing
.81 Before testing the hypothesized model, the best-fitting model
.93 among a set of nested models (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988) was
.93 sought. Table 3 reports the results from the nested model
.88
comparisons. Testing began with the hypothesized model
presented in Fig. 1. In addition to the parameter estimates, a
.86 structural model, which included 9 latent variables with 34
.89
indicators, was estimated. Paths from all control variables to all
.85
endogenous variables (i.e., expatriate advice-seeking, expatriate
work-, interaction-, and general adjustment) were estimated in
order to control for their effects on the endogenous variables. This
model (x2FIML = 1321.94, df = 502, p < .05) demonstrated a good
fit, with a RMSEA of .07, and 90% CI of RMSEA with bounds of
.06 and .07.3 This model explained 32% variance in expatriate
advice-seeking, 11% variance in expatriate interaction adjust-
ment, 17% in expatriate work adjustment, and 49% in expatriate
general adjustment.
In order to recognize the possibility that seeking out advice
from HCNs may affect expatriate general adjustment, we added a
direct path in the second model from expatriate advice-seeking
from HCN coworkers to expatriate general adjustment. This model
(x2FIML = 1320.80, df = 501, p < .05) achieved a good fit, with
RMSEA of .07, and 90% CI of RMSEA with bounds of .06 and .07.
3
To strengthen the validity of the findings, a parallel investigation was
performed by imputing the missing values and assessing the fit of the hypothesized
model. Following procedures described in Schafer and Graham (2002) for multiple
imputations, 5 imputed datasets were created in LISREL 8.80. In LISREL imputations
are performed using an iterative Markov chain Monte Carlo method (Du Toit, 2002).
After performing 5 imputations, the results were averaged across imputations to
produce a complete dataset without any missing values. The covariance matrix
from this complete dataset was used to fit the model. The measurement model
(x2 = 1523.84, df = 494, p < .05; RMSEA = .07; CFI = .92) and the structural model
(x2 = 1605.54, df = 502, p < .05; RMSEA = .08; CFI = .91) fit the data well. All
significant path coefficients as shown in Fig. 1 were also significant, using the
multiple imputation method.
 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487 483

Table 3
Results of structural nested model comparisons.a

Model x2FIML df RMSEA Dx2FIML (df)

*
Hypothesized model 1321.94 502 .07
Hypothesized model plus the expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworker ! 1320.80* 501 .07 1.14 (1)
expatriate general adjustment direct effect
*
Hypothesized model plus two direct effects relating perceived credibility and 1319.97 500 .07 1.97 (2)
likability of HCN coworkers to expatriate interaction adjustment
Hypothesized model less the expatriate work adjustment ! expatriate general 1399.23* 503 .07 77.29 (1)***
adjustment direct effect
a
x2FIML is the full information maximum likelihood chi-square; RMSEA is the root mean square error of approximation.
*
p < .05.
***
p < .001.

