N

Natural Ventilation in Built Glossary

Environment
Advanced natural ventilation system (ANV)
Tong Yang1 and Derek J. Clements-Croome2,3 Integration of basic natural ventilation strate-
1
Department of Design Engineering and gies such as cross ventilation and stack effect
Mathematics, Faculty of Science and Technology, with smart controls.
Middlesex University, London, UK Air changes per hour (ACH) The volumetric
2
School of Construction Management and flow rate of supply air, divided by the volume
Engineering, University of Reading, Reading, UK of the ventilated space.
3
School of Engineering and Materials Science, BEMS Building energy management system.
Queen Mary University of London, London, UK BREEAM Building research establishment
environmental assessment method – UK
origin.
Article Outline Exfiltration/infiltration Air flows through
unintended leakages out/into buildings.
Glossary Hybrid ventilation Combined natural and
Definition of the Subject mechanical ventilation (also called mixed-
Introduction mode ventilation).
Vernacular Architecture Indoor air quality (IAQ) Broadly defined by
Natural Ventilation Principles the purity of the air but often CO2 is used as
Natural Ventilation Design Requirements an indicator.
Design Guidelines for Natural Ventilation Mixed-mode ventilation See hybrid ventilation.
Mixed Mode: The Selection of Ventilation Natural ventilation Use of natural forces, i.e.,
Strategies pressure differences generated by wind or air
Natural Ventilation and Mixed-Mode Case temperature, to introduce and distribute out-
Studies door air into or out of buildings.
Future Directions Night cooling The use of night air to cool the
References building using wind towers or a fan to circulate
the air.
Thermal comfort The state of mind that
expresses satisfaction with the surrounding
thermal environment.

# Crown 2018
R. A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2493-6_488-3
2 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

Ventilation Provides fresh air into a building to reduce a building’s environmental or carbon
ensure good air quality for occupant health and footprint.
well-being.
Ventilation effectiveness The ability of a venti-
lation system to exchange the air in the room Introduction
and also the ability to remove airborne
contaminants. The reasons for ventilating a space with air are as
Ventilation flow rate The amount of air per unit follows:
time into the ventilated space (liter per second
or l/s, cubic meters per hour or m3/h). 1. Ventilation air provides oxygen that is needed
Well-being Healthy mind and body. for human life processes; it takes about 4 s for
inhaled air to pass through the respiratory sys-
tem and transfer oxygen to the blood and then
to the brain; poor-quality air that is deficient in
Definition of the Subject
oxygen with consequent high CO2 levels
impedes clear thinking and concentration.
Natural ventilation uses the natural forces of wind
2. Ventilation air dilutes; the contaminants may
and buoyancy to introduce fresh air and distribute
be CO2 from respiration, odors secreted
it effectively in buildings for the benefit of the
through the human skin, cigarette smoke, or
occupants. Fresh air is required to achieve a
emissions from other processes such as dust,
healthy, fresh, and comfortable indoor environ-
allergens, aerosols, toxic gases, and particu-
ment for people to work and live in. Natural ven-
lates in general.
tilation can ensure or support the supply of
3. Ventilation promotes and directs air movement
adequate breathing air, adequate ventilation of
in the space, removing excessive heat and/or
contaminants, and adequate thermal conditioning
moisture essential for comfort and well-being.
and moisture dissipation and contribute to well-
being through a connection to the dynamics of
Traditional vernacular architecture has taught
nature. For natural ventilation to be effective,
us the best of sustainable architecture and ecolog-
there has to be a close relationship between the
ically sensitive adaptation, using passive features
architecture and the air circulation system. This
ranging from building orientation and form to
includes the relationship between the built form,
appropriately sized and oriented openings that
the site environment in a particular location, and
are linked with vertical spaces, to ensure the ben-
the layout within the building.
efits of natural ventilation, including the use of
The Natural History Museum in London,
local materials and mass for night cooling, and the
designed by Alfred Waterhouse in the Victorian
siting of buildings in context to ensure effective
age, is an excellent example of design for natural
airflows.
ventilation. The architect designed the built form
to encourage the flow of air through each space in
the building by the use of two ventilation towers at
Vernacular Architecture
the back of the building to induce airflow through
stack ventilation [1]. Buildings should be
Vernacular architecture blends buildings into their
designed to take full advantage of the prevailing
specific settings, so that there is a natural harmony
natural forces such as wind, outdoor temperature,
between the climate, architecture, and people.
and sunlight, incorporating building elements
Vernacular architecture learned from the environ-
such as towers, atria, and thermal mass to ventilate
mental variations of place relating to local varia-
and cool occupied spaces. In many climates there
tions in temperature, humidity, sun, wind, rain,
is a growing proportion of naturally ventilated
earthquakes, and storms. In climates where the
buildings using natural features and forces to
diurnal range may be 17
C, vernacular buildings
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment 3

