EVAPORATION

References:
Perry’s Chemical Eng’g Handbook, 8th ed.
(Section 11-110 to 121)

by:
Allie E. Fuentebella-Pomperada, ChE, MEngr, PhDTM
 kilograms solvent evaporated per kilogram of steam used

 greatest increase in steam economy is achieved by reusing

the vaporized solvent which is done in a multiple-effect
evaporator by using the vapor from one effect as the
heating medium for another effect in which boiling takes
place at a lower temperature and pressure

Note: Another method of increasing the utilization of energy

is to employ a thermocompression evaporator, in
which the vapor is compressed so that it will condense at a
temperature high enough to permit its use as the heating
medium in the same evaporator.

Steam Economy
 Heat transfer

 Characteristics of feed and product

◦ Crystallization
◦ Salting
◦ Scaling
◦ Product Quality
◦ Corrosion
◦ Foaming

Evaporator Selection
 desirability of producing crystals of a
definite uniform size usually limits the
choice of evaporators

Crystallization
 the growth on body and heating-surface
walls of a material having a solubility that
increases with increase in temperature, is
frequently encountered in crystallizing
evaporators

Salting
 the deposition and growth on body walls,
and especially on heating surfaces, of a
material undergoing an irreversible
chemical reaction in the evaporator or
having a solubility that decreases with an
increase in temperature

Scaling
 may require low holdup time and low-
temperature operation to avoid thermal
degradation

Product Quality
 severe in evaporators than in other types
of equipment because of the high liquid
and vapor velocities used

Corrosion
 organic substances foam during
evaporation

 a stable foam accompanies the vapor

out of the evaporator which causes
heavy entrainment

Foaming
 is the formation of deposits other than
salt or scale and may be due to corrosion,
solid matter entering with the feed, or
deposits formed by the condensing vapor

Fouling
 Refer to Fig 11-122, Sections 11-108 – 111
 Focus on Special Applications
 Evaporators with no heating surface;
◦ Submerged Combustion Evaporators
◦ Disk or Cascade Evaporators
◦ Some forms of Flash Evaporators

Evaporator Types
 Temperature gradient (difference)

 The fundamental objective of evaporator design

is to make as much of the total temperature
difference (steam and vapor space temp.)
available for heat transfer as economically
justifiable

Driving Force
 losses in temperature difference is due to boiling
point rise (BPR)

 Fig. 11-124 shows the BPR of aqueous solutions

 Eqn. 11-123 for inorganic salts at the atmospheric

pressure boiling point

 For other pressure a correction factor can be based

on a constant ratio of vapor pressure of the solution
to that of water at the same temperature when heats
of solution is small

Driving Force
 Allowable velocities that will not cause/lessen
entrainment, splashing and foaming is governed
by the Souders-Brown equation:
l   v
V k
v

in which k depends on the size distribution of

droplets and the decontamination factor F
desired

Velocities & Product Losses

 For most evaporators and for F between 100 and
10,000,
0.245
k
 F  50 
0.4

 For ways of reducing/preventing product loss

namely; foaming, splashing and entrainment
refer to section 11-112

Velocities & Product Losses

 Sections 11-113 to 114

◦ The requirement of low temperature for fruit-juice

concentration has led to the development of an evaporator
employing a secondary fluid, usually Freon or
ammonia.

◦ In this evaporator, the vapor is condensed in an exchanger

cooled by boiling Freon. The Freon, at a much higher vapor
density than the water vapor, is then compressed to serve
as the heating medium for the evaporator.

Evaporator Arrangement
 Section 11-118 to 119

 For Flash Evaporators

◦ Eqn. 11-124 (Steam Economy)

◦ Eqn. 11- 125 (Mean Effective Temperature
Difference available for Heat Transfer)

Evaporator Calculations
 Condensers
◦ Barometric or Direct-Contact Condensers
◦ Vapor and cooling liquid are mixed directly
◦ Surface Condenser
◦ Shell-and-tube heat exchanger where vapor flows on
the shell side and cooling water on inside the tubes
◦ Much more expensive than the other type
 Vent System
 Salt Removal

Evaporator Accessories
 For a barometric condenser, the ratio of water
consumption to vapor condensed is given by the
equation
waterflow H v  h2

vaporflow h2  h1

where Hv = vapor enthalpy, and h1 and h2 =

water enthalpies entering and leaving the
condenser

Condenser
 Non-condensable gases may be present in
the evaporator vapor as a result of
leakage, air dissolved in the feed, or
decomposition reactions in the feed.