However, comparison of this model with the hypothesized model
yielded a non-significant chi-square difference (Dx2FIML = 1.14,
df = 1, ns), indicating support for the hypothesized model.
The third model examined added two direct paths relating
perceived credibility and likability of HCN coworkers to expatriate
interaction adjustment. Because interaction adjustment measures
the extent to which expatriates feel comfortable in interacting
with HCNs, allowing these direct paths was recognition of the
possibility that expatriate perceptions regarding their relationship
with HCN coworkers could also directly affect their interaction
adjustment. This model (x2FIML = 1319.97, df = 500, p < .05)
achieved a good fit, with RMSEA of .07, and 90% CI of RMSEA
with bounds of .06 and .07. However, comparison of this model
with the hypothesized model yielded a non-significant chi-square
difference (Dx2FIML = 1.97, df = 2, ns), indicating support for the
hypothesized model.
The fourth model examined removed the direct path from
expatriate work adjustment to expatriate general adjustment.
Because expatriate general adjustment measures adjustment of
expatriates to general conditions in the host country (e.g., housing
conditions, food, shopping, healthcare, etc.) and expatriate work
adjustment pertains to work-related matters, it is likely that work
adjustment may not affect general adjustment of expatriates. This
model (x2FIML = 1399.23, df = 503, p < .05) achieved a good fit, with
RMSEA of .07, and 90% CI of RMSEA with bounds of .06 and .08.
However, comparison of this model with the hypothesized model
yielded a significant chi-square difference (Dx2FIML = 77.29, df = 1,
p < .001), indicating support for the hypothesized model.
3.3. Testing of hypotheses
In support for Hypotheses 1 and 2, analysis revealed that
perceived credibility of HCN coworkers (b = .36, p < .001) and
perceived likability of HCN coworkers (b = .21, p < .05) were
significantly and positively related to expatriate advice-seeking
from HCN coworkers. In support for Hypothesis 3(a) and (b),
expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers was significantly
and positively related to, expatriate work (b = .18, p < .05) and
interaction adjustment (b = .23, p < .01). Strong support was also
found for Hypothesis 4(a) and (b) concerning the spillover effects
of expatriate work on general adjustment (b = .58, p < .001) and
expatriate interaction on general adjustment (b = .27, p < .001).
Hypotheses 5(a), (b) and 6(a), (b) posit that expatriate advice-
seeking will mediate the relationship between its antecedents (i.e.,
perceived credibility and likability of HCN coworkers) and expatriate
work and interaction adjustment. Sobel’s (1982) test as implemen-
ted in LISREL was used to test for mediation. Results from the Sobel
test indicated two of the indirect paths relating perceived credibility
of HCN coworkers to expatriate work adjustment (b = .06, p < .05),
and expatriate interaction adjustment (b = .08, p < .05) were
significant, whereas two of the indirect paths relating perceived
likability of HCN coworkers to expatriate work adjustment (b = .04,
p < .10) and expatriate interaction adjustment (b = .05, p < .10)
were marginally significant.
In addition to Sobel’s test of mediation, we tested for mediation
using bootstrapping, which is among the recent and recommended
procedures for testing mediation (Cheung & Lau, 2008; Hayes,
2009; Lau & Cheung, 2012; MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West,
& Sheets, 2002; Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Bootstrapping draws
from a researcher’s sample size n with replacement and generates
values for independent, mediating, and dependent variables. Then
confidence intervals (CI) for indirect relationships are calculated. If
CIs do not contain a 0, mediation is established (Cheung & Lau,
2008; Hayes, 2009; Preacher & Hayes, 2008). The results from
bootstrapping in LISREL, using procedures described in Lau and
Cheung (2012), are presented in Table 4.

Table 4
Mediation tests using Sobel and Bootstrapping.

Independent variables Mediating variables Dependent variables Sobel test Bootstrapping Bootstrapping
95% CI 90% CI

Indirect effect z Lower Upper Lower Upper

Perceived credibility Expatriate advice-seeking Expatriate work adjustment .06 2.18* .006 .161 .015 .147

of HCN coworkers
from HCN coworkers
Expatriate advice-seeking Expatriate interaction adjustment .08 2.54* .027 .170 .035 .153
from HCN coworkers