reduce the variation in indoor temperature to 4
C how wind towers can also provide natural cooling
through time lag and night cooling. In climates for underground water cisterns.
where humidity may be 90%, vernacular build-
ings support human comfort by allowing air to Courtyards
flow over the many thermoreceptors on the human Courtyards are one of the oldest plan forms for
body. Vernacular architecture is also adapted to dwellings going back thousands of years and
ensure indoor air quality through natural ventila- appearing as a distinctive form in many regions
tion with the careful design and placement of in the world. Examples exist in Latin America,
indoor pollutant generators from stoves to com- China, the Middle East, Mediterranean, and in
modes. Four vernacular solutions are further Europe. Preserving the basic typology of the
described: wind towers, courtyards, termite courtyard, local climate, and culture has created
mounds, and igloos, each integrating the condi- a unique style for each region.
tioning power of natural ventilation in unique The courtyard house called siheyuan is a typi-
responses to local climate. cal form in ancient Chinese architecture, espe-
cially in Northern China. It offers space,
comfort, quiet, and privacy. A siheyuan consists
Wind Towers
of a rectangle with a row of houses bordering each
The wind towers or bagdirs are a distinctive and
side around a courtyard, normally with a southern
ancient feature of Islamic architecture. It has been
orientation and having the only gate usually situ-
used for centuries to create natural ventilation in
ated in the southeast side. Walls protect the houses
buildings. Examples of wind towers (Fig. 1) can
from the harsh winter winds and from the spring
be found throughout the Middle East, Pakistan,
dust storms that frequently occur in Northern
and Afghanistan and now are sometimes incorpo-
China from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia. The
rated into Western architecture.
house’s deep eaves provide cooling shade and
Wind flowing around a building causes a sep-
protection from the summer rains while allowing
aration of flows which creates a positive pressure
the winter sun’s warmth to be captured in the
on the windward side and a negative pressure on
rooms. Their design reflects the traditions of
the leeward side of the building. Due to its height,
China, following the rules of feng shui and Con-
the wind tower enhances the positive pressure on
fucian tenets of order and hierarchy.
the windward side; it is then directed through the
All the rooms around the courtyard have doors
tower into the building. Airflow follows the pres-
and large windows facing onto the yard and small
sure gradients within the structure and exits
windows high up on the back wall facing out onto
through purposely designed openings and through
the street. Ridged roof tops provide shade in the
the leeward side of the tower. The size and loca-
summer and retain warmth in the winter. The
tion of openings (e.g., windows, doors, etc.) and
verandah divides the courtyard into several big
distribution of internal party walls have a great
and small spaces that are closely connected, pro-
impact on encouraging cross flow and mixing of
viding a common place for people to relax what-
the indoor air.
ever the weather. The courtyard is an open-air
In addition to the pressure-induced flows, the
living room and garden with plants, rocks, and
principal factor in wind towers is buoyancy which
flowers, for family members to chat and gather.
depends on the temperature difference and the
In cold Northern China, courtyards are built
height. During the day the sun heats up the struc-
broad and large to increase the exposure to sun-
ture warming the internal air which then rises
light, and there are more open areas inside the
through the wind tower, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
courtyard walls for daylight, fresh air, and rain-
At night the cool night air lowers the temperature
water capture for plants and gardens. In hot South-
of the structure and the internal air and the heavier
ern China, the courtyard houses (Fig. 3) are built
air then flows downward, cooling the internal
with multiple stories to encourage cross ventila-
spaces after the heat of the day. Figure 2 shows
tion flow incorporating natural cooling effects.
4 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

Air Flow(Day)

Roof

Hall

5
Ground
Level
6 Air
Flow
(Night:No Wind)
Basement

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 1 Bagdir in Dubai, in United Arab Emirates [2]

Wind

Wind Door
Ground

Wind
Tunnel Foundation basement

Combination of sensible and evaporative cooling

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 2 Wind towers in Yazd, Iran, to ventilate houses, are also constructed
to cool underground cisterns (water reservoir) [3]