 When the vapor is condensed in the

succeeding effect, the non-condensables
increase in concentration and impede heat
transfer.

Vent System
 When an evaporator is used to make a
crystalline product, one of the means
available for concentrating and removing
the salt from the system is to provide
settling space in the evaporator itself.

Salt Removal
 The two principal elements of evaporator control
are evaporation rate and product concentration.

 Evaporation Rate is achieved through steam-flow

control.

 Product Concentration is achieved through

control on the rate of product withdrawal.

Evaporator Operation
 number of kg water evaporated per hr

Evaporator Capacity
 kg steam used per hr

 Evaporator Capacity divided Evaporator Economy

Steam Consumption
Calculation For Single-
Effect Evaporators
 Vapor, V
T1, yV, HV

Feed, F P1
TF, xF, hF
T1

Steam, S Condensate, S

T S , HS TS, hS

Concentrated liquid, L
T1, xL, hL

Heat & Material Balance

 Capacity of single-effect evaporator;
q = UAΔT (1)

 ΔT – difference in T (Condensing steam and

boiling L in evaporator)

 To solve for q  heat and material balance

 Where λ is the latent heat;

λ = Hs – hs (2)

Heat & Material Balance

 At equilibrium and steady-state;
F=L+V (3)

 Balance on solute (solids)

FxF = LxL (4)

 Total heat entering = Total heat leaving

 Heat in feed + Heat in steam = heat in
concentrated liquid + Heat in vapor +
Heat in condensed steam

Heat & Material Balance

 Assuming that there are no heat lost via
radiation or convection;

FhF+SHs=LhL+VHv+Shs
FhF+Sλ=LhL+VHv (5)

q = S(Hs-hs) = S λ (6)

Enthalpy of the feed;

hF=cPF(TF-T1) (7)

Heat & Material Balance

 A continuous single-effect evaporator
concentrates 9072 kg/h of a 1.0 wt% salt
solution entering at 311.0 K. The vapor
space of the evaporator is at 101.325 kPa
and steam supplied is saturated at 143.3
kPa. The overall coefficient, U is 1704
W/m2K. Calculate the amounts of vapor
and liquid product and heat transfer area
required. Assuming that the solution is
dilute, it has the same boiling point as
water. The mother liquor has 1.5% salt.
Heat capacity of the feed, cP=4.14kJ/kgK

Problem 1
Flow diagram; Vapor, V
T1, yV, HV

Feed, F P1
TF, xF, hF
T1

Steam, S Condensate, S

TS, HS TS, hS

Concentrated liquid, L
T1, xL, hL

Problem 1 - Solution
F=L+V
9072 = L + V (1)

From FxF = LxL

9072(0.01) = L(0.015)
L = 6048 kg/h Substitute in (1);

V = 9072 – 6048 = 3024 kg/h

Problem 1 - Solution
Since the property of the solution  water,
the boiling point = 373.15 K (1000C)

Find the solution’s latent heat, Hv from steam

tables, i.e. 2257 kJ/kg (same as water at
373.15K).

Latent heat, λ of steam at 143.4 kPa is 2230

kJ/kg

Problem 1 - Solution
Calculate the enthalpy of the feed;
hF=cPF(TF-T1) = 4.14(311 – 373.15) = - 275.3

Substitute it in the heat balance equation (5);

9072(- 275.3)+S(2230)=6048(0)+3024(2257)
S = 4108 kg steam/h

Problem 1 - Solution
From (6), q = Sλ,
q = 4108(2230) = 9 160 840 kJ/hr
q = 9 160 840 (1000/3600) = 2 544 000 W

From (1), q = UAΔT = 2 544 000

2 544 000 = 1704 (A)(382.2-373.15)
A = 149.3 m2

Problem 1 - Solution
 A given evaporator is to be fed with 10,000 lb/hr
of solution containing 1% solute by weight. The
feed temperature is @ 100°F. It is to be
concentrated to a solution which is 1.5% by
weight in an evaporator operating at 1 atm
pressure in the vapor space. In order to carry
out the operation, the heating surface is supplied
with steam @ 5 psig (227°F). What is the weight
of the vapor produced and what is the total
weight of steam required? If the overall heat
transfer coefficient of the evaporator, U, is 250,
what is the surface area required?

Problem 2 (Seatwork/Assign.)
 The pressure in the evaporator is given as 25.6
kPa and a solution of 25% NaOH is being boiled.
Determine the BPR of the solution over that of
water at the same pressure.