Perceived likability Expatriate advice-seeking Expatriate work adjustment .04 1.74y .001 .137 .002 .126
of HCN coworkers from HCN coworkers
Expatriate advice-seeking Expatriate interaction adjustment .05 1.91y .006 .141 .002 .131
from HCN coworkers
N = 350.
*
p < .05.
y
p < .10.
484 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487
A 95% CIs (similar to p < .05) and 90% CIs (similar to p < .10) were
calculated to compare results from Sobel’s test with those from
bootstrapping. The 95% CIs for the indirect relationship of perceived
credibility of HCN coworkers with expatriate work adjustment (.006,
.161) and expatriate interaction adjustment (.027, .170) did not
contain a 0, indicating mediation through expatriate advice-seeking
from HCN coworkers. However, mediation was established only at
90% CIs for the indirect relationship of perceived likability of HCN
coworkers with expatriate work adjustment (.002, .126) and
expatriate interaction adjustment (.002, .131). A comparison of
Sobel’s test and bootstrapping yielded similar results (see Table 4).
Therefore Hypothesis 5(a) and (b) were fully supported, whereas
6(a) and (b) received marginal support.
4. Discussion
The main objective underlying this study was to understand the
proactive role expatriates may take in facilitating expatriate
adjustment, particularly through the act of seeking out advice from
HCN coworkers. In line with this objective, the factors that
influence the expatriate’s decision to seek advice from HCN
coworkers, and its effect on expatriate adjustment were examined.
Supporting the predictions, the study found that expatriate advice-
seeking from HCN coworkers significantly and positively relates to
the work and interaction facets of expatriate adjustment.
Perceived credibility and likability of HCN coworkers were also
associated directly with expatriate advice-seeking from HCN
coworkers and indirectly with expatriate work and interaction
adjustment. Consistent with our spillover hypothesis, work and
interaction adjustment were, in turn, associated with higher levels
of general adjustment.
4.1. Theoretical implications
The findings from this study extend the expatriate adjustment
literature in several ways. First, rather than being passive receivers of
various forms of support (e.g., organizational, spousal; Caligiuri et al.,
1998; Kraimer, Wayne, & Jaworski, 2001; Toh & DeNisi, 2007, 2005,
2003), our study demonstrates that expatriates should be proactive
in seeking out advice needed to solve their problems. To date,
research has suggested that HCN support is beneficial for expatriate
adjustment and should be encouraged. However, the proactive
seeking of support could complement this and perhaps be even more
beneficial than the receipt of large volumes of support and advice.
This is because the type of support that the HCN provides may not
necessarily be what the expatriate needs at a given time. When
expatriates take charge of seeking the advice that they require, at the
pace in which they are comfortable with, they may also be more
ready to accept and use the advice to solve their problems. Our study
extends previous research focused on the attributes of expatriates
(e.g., openness to experience, cultural intelligence) to deal specifi-
cally with adaptive behavior that expatriates can adopt. It also builds
on the expatriate coping literature, which suggests that expatriates
using problem-focused coping strategies aimed at identification and
problem-solving are better able to adjust in the host nation (Selmer,
1999; Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005).
Second, our findings pertaining to the antecedents of expatriate
advice-seeking from HCN coworkers indicate that expatriates
consider credibility and likability when deciding whether or not
they should ask their HCN coworkers for advice. Credibility of HCN
coworkers may help expatriates establish an initial level of trust in
HCNs, required for advice-seeking. At work, expatriates may be
reluctant to seek advice from HCNs for fear of hurting their image
as subject matter experts. Perceived credibility of HCNs reduces
this risk of approaching HCNs for advice-seeking. Similarly,
likability of HCN coworkers makes expatriates more comfortable
in approaching their HCN colleagues for advice. This finding
corresponds with the findings from within-culture research on
seeking help, which suggest that individuals are more likely to seek
support from those individuals who are more approachable
(Hofmann et al., 2009). Furthermore, these findings also extends
the socio-cognitive literature on interpersonal processes, which
suggest that individuals approach others based on perceptions of
competence and likability (Casciaro & Lobo, 2008, 2005), by
showing that these perceptions are also applicable in making
decisions about cross-national relationships.
Finally, research on understanding the factors that explain the
likelihood of expatriates seeking out advice from HCNs, and
whether or not this advice is associated with adjustment, is
relatively scarce and has focused on a limited set of immutable
characteristics, such as expatriate demographics (Olsen & Martins,
2009). The present study underscores the importance of social
perceptions regarding HCNs in expatriate decisions to seek advice
from them. It also adds to the HCN-expatriate interaction literature
that has to date tended to be more concerned with the willingness