The orientation of houses is not strictly north- Lessons from Nature: Termite Mounds or
south aligned, but follows the local topology of Termitaries
hills and easy access to water sources. Termites are an outstanding example in the animal
kingdom of ingenious animal architects as master
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 3 A
typical courtyard house in Southern China (Image credit:
Beifan Yang, Tianjin Weland Landscape Architecture
Design Co., Ltd.)
builders. Over 2000 species of termites live in
tropical and subtropical regions and have shown
us by analogy the art of designing for living in a
variety of dwelling styles with natural ventilation.
Termites build their nest so as to achieve auto-
matic ventilation to regulate the internal tempera-
ture, as well as constantly managing control of gas
exchange and moisture level. They do not keep a
set temperature, but allow a gradual change
between the seasons determined by the external
environmental temperature.
In Australia, compass termites build large-
sized mounds in the form of huge, flat chisel-
shaped blades, with their long axis pointing
north-south. This arrangement exposes the mini-
mum possible area to the midday sun but allows
the mounds to catch the rays of the early morning
and late evening sun, when the termites need
warmth, especially in the cold season; peak tem-
peratures can be lowered by about 7
C with N-S
orientation and thus maintain a preferred temper-
ature of 30–32
C [4].
There are two main types of termite mounds:
(1) the open ventilation mounds which let air flow
into or out through chimneys or holes built into
5
the mounds and (2) the completely enclosed
mounds in which gases are exchanged through
the porous thin-walled tunnels.
The nest of a termite species Apicotermes
gurgulifex is shown in Fig. 4a. It is embedded in
the soil but clothed by a mantle of air. The nest is
constructed from the excrement of the termites so
is well insulated. Its outer wall has a pattern of
raised, ring-shaped configurations which sur-
round an array of precisely spaced and shaped
ventilation slits. These slits link the external and
the internal spaces.
The termitary of the fungus-cultivating ter-
mites, Macrotermes bellicosus in Fig. 4b, may
reach a height of 3 or 4 m and contain more than
two million termites. The fungus chambers are
built into complex spongelike structures with
numerous supporting ridges with air ducts. The
air in the fungus chamber is heated by fermenta-
tion processes and the metabolic heat generated
by the termites. The hot air rises and enters the
duct systems in the ridges, the walls of which are
porous, allowing carbon dioxide to escape from
the dwelling and oxygen to enter. The cooler air
flows down to the cellar and replaces the rising
warmer air.
Igloos
The Inuit people build igloos as shelters from the
extreme weather conditions in the Arctic. The
igloo (Fig. 5) has excellent thermal performance
without mechanical equipment. The hemispheri-
cal shape of the igloo provides the maximum
resistance to winter gales from all directions,
while simultaneously exposing the minimum sur-
face area to heat loss. The dome uses packed snow
blocks, some 500 mm thick, 1000 mm long, and
150 mm wide, which are laid in a continuously
sloping pile. Effectively, the shape encloses the
largest volume with the least material, so it can be
heated by a blubber lamp. Coated by a glaze of ice
on the interior surface, the finished dome is made
stronger and windproof. The interior surface is
also draped with animal skins and furs to prevent
radiant and convective heat loss to the cold floor
and the walls. Measurements have shown that
with no heat source apart from the small blubber
6 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, section through the nest of Macrotermes bellicosus from
Fig. 4 Ventilation of termite molds. (a) Nest of a termite Ivory Coast showing the air being circulated by buoyancy
species Apicotermes gurgulifex [4]. (b) Longitudinal [4]

Airholes

Sleeping
Cold sink platform

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 5 Illustration of an igloo (Image credit: Bin Zhang, Tianjin Weland
Landscape Architecture Design Co., Ltd.)

lamp, internal air temperatures are held at levels of Natural Ventilation Principles
6 to 4
C with external temperatures of 24 and
40
C [5]. At the same time, the combination of The natural forces that drive ventilation can be
a cold sink inlet and airhole outlets provides crit- wind pressure driven or buoyancy driven where
ically needed breathing air. pressure is generated by the density differences
These four illustrations show that traditional between indoor and outdoor air.
building technologies have evolved and been
adapted over time by people and animals in all
Wind-Driven Ventilation
climates to meet thermal comfort and ventilation
Wind is caused by pressure differences in the
needs, accommodating the values, economies,
atmosphere. The general flow of wind close to
and the culture-inspired ways of life. However
the Earth’s surface is subjected to boundary layer
versatile, they all reflect the basic principles
effects, called the atmospheric boundary layer, in
described in the next section.
which wind speed is influenced by the surface
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment 7

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 6 Wind speed variation with height and terrain conditions [7] (Image
credit: Jin Zhang, JINT Design Consultants Ltd.)

