Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 699–704

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Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Short communication

Effects of front aeration on the purification process in horizontal

subsurface flow constructed wetlands shown with 2D contour plots
Fei Zhong a,b , Juan Wu a , Yanran Dai a , Shuiping Cheng a, * , Zhaohui Zhang b , Hongjiu Ji b
a
State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR
China
b
Marine Fisheries Research Institute of Jiangsu Province, Nantong 226007, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Two dimensional (2D) contour plots were used to visualize the effects of front-aeration on the nutrient
Received 5 June 2014 removal processes in ceramsite-filled horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) constructed wetlands (CWs)
Received in revised form 18 September 2014 over a 14 month period. Heterogeneous redox conditions (with a high-low-high tendency in the
Accepted 30 September 2014
oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) values) along the water flow direction were observed in the aerated
Available online 14 October 2014
CW (ACW). In contrast, the CW without aeration (NACW) was dominated by anoxic or anaerobic
conditions. Good nitrogen and phosphate removal efficiencies were obtained with the ACW
Keywords:
configuration, which outperformed the NACW configuration. 2D contour plots are convenient for
Constructed wetlands
Domestic sewage
providing an improved understanding of the removal processes in HSSF CWs, which will be helpful for
Front-aeration the optimization of CWs.
2D contour plots ã 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction is typically compromised by the failure to account for two core

Constructed wetlands (CWs) provide a cost-effective and
flexible option for wastewater treatment and reuse with less
resource consumption and greenhouse gas emissions (Chen et al.,
2011; Fuchs et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2009). Different types of CW
promote specific redox conditions, making them suitable for
treating different types of wastewater (Vymazal, 2007). In general,
horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) CWs are more suitable for
denitrification than nitrification because of the lower redox
potential inside the wetlands compared with the vertical flow
CWs (Dušek et al., 2008; Vymazal, 2007). Previous studies have
recommended a combination of HSSF CWs and vertical flow
CWs to provide aerobic and anaerobic or anoxic conditions
simultaneously (Vymazal, 2007; Vymazal and Kröpfelová, 2011). If
redox heterogeneity can be provided in a single-stage HSSF CW,
the alternating areas of aerobic and anaerobic conditions could
also facilitate the sequential coupling of nitrification and
denitrification.
Several studies have attempted to optimize the redox
conditions in the HSSF CWs by artificial aeration (Li et al., 2014;
Maltais-Landry et al., 2009; Nivala et al., 2007; Pozo-Morales et al.,
2014; Zhang et al., 2010). However, the importance of these studies
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 21 65980763.
E-mail address: shpcheng@tongji.edu.cn (S. Cheng).
factors. First, most previous studies have primarily evaluated
wastewater treatment efficiencies based on the inflow/outflow
water quality or variations in water quality using a line chart;
however, these studies have not directly demonstrated the
removal processes in the ‘black box’ (Li et al., 2014; Zhang et al.,
2010). The complexity inside the ‘black box’ makes it difficult to
understand the details of the removal processes and to determine
methods for improving the treatment performance of CWs.
Second, many CW performance studies have only been conducted
during periods of active plant growth (Ding et al., 2014; Stein and
Hook, 2005). The roles of plants and bacteria in CWs are affected by
seasonal change (Akratos and Tsihrintzis, 2007) and their temporal
effects on the performance of CWs have not been adequately
evaluated. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the
effects of aeration on the purification process of the HSSF CWs in
different seasons and present the results in two dimensional (2D)
contour plots.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Constructed wetland
A schematic diagram of the HSSF CW used in this study is shown
in Fig. 1. The wetland cells were rectangular tanks constructed of
polyvinylchloride (PVC) with dimensions of 1.2 m in length, 0.4 m
in width and approximately 0.7 m in depth. Along the water flow,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.09.119
0925-8574/ ã 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
700 F. Zhong et al. / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 699–704
Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of the HSSF CW and sampling ports.
each wetland cell was separated into four chambers: water inflow
chamber, distribution chamber, filtration chamber, and outflow
chamber. The filtration chamber was filled to a depth of 65 cm with
ceramsite granules with diameters ranging from 3 mm to 8 mm
and planted with Iris sibirica and Thalia dealbata. Water was
maintained at approximately 5 cm below the surface using a
standpipe at the outflow chamber. One CW (ACW) was aerated at
the inflow chamber using a low-power (3 W) air pump (S-2000,
BOYU Group Co. Ltd., Guangdong, China) with a capacity of 4 L/min.
The other CW (NACW) did not have aeration and was used as a
control. The study was conducted over 14 months using the
experimental-scale HSSF CWs (ACW and NACW) filled with
ceramsite granules and intended to use 2D contour plots to
display the effects of aeration on the nutrient removal processes by
the HSSF CWs in different seasons.
A feeding tank with a 1000 L capacity was used to store the
mechanically pretreated wastewater collected from a nearby
wastewater treatment plant. Peristaltic pumps (BT300-2J, Longer
Precision Pump Co. Ltd., Baoding, China) were used to transfer the
wastewater to the wetlands and achieved a hydraulic loading rate
(HLR) of 100 mm/day. Before the experiment, the treatment system
had been stabilized for 5 months.
2.2. Physicochemical analysis
The water samples were collected monthly from the feeding
tank and 11 CW sampling ports between 9 a.m. and 10 a.m. The
oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) were measured in situ using a
Thermo Orion 5 Star portable meter (Thermo-Orion Inc., Waltham,
MA). The concentrations of NH4+ N, NOx– N (sum of the
NO3– N and NO2– N), and PO43– P were measured with a
flow injection analysis (Lachat Instruments, Loveland, CO,
QC8500). The total organic carbon (TOC) was analyzed by a TOC
analyzer (Elementar, Hanau, Vario TOC cube). The values of the
above variables were gridded in Surfer 9 using a kriging algorithm
for outputting 2D contour plots (distance:depth).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Redox variation
The ORP values were used instead of the dissolved oxygen
(DO) concentrations to demonstrate the effects of front-aeration
on the redox conditions in the CWs. DO concentrations can be
used to separate aerobic and anaerobic conditions; however, it is
 F. Zhong et al. / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 699–704 701