of HCNs to support expatriates, rather than whether and under
what circumstances expatriates are willing to seek support from
HCNs. Findings from this study lend support to the proposition that
newcomers can and should be active participants in their own
socialization and that expatriate newcomers are no exception. This
study, however, does not argue that HCNs are the only or most
important source of advice nor should expatriates only seek the
advice of HCNs; instead, it highlights that HCNs can be a significant
socializing agent when expatriates allow them to be.
4.2. Managerial relevance
This study offers several managerial implications. First, multi-
nationals should provide cross-cultural training specifically aimed
at helping reduce the psychic distance expatriates may perceive
between themselves and their HCN coworkers, improve cross-
cultural communication and understanding (such that HCN
coworkers may appear to be more approachable sources of
information), and increase expatriates’ willingness to approach
HCNs for advice. HCN employees can then be useful sources of
support. In this study, 55% of expatriates reported receiving no
cross-cultural training either prior to or after coming to the U.S.
Furthermore, findings from a 2010 global relocation report also
indicate that fewer organizations are providing cross-cultural
training to expatriates even though expatriates find such training
to be useful (Brookfield, 2010). HCNs as a resource has been
overlooked and underutilized by many multinational organiza-
tions. In part, this is a result of organizational oversight in
preparing expatriates with the cross-cultural training required to
understand the behavior of their HCN colleagues and enable
effective social exchanges.
Even though expatriates can gauge the credibility of HCN
coworkers based on their interactions with them, organizations
may also actively manage these impressions. This study suggests
that HCNs should also be better prepared to be cultural and work
mentors for fledging expatriates and be available to expatriates
when they are called upon for advice. Cross-cultural training that
equips HCNs with the skills necessary to interact effectively with
expatriates could enhance the impression that they are credible
and approachable sources of support. It is also likely that
expatriates do not want to seek help but are simply not aware
of the expertise their HCN coworkers possess and the potential for
seeking out advice from them. Organizations might also be more
active in highlighting the achievements of HCNs, whether through
documentation or skills inventories accessible to expatriates. This
will enable expatriates to more easily identify HCNs who possess
the expertise required by expatriates and also those who are
 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487
motivated and able to share their insights. At the same time, HCNs
possessing expertise can also become aware that they possess
unique information expatriates may require and be more willing to
offer it when needed (Leonardelli & Toh, 2011). Clearly, much more
can be done by multinational organizations in enabling the
socialization of expatriates and ensuring the smooth operations of
their units beyond the set of human resource practices that
international management research tends to suggest and focus
upon (Toh & DeNisi, 2005).
4.3. Limitations and future research
Despite several strengths, this study is not without limitations.
First, although statistical procedures were employed to rule out
problems associated with common method bias, a longitudinal
research design with data collection from multiple sources will
provide a more rigorous assessment of the theoretical model. In
addition to removing the general weaknesses of a cross-sectional
study, a longitudinal design can help in mapping the change in
expatriate advice-seeking behavior and establishing causality.
Although in this study causality cannot be established, the
directions of the paths were both theoretically and empirically
justified. The rationale behind expatriate advice-seeking from HCN
coworkers predicting expatriate adjustment was based on the
premise that expatriates were more likely to seek out advice from a
HCN coworkers because they were trying to cope with the
problems they encountered in a new culture. Advice-seeking – a
form of functional coping – helps them to adjust in the new
environment. Moreover if expatriates were well-adjusted in the
host country, they were less likely to seek out advice from others
because they already feel comfortable in the new environment.
This is in line with the socialization literature that suggests
information-seeking by newcomers facilitates their adjustment
into the organization (Ashforth et al., 2007; Morrison, 1993b).
Guidelines from the help-seeking literature also suggest that
individuals seek out help such as instrumental and emotional help
in order to cope with the problems or difficulties faced by them
(Bamberger, 2009). Within the expatriate adjustment literature,
recent review by Farh et al. (2010) also indicate that expatriates
who form network ties in the host country are better able to adjust
in the new environment. Thus, the existing literature supports the
path directions as indicated in our hypothetical model.
To further rule out the possibility of reverse causality, we
conducted additional statistical analyses. We ran a competing
model in which we predicted expatriate advice-seeking from