Direction of wind
Direction of wind
Roof pitch >30°

Roof pitch <30°

Plan Section

Section Section

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 7 Wind pressure distribution on buildings. (a) Wind pressure on
building. (b) Wind pressure on roof [8]

friction of the ground. The variation of wind speed
at different heights and in different terrains is
illustrated in Fig. 6. Wind speed correction coef-
ficients for different terrain conditions in the UK
are listed in the British Standards Institute docu-
ment BS 5925 [6].
When the path of the wind is impeded by
obstacles, such as trees and buildings, then an
energy conversion takes place. Velocity pressure
is converted to static pressure, so that on the
windward side, an overpressure is produced
(about 0.5–0.8 times the wind velocity), whereas
on the leeward side, an under-pressure results
(about 0.3–0.4 times the wind velocity). The pres-
sure distribution on the roof varies according to
pitch. Figure 7 shows areas of positive and
negative pressures generated by wind normal to
building front: wind-driven flow through inlets on
positive pressure faces and outlets on negative
pressure faces [8]. The pressure differentials aris-
ing across a building cause infiltration of air
through window cracks and other openings.
Relative to the static pressure of the free wind,
the pressure on any point on the surface of a
building façade pw can be approximated by the
equation:
pw ¼ 0:5rCp vz 2 ðPa Þ (1)
where
• Cp = wind pressure coefficient
(dimensionless)
8 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
• nz = local wind speed at a specific reference
height z (m/s)
• r = air density (kg/m3)
In order to calculate the ventilation rate due to
the wind, a knowledge of the wind speed and
direction is necessary as well as information
about the nature of wind-stream patterns devel-
oped around the building. A summary of the
façade-averaged wind pressure coefficient data
for simple rectangular-plan low-rise buildings in
varying degrees of shelter and wind directions is
given in the AIVC Application Guide: A Guide to
Energy Efficient Ventilation [9].
For buildings with a simple layout, the natural
ventilation airflow rate by wind effect can be
determined as in the following case, with more
examples given in CIBSE Applications Manual
AM 10 [10]:
(a) Wind effect alone for a zone with multicross
flow openings (Fig. 8):

