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Chapter

Material Testing
Intended Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Differentiate destructive and non-destructive testing of materials.
2. Name the commonly used destructive testing methods for material testing and briefly describe
the process involved in each method.
3. Name the commonly used non-destructive testing methods for material testing and briefly
describe the process involved in each method.

This chapter presents the different methods of destructive and non-destructive testing, as well as
its comparison of advantages and disadvantages of each test. Material testing, measurement of the
characteristics and behavior of such substances as metals, ceramics, or plastics under various
conditions. The data thus obtained can be used in specifying the suitability of materials for various
applications.

6.1 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Prolonged endurance testing under the most severe operating conditions, continued until the
component, equipment, or product specimen fails (is broken or destroyed). The purpose of
destructive testing is to determine service life and to detect design weaknesses that may not show
up under normal working conditions.
• In destructive testing (or destructive physical analysis, DPA) tests are carried out to the
specimen's failure, in order to understand a specimen's performance or material behavior
under different loads.
• These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier
to interpret than nondestructive testing.
• Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic, for objects which
will be mass-produced, as the cost of destroying a small number of
specimens is negligible
• It is usually not economical to do destructive testing where only one or very few items are
to be produced.

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• Destructive tests are used for welder qualification and certification, as well as welding
procedure qualifications. In large production runs, destructive tests are often made by
pulling apart sample units. It is often less expensive to scrap a part to make a destructive
quality test than to test the parts using more expensive nondestructive tests.
Examples: Universal Testing Machine (UTM), Tensile, Compression, Shear and Rockwell

Commonly used methods of destructive testing of material:

Poldi Hardness Test

• The Poldi hardness tester is the simplest and most economical device for measuring
hardness according to Brinell and determining tensile strength of engineered and tool
steels, dies, forgings, railway material, beams, sheets, pipes, cast steel and various parts
of steel, as well as determining hardness according to Brinell for cast bronze, aluminum,
brass, copper, grey and chilled cast iron.

• The Poldi hardness tester allows the user to perform the impact test with the help of a
hammer almost anywhere including: workshops, at assembly sites or
any other places. Brinell hardness and tensile strength
can be seen in commonly available conversion
tables.

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Rockwell hardness test

The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on indentation hardness

of a material. The Rockwell test measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter
under a large load (major load) compared to the penetration made by a preload
(minor load). There are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use
different loads or indenters. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA,
HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale.
.
Trivia: The Differential Depth Hardness Measurement Was Conceived In 1908
By A Viennese Professor Paul Ludwik In His Book Die Kegelprobe
(Crudely, "The Cone Test")

Bend Test
• Bend tests are used to determine internal weld quality coupons. The weld is then bent
around a die of a specific size, creating a horseshoe of the coupon. This process stretches
the weld to test the weld’s integrity.
The 3 types of Bend Test
a. face bend (face of the weld is tested)
b. root bend (root of the weld is tested)
c. side bend (sides of the weld are tested) •In bend tests, a weldment is sliced into tests

The root bend test places the greatest amount of stress on the weld root. The face bend
test places the greatest amount of stress on the weld face. The side bend places the greatest
amount of stress along the weld axis.
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Tensile Test
• Tensile tests are used to compare the weldment to the base metal mechanical values and
specification requirements.
• The weldment is sliced into coupons, and then each end of the coupon is pulled in opposite
directions until the coupon fails (breaks).
•
Tensile Test Machine

Tensile tests are made to determine the following:

• Ultimate strength of the weld. This is the point at which the weld fails under tension.

• Yield strength of the weld. This is the point at which the weld yields or stretches under
tension and will not return to its original dimensions.

• Elongation. This is the amount of stretch that occurs during the tensile test. It is
measured by placing gauge marks on the sample or coupon before testing and comparing
the after-break distance with the original gauge marks.

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Notch Toughness Test

• Notch toughness testing is a method used to quantify a material's ability to withstand an

impact with a flaw present in the material. More specifically, a notch toughness test
measures the amount of energy a material can absorb. Notch toughness testing is
commonly quantified using ft-lbs.
• Notch-toughness tests are used to define the ability of welds to resist cracking or crack
propagation at low temperatures under loads.
• Often done at several different temperatures because most materials become more brittle
as they become colder.

Nick-Break Test

• A nick break test is a type of destructive testing that is used to evaluate the quality of a
weld. To perform a nick break test, a specimen is prepared out of the weld metal. Stress
concentrators are then machined into the specimen
• Nick-break tests are very simple to make. They are used to determine the internal quality
of a weld with regard to porosity, lack of fusion, and slag.

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6.2 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is the process of doing inspections, testing, or evaluating

materials, components or assemblies for defects without destroying the material or component.
Or the use of noninvasive techniques to determine the integrity of a material, component or
structure”.
In other words, “Inspect or measure without doing harm.”