expatriate adjustment and HCN credibility and likability from
expatriate advice-seeking (i.e., reverse of our hypothetical model
given in Fig. 1). According to Kline (2005) two competing models
can be compared using the Akaike information criterion (AIC) and
the one with the smallest AIC value is preferred. The AIC value of
our hypothetical model was 1798.22 and that of the competing
model (i.e., reverse of our hypothetical model) was 1815.92,
indicating that the hypothetical model is a better model.
Second, this study sampled expatriates from a single country in
a single country. It is possible that because of their cultural values
(e.g., high power distance, Hofstede, 1980), Indian expatriates
maybe more mindful of the status differences between expatriates
and HCNs. This in turn might make them more reticent in seeking
out advice from their HCN coworkers than other expatriates. In
addition, compared to U.S. expatriates, Indian expatriates in our
sample were relatively young (with an average of 30 years).
Children in India start school early (on an average a child in India
starts kindergarten at 3 years compared to 5 years in the U.S.) and
graduate with their first university degrees (e.g., B.Com, B.Sc., and
B.A) in 15 years (compared to 16 years in the U.S.). Thus, compared
to the U.S. counterparts, Indian graduates enter in the labor force
485
relatively young. Despite their age, almost 90% of the expatriate
sample in the present study were at the middle (66%) or senior
level (22%) of the organization structure. Nonetheless, it is possible
that expatriates from other countries exhibit advice-seeking
behavior different from Indian expatriates. Our sample was also
typically largely male (86%), thus precluding us from drawing any
conclusions about possible gender differences. Future research
with more diverse expatriate populations is needed.
Third, this study considers the importance of HCNs from an
expatriate point of view. While this provides a partial understand-
ing of the role and importance of HCNs in expatriate adjustment,
expatriates were the best source of information regarding how
willing they would be to seek advice from HCN coworkers. Fourth,
it is also possible that other contextual factors, such as the level of
host country development, the gender and/or cultural similarity
between expatriates and HCN coworkers, cultural distance
between home and host country, organizational context, and
work culture of host organization play a role in influencing advice-
seeking behavior of expatriates. Future theoretical models should
take these into account.
Finally, it was not possible to include variables such as
expatriate performance and withdrawal cognitions that might
provide additional insights into expatriate effectiveness. These
outcomes have been found to closely relate to the dimensions of
expatriate adjustment (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). Future
research could include these variables and examine their
relationship with expatriate advice-seeking from HCN coworkers.
Following previous research (e.g., Leonardelli & Toh, 2011), the
participants answered questions referencing specifically those
HCN coworkers who they worked with the most rather than HCN
coworkers in general. This was done because we were most
interested in understanding how the perceptions expatriates have
about a given HCN coworker influence their decision to seek out
advice from that individual. Nevertheless, to expand the existing
model and consider the larger advice network, fellow expatriates
as well as other HCNs could also be investigated in future work to
compare the types of help expatriates seek from expatriate peers,
the circumstances under which they tend to do so, and how this
might aid or inhibit their advice-seeking from HCN coworkers.
5. Conclusion
Moving beyond the existing expatriate management research
that has focused on family and organizational support as key
sources of support for facilitating expatriate adjustment, this study
investigated the importance of seeking advice from distant others,
such as HCN coworkers, and examined the relationship of this
advice-seeking with expatriate adjustment. Findings from this
study indicate that expatriate advice-seeking from HCN colleagues
was significantly and positively related to expatriate work and
interaction adjustment, which in turn were positively related to
general adjustment. Among the factors affecting expatriate advice-
seeking from HCN coworkers, credibility and likability of HCN
coworkers emerged as important factors. Therefore, this study
introduces the idea of considering advice-seeking from HCN
coworkers as an important factor in the adjustment process of
expatriates. Expatriates and multinational organizations will do
well to realize the potential that HCNs hold in aiding the success of
expatriates and the larger organization, and the active role that
expatriates can and should play.
Funding
This research was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council of Canada (grant # 430-2011-
0192) awarded to Ashish Mahajan and Social Sciences and
486 A. Mahajan, S.M. Toh / Journal of World Business 49 (2014) 476–487
Humanities Research Council of Canada (grant # 410-2006-1825)
awarded to Soo Min Toh.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank the senior editor, Richard M. Steers for
his helpful comments and feedback during the review process.
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