0:5
DCp
q ¼ A  Cd  U  (2)
2
where
• U is the wind speed measured at the same
height as the building (m/s)
• A is the total ventilation area (m2) – assuming
the four openings are identical
• Cd is the discharge coefficient (typical value
0.6)
• DCp is the difference between wind pressure
coefficient (C p1 and C p2)
Buoyancy-Driven (Stack) Ventilation
Warm air in a room tends to rise because of its low
density. It is replaced by cooler, denser air from
outside. There is a neutral pressure plane where
the pressure difference is zero as shown in Fig. 9.
Since the pressure at the outlet or inlet can be
affected by the wind, the extent to which the
stack effect operates is governed partly by the
wind pressure and partly by the design of the
openings and the internal layout.
U
A/2 A/2
q/2 q/2
Cp1 Cp2
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 8 Cross ventilation driven by wind effect alone
For buildings with a simple layout, the natural
ventilation airflow rate by buoyancy effect can be
determined as illustrated in the following example
[10]:
Buoyancy effect alone for a single-opening
zone (Fig. 10):
A  Cd
q¼h i0:5 (3)
ðT i þ273Þ
DTgh
where
• q is the ventilation flow rate (m3/s)
• Ti is the internal temperature (
C)
• DT is the difference between the internal and
external air temperature (K)
• A is the opening area (m2)
• h is the opening height (m)
• Cd is the discharge coefficient (0.25 for
single-opening)
• g is acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
In spaces where cross ventilation is not feasi-
ble, stack ventilation works best with high ceil-
ings, atria, or chimneys (Fig. 11).
An atrium is a variant of stack ventilation prin-
ciple (Fig. 12). It draws air from both sides of the
building toward a central extract point, doubling
the natural ventilation effective width in the
building.
A well-designed double-skin façade provides
buildings with additional protective layers from
the outdoor environment, improves thermal and
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
Natural Ventilation in
Built Environment,
Fig. 9 Stack pressure
distribution between two
vertically placed openings
[9, p. 214]
Text
External
pressure
gradient
Natural Ventilation in
Built Environment,
Fig. 10 Single-sided
q ΔT
ventilation, single-opening,
driven by buoyancy alone
A h
visual comfort for occupants, and reduces intru-
sive noise. The double skin can also enclose the
circulation, integrating the internal and external
spaces in the building and providing views to
outside to achieve the harmonious integration of
people and nature.
The Gherkin building (see Fig. 13), 30 St Mary
Axe in the city of London, is naturally ventilated
most of the year through its exterior cladding
consisting of triangular- and diamond-shaped
glass panels. The glazing system contains a
double-glazed outer layer and a single-glazed
inner layer with solar control blinds in the central
ventilated cavity. Fresh air is drawn up through
spiraling light wells enclosed by the openable
double-glazed panels, which also effectively
reduce the need for additional heating and
cooling. The circular tapering shape of the
9
A
H2 Tint
Neutral pressure
plane
B
H1
Pressure
Internal
pressure
gradient
building and the light wells maximize the amount
of natural light throughout the building and pro-
vide views out across the city from deep inside.
When natural forces cannot provide the
required indoor environment conditions, mechan-
ical systems – e.g., fans for increasing ventilation
rate and/or heat exchangers for cooling
(or heating) at peak summer (or winter) times –
can be used to enhance the thermal conditioning
and natural ventilation through purposely
installed openings in the building envelope. This
is known as a mixed-mode or hybrid ventilation
system with pressure sensors and motor-driven
dampers used to give control. Careful consider-
ations in the design and operation as well as end-
user education are needed to deliver effective
environmental control with ventilation in hybrid
systems.
10
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 11 Stack ventilation from vertical chimneys [11]
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 12 Stack ventilation from atrium [11]
Natural Ventilation Design
Requirements
Fresh Air
Indoor CO2 source is primarily generated through
human metabolism. Human respiration requires a
fresh air rate of 0.1–0.9 l/s per person depending
on the activities (metabolic rate) and clothing
insulation of the occupants [14]. Seppänen et al.
[15] and Wargocki et al. [16] have made a com-
prehensive review of over 20 studies with over
30,000 persons and found that ventilation rates
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
below 10 l/s per person result in lower air quality
and increased health problems. Ventilation rates
for acceptable indoor air quality are currently
assessed by using the ASHRAE Standard 62.1
[17]. In this standard there are two procedures
for estimating the amount of fresh air required.
The first is referred to as the ventilation rate and is
a prescriptive approach stating a requirement of
10 l/s per person of fresh air in nonsmoking office
environments. The second is a performance
approach, with more detail available given in the
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals [18].
Natural Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality
To obtain breathing air and remove pollutants
from internal spaces, adequate outdoor air
exchange rates are critical. To establish these
rates, a range of pollutants must be addressed
including odors, tobacco smoke, metabolic car-
bon dioxide, and VOCs.
Body Odors
A human being’s sense of smell permits very low
concentrations of odors. The sensitivity varies
between individuals. In a typical indoor environ-
ment, around 500 out of 6000 compounds of
concern are human bioeffluents [19]. Poor-quality
air is usually referred to as being stuffy, stale,
close, heavy, or lacking in freshness. Inhaled air
comes into contact with the nasal passages and
then the respiratory tissue; in each case the motion
of the olfactory hairs, and of the cilia on the
respiratory membrane, is affected by temperature,
humidity, dirt, odors, and also ions [20]. Body
odors are often the indication of poor ventilation
to building occupants.
Environmental Tobacco Smoke
Environmental tobacco smoke contains more than
4000 chemicals, and at least 50 of these chemicals
are known to be cancer-causing substances [21]. It
generates about 2 ppm CO, leads to irritation and
discomfort among 20% of those exposed, and is
also suspected to increase the risk of lung cancer
[22]. Based on a study on the rates of hospital
admissions for heart attacks before and after the
smoking ban was introduced in England on July
01, 2007, there was a clear association between
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment 11

Natural Ventilation

Blinds intelligently automatically

controlled by BMS

40.0
49.0
38.0 30 1/s/m
37.0 Extract Rate
36.0
35.0
34.0
33.0 Temp°C Predicted performance:
32.0 45
31.0
30.0 40 85% solar protection
29.0
28.0 35 50% light transmission
27.0
26.0 30 0.8 W/m2K thermal insulation
25.0
24.0 25
23.0
22.0 20 Fresh air
60 1/s/m
21.0 left over
20.0 Extract Rate