Who Uses NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING?

• NDT plays a vital role in assuring the safe operation of equipment and systems
• Industries that utilize NDT:
1. Airline and Aerospace
2. Automotive and Railroad
3. Construction
4. Hydroelectric, Fossil, and Nuclear Power
5. Textile and Manufacturing
6. Chemical and Petrochemical
7. Logistics and Supply
8. Medical and Pharmaceutical

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When is NDT Used?

There are NDT application at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a component.
• To assist in product development
• To screen or sort incoming materials
• To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes
• To verify proper processing such as heat treating
• To verify proper assembly
• To inspect for in-service damage
NDT test methods may be used to determine:
• the size, shape, or orientation of a flaw (such as a crack or porosity)
• the thickness of a material or coating
• the hardness of a material
• the material composition (example, the carbon content in steel)
• a material’s electrical conductivity

NDT Methods

Test methods are the type of penetrating medium or the equipment used to perform
that test. Some of the current NDT methods are:
-Acoustic Emission Testing (AE)
- Electromagnetic Testing (ET)
- Guided Wave Testing (GW)
- Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
- Laser Testing Methods (LM)
- Leak Testing (LT)
- Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)
- Microwave Testing
- Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
- Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
- Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR)
- Radiographic Testing (RT)
- Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR)
- Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
- Vibration Analysis (VA)
- Visual Testing (VT)

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The 6 most frequently used test methods are:

• Visual Test
• Liquid Penetrant Test
• Magnetic Test
• Ultrasonic Test
• Eddy Current Test
• X-ray Test

Visual Testing (VT)

VT is the visual observation of the surface to evaluate the presence of surface
discontinuities such as corrosion, misalignments, cracks and etc. It is the most commonly used
test method in industry as most test methods require that the operator look at the surface of the
part being inspected. It may be by direct looking, or may be by use of optical instruments such as
magnifying glasses, mirrors, borescopes, and remote viewing.

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

PT uses a liquid with high surface wetting characteristics. Liquid is applied to the surface
and allowed to seep into defects and then excess liquid is removed. The penetrant used is often
loaded with a fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under UV light to increase test sensitivity.
And then visual inspection is then performed.

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Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) or Magnetic Particle Inspection

MFL detects anomalies in normal flux patterns created by discontinuities in ferrous

material saturated by a magnetic field. This technique can be used for piping and tubing
inspection, tank floor inspection and other applications. This technique can be done without
removing the insulation, resulting in a fast, economic way to inspect long runs of pipe or tubing.

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Magnetic Particle Crack Indications

Radiography
The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version
of the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible light. The radiation can come from an X-ray
generator or a radioactive source.

Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The part will stop
some of the radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop more of the radiation. The film
darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching the film through the test object

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Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)

High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are reflected back
from surfaces or flaws. Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can
visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of features that reflect sound.

Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal strength or time-of-flight using
a computer-controlled scanning system.

(1)Gray scale image produced using the sound reflected from the front surface of the coin (2)
Gray scale image produced using the sound reflected from the back surface of the coin (inspected
from “heads” side)

Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks but can also be
used to make electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements. Here a small surface
probe is scanned over the part surface to detect a crack.

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Pressure Test

Pressure tests subject a vessel, tank, piping, or tubing to internal pressure. Pressure tests
can use either air or fluid. If a fluid is used, the test is called a hydrostatic test. The test program
may require a number of cycles to be performed, simulating the use of the part in actual service.
During the test, the part will expand. This expansion should not be restricted with tools, or undue
stresses will build within the part.

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Ferrite Test

A ferrite test on completed stainless steel welds determines the amount of magnetic ferrite in
an austenitic (nonmagnetic) weld. Insufficient ferrite in a weld made under high restraint is prone
to cracking at red heat. Limits of ferrite will depend on the use of the final weldment. These
amounts are usually specified in the fabrication specification. Weld test parameters and filler
metals used on qualification test weldments must be duplicated on the production part without
deviation to maintain the proper ferrite content.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST DESTRUCTIVE TEST

Used for finding out the properties of the

Used for finding out defects of materials
material

Load is not applied on the material Load is applied on the material

No load applications, so no chance for Due to load application, material gets

material damage damaged

No requirement of special equipment Special equipment is required

Non expensive Expensive

Less skill Skill is required

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REFERENCES

Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 10th Edition by William D. Callister Jr and
David G. Rethwisch

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/destructive-testing.html
https://www.slideshare.net/ShrinivasKale3/destructive-non-destructive-testing-of-materials
https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/4522/notch-toughness-test
https://www.skillscommons.org/bitstream/handle/taaccct/8674/1%20Introduction%20to%20Non
destructive%20Testing.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
https://www.g-wonlinetextbooks.com/gas-tungsten-arc-welding-2013/276
http://www.materials.unsw.edu.au/tutorials/online-tutorials/atomic-bonding

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