Problem 3
 An evaporator is used to concentrate 5217 kg/hr
of a 25% solution of NaOH in water entering at
60 deg C to a product of 50% solids. The
pressure of the saturated steam used is 172.4
kPa and the pressure in the vapor space of the
evaporator is 12.7 kPa. The overall heat-transfer
coefficient is 1740 W/m2.K. Calculate the steam
economy.

Problem 4
 A 10% NaOH solution @ 80°F is to be
concentrated to 40% NaOH solution in a single
effect evaporator. Heating steam is at 20 psig.
Condenser vacuum is 26 in Hg. Water @ 70°F
enters the barometric condenser at a rate of
100gpm and leaves, carrying the condensed
vapor @ 100°F. Overall coefficient for heat
transfer is 200 BTU/hr.ft2.°F. Determine the
evaporator heating surface required.

Problem 5 (Assignment)
 Determine boiling point in the last effect.
 Determine total amount of vapor evaporated by
material balance.
 Determine the vapor produced in each effect
(equal at first trial, total amount evaporated
divided the number of effects).
 Determine the amount of thickened liquor in
each effect.
 Determine the solid concentration in each effect.

Calculations for Multiple-Effect

Evaporation
 Determine the BPR in each effect.
 Estimate temperature drop in each effect by
subtracting the BPR’s from the difference of Ts
and tf.
 Calculate the boiling point of each effect.
 Using heat and material balances, calculate the
actual vapor and thickened liquor produced in
each effect, if this is different from the previous
amounts calculated, step 4 onwards are repeated
with the new values acquired.

Calculations for Multiple-Effect

Evaporation
 Calculate q transferred in each effect
 Calculate the heat transfer area for each effect
 Calculate Am and compare areas calculated. If
areas are quite close (≤10% Am, then no 2nd trial
is needed.
 If a 2nd trial is needed, calculate the solid
concentration in each effect using the actual
values of V’s and L’s.

Calculations for Multiple-Effect

Evaporation
 Calculate new values of ∆T’s, take the sum and
this must equal ∑∆T.
 Repeat step 6 onwards.

Note: Two trials are normally sufficient so that all

areas are sufficiently equal

Calculations for Multiple-Effect

Evaporation
 A double effect evaporator system is to be used to
concentrate 40,000 lb/hr of an organic solid in water
from 15% solids to 60% solids using forward feeding.
The solution has a negligible boiling point elevation.
Steam @ 25.3 psig is used as heating medium with
the vapor space in the second effect maintained @ 4
in Hg abs. The specific heat of the feed is 0.90
BTU/lb.°F. Previous operation shows the overall heat
transfer coefficient to be 400 for the first effect and
250 for the second effect. Determine (a) the steam
consumption, (b) steam economy & (c) heating
surface required.

Problem 6
 A triple-effect evaporator is to be used to
produce 50% NaOH solution from a feed
containing 25% NaOH. Steam is available at
320°F, and the vapor from the last effect is
condensed at 120°F. Backward feed is used. If
equal amounts of water is removed from each
effect, what will be the concentrations in the
intermediate effect, the boiling-point elevation
in each effect, and the net temperature
differences available for heat transfer

Problem 7
 120,000 lb/hr of 15% sugar solution @ 100°F are to
be concentrated to 50% sugar in a forward feed
quadruple effect. Steam to 1st effect is @ 25 psig &
the vacuum on the last effect is 24 in Hg referred to a
30-in barometer. The elevation in boiling point of
sugar solutions under these conditions are
approximately (10x – 0.5)°F, where x is the weight
fraction of sugar in solution. The boiling point rise is
so small that variation of the rise over a wide range
of pressure maybe neglected. Enthalpy of these
solutions maybe taken as usual to that of water.

Problem 8 (Assignment)
 The evaporator has a radiation loss of 1% in each
effect (of the heat passing through the heating
surface). Coefficients for heat transfer I(475),
II(425), III(310) and IV(265). All effects are to have
the same heating surface. The feed flows first to the
preheater A where it is heated by the vapor from II,
to within 10° of the saturation temperature of this
vapor, then to preheater B, where it is heated by
steam @ 25 psig to within 10° of the boiling point in I
(i.e., in the heater A the warmed temperature
approach 10°F).

Continuation Problem 8
 The dry countercurrent contact condenser is fed with
water @ 70°F & exit water temperature from the
condenser maybe within 5°F of the saturation
temperature of vapor from IV. What is the total
weight of the steam used? heating surface per effect?
water to condenser in gpm? pounds water evaporated
per pound of steam used?

Continuation Problem 8
- END -