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, natural ventilation concept [13]. (b) Gherkin double-skin
Fig. 13 Gherkin, London, and ventilation through light façade design [13] (Source: Matt Kitson, Hilson Moran)
wells and double-skin façade. (a) Gherkin façade [12] and

the smoking ban and a 2.4% reduction (or 1200
fewer admissions due to a heart attack) in the
12 months following the ban [23].
Metabolic Carbon Dioxide
An average sedentary adult (metabolic rate
M = 70 W/m2 and body area A = 1.8 m2)
produces approximately 0.0051 l/s (18 l/h) of
CO2 by respiration when performing light office
duties [6]. Younger people such as infants and
primary school children have lower emission
rates, but they are likely to be more active and
may well have CO2 production at similar levels
[22]. Normally, in buildings, CO2 concentrations
12
below 0.1% (1000 ppm) are required to avoid
discomfort and headaches [24]. According to the
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and
Safety [25] and ASHRAE standards [17], health
effects can become acute at higher exposure
levels.
Increased CO2 content of the external atmo-
sphere causes the decreased pH value of the blood
[26]. Metabolism is very sensitive to body fluid
pH value. The health concerns of CO2 is another
reason besides global warming, for why the atmo-
sphere CO2 concentration should be limited to
<426 ppm [20].
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Thousands of chemical compounds have been
identified in the indoor environment. The most
common pollutants are given in ASHRAE Stan-
dard 62.1-2010 and Health and Safety Directives
[17, 27]. Contaminants such as formaldehyde,
toluene, volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
allergens, and radon can accumulate in poorly
ventilated buildings, causing health problems.
Complex mixtures of organic chemicals in indoor
air also have the potential to invoke subtle effects
on the central and peripheral nervous system,
leading to changes in behavior and performance
[28]. The latest overview on knowledge and
research outcomes concerning the relationships
between indoor air pollutants and health effects
by Brown, Holmes, and Harrison highlights crit-
ically needed research directions [29]:
• Development of validated measuring methods
• Establishment of dose-response relationships
• Development of risk indicators for multiple
exposures
Ventilation Effectiveness
Ventilation effectiveness is an indicator of how
efficiently supplied fresh air is mixed and distrib-
uted in the occupied space, related to both the
dilution and removal of indoor airborne contami-
nants [30]. Gan [31] used airflow pattern, air tem-
perature, and local mean age of air (i.e., the
average time for air to travel from an inlet to any
point in a room set equal to the room volume
divided by the air supply rate) to determine the
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
effective depth of fresh air distribution in a natu-
rally ventilated space. CFD predictions show that
the width and height of window openings, room
heat gains, and outdoor air temperature have com-
bined effects in determining the maximum room
depth for effective fresh air distribution in single-
sided natural ventilation. For summer cooling
requirements, thermal comfort may displace
indoor air quality as the determining factor in
design. Instead of contaminant concentrations
for effectiveness measures [32], Coffey and Hunt
[33] proposed to measure the active buoyancy
(e.g., the heat or coolth) removal in natural dis-
placement and natural mixing flows within a
space for evaluating the ventilation effectiveness.
Practical design guidance for naturally venti-
lating performing arts buildings in an urban con-
text has been outlined by Short and Cook
[34]. Specific space features and operating
requirements in designing auditoria were
addressed and demonstrated through the presen-
tation of three case studies. The technical guide-
lines beyond typical natural ventilation space
design include:
• Sizing larger inlet and outlet areas
• Managing acoustic attenuation
• Configuring building management system to
cater for all levels of occupancy density
• Ensuring the stratification of warm, stale air
remains above the breathing zone in theaters
with raked seating
• Avoiding airflow imbalance generated by wind
pressure
For hospital environments, natural ventilation
system design needs to pay special attention to
eliminate the spread of biological (i.e., fungi, bac-
teria, and virus), chemical, and other
contaminants [35].
Natural Ventilation for Cooling
In addition to natural ventilation for breathing air,
there is significant benefit for natural ventilation
for convective cooling of the human body and
thermal cooling of the air. Design of the natural
cooling system can be optimized considering
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
parameters involved, such as thermal mass, win-
dow size, and local environmental conditions.
Convective cooling is achieved whenever airflow
can effectively lift heat and moisture from the