challenging to differentiate between anoxic and anaerobic
conditions using DO concentrations. In contrast, different redox
conditions are easily distinguished through the ORP profile of a
system. Redox potentials greater than 100 mV are commonly
interpreted as being indicative of an aerobic environment, whereas
those less than 100 mV indicate an anaerobic environment. ORP
values between 100 mV and 100 mV are used to represent anoxic
conditions (Ong et al., 2010).
The 2D contour plots showed that the NACW configuration was
generally dominated by homogeneous anoxic or anaerobic
conditions. In contrast, aerobic and anoxic conditions were
effectively developed within the ACW setup via front-aeration

Fig. 2. Profiles of the ORP (mV) and PO43– P concentration (mg/L) for the ACW and NACW configurations from October 2011 to November 2012; kriging interpolation was
used to generate the contour plots.
702 F. Zhong et al. / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 699–704

(Fig. 2). In the ACW, the redox potential decreased from the inflow
chamber (section A) to the middle of the HSSF CW (section C) before
gradually increasing from section C to the outflow chamber (section
E). In the horizontal direction, previous work has reported that the
redox potential increases from the inlet to the outlet as a result of
progressive pollution biodegradation and mechanical filtration of
suspended solids (Faulwetter et al., 2009). The increasing tendency
from section C to section E in the ACW configuration can be explained
by the aforementioned reasons. High aeration-induced ORP values at
the inflow chamber may be reduced by the degradation of organics,
which may explain the decreasing tendency from section A to section
C. In the vertical direction, previous work has suggested that the
redox potential decreases with depth, and there is a higher redox
potential in the surface zone (5–20 cm) that is caused by plant oxygen

Fig. 3. Concentration profiles (mg/L) of NH4+ N and NOx– N for the ACW and NACW configurations from October 2011 to November 2012; kriging interpolation was used to
generate the contour plots.
 F. Zhong et al. / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 699–704
release and passive oxygen diffusion (Allen et al., 2002; Ding et al.,
2014; García et al., 2003). Occasionally, redox variations with depth
were observed in section D, although the highest ORP values were
found at the bottom (i.e., D3). In most CWs, three different hydraulic
zones occur: actively flowing main channel, temporary storage zone
and ‘dead’ zone (Zahraeifard and Deng, 2011). The zone with high
ORP values was generally observed at the bottom near the outflow
chamber in the NACW configuration, which may have been caused
by its proximity to the ‘dead’ zone. In the ACW setup, redox variations
with depth were not obvious. Front-aeration may have contributed
to the vertical mixing of water through the wetlands matrix (Headley
et al., 2005).
Temporal changes in the redox potential were observed in both
the ACW and NACW configurations. In the ACW configurations, the
ORP values increased from February to June 2012. In the NACW
configurations, the ORP values were higher in 2012 than in 2011.
These changes may have resulted from the maturity of the system
that had been set up for plant biomass.
3.2. Phosphorus removal process
Phosphorus retention was uniformly distributed along the
wetland length (Fig. 2) and phosphorus concentrations decreased
from the inlet to outlet (in the horizontal direction) because of
progressive absorption or precipitation by the substrate. The
PO43– P concentrations were lower in the ACW configuration than
in the NACW configuration at most of the sampling times, which may
have been related to the increased ORP values caused by front
aeration. Ceramsite was characterized by high Ca and Fe contents in
this study (data not shown). In aerobic conditions, ferric iron readily
forms several stable oxides and complexes that trap PO43– P
(Reddy et al., 1999). In the NACW configuration, the lowest PO43– P
concentration was observed at the bottom (D3) near the outflow
chamber at most of the sampling times. Similar to the variances in the
ORP values within section D, this phenomenon can also be explained
by the ‘dead’ zone theory. From July to December 2012, lower
PO43– P concentrations from section D to section E were observed
in the NACW configuration relative to the other months, which may
have been related to the increased ORP values (Fig. 2). During this
period, the increased ORP values may have activated the PO43– P
removal via the ferric iron in the NACW configuration.
3.3. Nitrogen removal process
Substantial NH4+ N removal between section A and section B
was observed in the ACW configuration (Fig. 3), which may have
Fig. 4. Concentration profiles (mg/L) of TOC for the ACW and NACW configurations from June 2012 to November 2012; kriging interpolation was used to generate the contour
plots.
703
been related to the aerobic conditions in section A that were
provided by front-aeration. The ammonia concentration typically
decreased in the horizontal direction in the ACW configuration,
which indicated that increased ORP values via front-aeration can
facilitate the nitrification process. In the NACW configuration, the
vertical variations were more pronounced than those in the
horizontal direction. The lowest NH4+ N concentrations in
the NACW configuration were observed in the sampling port
(D3) near the outflow chamber for several months, which may be
explained by the ‘dead’ zone theory.
The variations in NOx– N along the flow direction are
illustrated in Fig. 3 to determine the extent of denitrification in
the HSSF CWs. In the NACW configuration, the NOx– N
concentrations were primarily less than 0.3 mg/L, which was
caused by the dominance of anoxic or anaerobic conditions (Fig. 3).
In the ACW configuration, high NOx– N concentrations in section
A and E were observed, whereas the lowest NOx– N concen-
trations were generally observed in the middle of the HSSF CWs.
Alternating areas of aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic conditions
facilitated the sequential coupling of nitrification and denitrifica-
tion, and the nitrate generated during the aerobic phase (from
section A to section B) was denitrified in the anaerobic or anoxic
phases (section C). However, it would be better if the aerobic
conditions occurred in the front and anaerobic or anoxic conditions
occurred in the subsequent sections of the HSSF CWs. Considering
the energy consumption, a low-power air pump (4 W) with a
capacity of 4 L/min was used in this study. Low aeration intensity
may have been responsible for the ORP levels along the flow
direction in the ACW configuration, which followed a high–low–
high tendency. The front-aeration intensity should be studied in
more detail to optimize the horizontal distribution of redox
conditions and avoid the accumulation of NOx– N near the outlet
of the CW.
In May 2012, the lowest effluent NH4+ N concentrations of the
experimental period were observed in the ACW configuration,
which may have resulted from appropriate aerobic conditions and
optimal temperatures. Meanwhile, the highest effluent NOx– N
concentration was detected as a result of incomplete denitrifica-
tion. In addition to anoxic or anaerobic conditions, denitrification
also depends on carbon sources. A lack of biodegradable organics
often hinders denitrification in CWs, resulting in unsatisfactory
total nitrogen (TN) removal despite a guaranteed nitrification
process. From June to November 2012, the variations in TOC along
the flow direction were investigated to determine the reason for
the incomplete denitrification in May 2012. The TOC removal in the
ACW and NACW configurations primarily occurred in the first
704 F. Zhong et al. / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 699–704
one-third of the unit length (Fig. 4). Akratos and Tsihrintzis (2007)
indicated that more organic matter was removed in front of the
CWs. As a result, less carbon will be supplied for denitrification in
the subsequent sections of the CWs, which may result in a lower
denitrification rate. The TOC:NO3– N ratio should be at least
1.56 for complete nitrate reduction (Bernet et al., 1996). At the six
sampling times, the TOC was barely adequate for denitrification
under the conditions of incomplete nitrification. However, if
efficient nitrification in the front section of the CWs is guaranteed
by higher aeration intensity, an additional carbon source should
be added to the subsequent portion of the CWs to guarantee
complete denitrification.
4. Conclusions
The 2D contour plots showed that front aeration can establish
heterogeneous redox conditions in single-stage HSSF CWs, and
these conditions were found to be beneficial for sequential
coupling of nitrification and denitrification. However, the intensity
of the aeration and addition of carbon sources should be
considered in the future to avoid the accumulation of NOx– N
near the outlet of the CW. Additionally, front aeration may
encourage the removal of phosphorus via the ferric iron in
ceramsite-filled HSSF CWs. 2D contour plots have the potential to
be an efficient tool for the visualization of purification processes
in CWs.
Acknowledgements
The study was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (51108335, 51278355), Natural Science
Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20130398) and Special
Fund for Agro-scientific Research in the Public Interest
(201203065).
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