skin. To obtain thermal cooling of the air and
remove heat from internal spaces, the incoming
air from the surroundings must be cooler than
indoor temperature. Water, earth, and concrete
have high capacity to store heat; providing inertia
against temperature fluctuations, they are referred
to as high thermal mass materials. The potential
sources for the cool air may be from a shaded or
landscaped space or from over a body of water, a
labyrinth with high thermal mass, underground
channels, or other sources of cooling.
In cold climates and locations with high diur-
nal temperature range, nighttime ventilation can
be applied to passively cool the building structure
and provide a heat sink during the daytime occu-
pancy period to achieve good thermal comfort.
Evaporative downdraft cooling techniques
[36, 37] involve introducing fresh ambient air at
the top of a central light well and providing atom-
ized water for evaporatively cooling the air as it
flows downward, filling the space with a static
reservoir of denser, cooler air.
Air Movement in Rooms
It has been well established that air movement is
one of the important factors influencing people’s
perception of thermal comfort [38]. Air move-
ment is a combination of a momentum-induced
airflow and buoyancy-induced airflow [32]. A jet
airflow is caused by a momentum source, which
can either be a fan or the pressure difference
across an opening caused by the wind or temper-
ature difference. Buoyancy-driven airflow is
caused by density differences. This type of motion
is also called natural convection. The research
work of Linke [39], Mullejans [40], and van
Gunst [41] has given clear descriptions of the air
patterns produced by air streams at various veloc-
ities and temperatures, when directed through dif-
ferent types of outlet, and also their interaction
with the natural convection currents in the space.
Design should ensure that the optimum air and
temperature distribution as well as satisfactory
13
sound levels will be provided from the air stream
outlet.
• Air movement should vary in space and time
without giving drafts, recognizing that some
parts of the body (i.e., ankles, back of the
neck) are more susceptible to drafts.
• Temperatures should vary within the vertical
gradient for comfort, recognizing that a higher
level of warmth is preferable below knee level
rather than at head level.
• For freshness, higher air velocities are required
at higher temperatures, with an air velocity
change of 0.15 m/s being equivalent to a
change of about 1
C in temperature. Air at a
lower temperatures and relative humidity of
40–60% (i.e., air with a lower enthalpy) is
perceived as fresher than air with a higher
enthalpy [42, 43]).
• Above the head, the convection air velocities
can be 0.25 m/s or higher depending on the
occupancy density.
• Air movement helps to dispel a sense of
stuffiness.
Cross ventilation is normally the primary strat-
egy for passive cooling. Operable windows are
the most commonly used vents in natural ventila-
tion systems. There are four common types of
windows – sliding (sash), horizontal-vane open-
ing, vertical-vane opening, and combination tilt
and turn windows, as illustrated in the BSRIA
guide [44]. Window selection, integrated with
building form and orientation, façade details, and
internal layout design, contributes to create differ-
ent indoor airflow patterns and provide different
options for the control of direction and volumetric
flow. In certain conditions windows can cause
localized discomfort, i.e., local drafts, cold radiant
surfaces in winter, or solar gain in summer. How-
ever, occupants of naturally ventilated buildings
are generally willing to accept a wider range of
internal temperatures as satisfactory and prefer the
greater control they are given over their
environment.
In addition to cross ventilation, buoyancy or
stack ventilation can be effective at increasing the
14 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

Natural Ventilation in a qiblat

Built Environment, qiblat
N
Fig. 14 Natural cooling in
serambi
traditional Malacca mihrab
Mosque, Malaysia [45]. (a) Prayer
A traditional Malacca hall

Mosque in Malaysia with

typical floor plan. (b) Cross serambi
serambi

ventilation design. (c)

Stack-effect design

Northeast Southwest

airflow rates for convective cooling of the occu-
pants. Stack ventilation can be further assisted by
wind-induced stack airflow and by solar chim-
neys. Solar chimneys are constructed to capture
solar radiation to increase the difference in tem-
perature between incoming and outflowing air to
enhance stack ventilation.
The design of traditional mosques in Malacca,
Malaysia (Fig. 14), demonstrates the combination
of cross ventilation with stack or heat
stratification-induced ventilation to achieve
cooling with natural ventilation.
Design for Daylighting with Natural
Ventilation
The design of windows for natural ventilation
must also consider effective daylighting opportu-
nities. Daylight is good for health and saving
energy. Natural light has a balanced spectrum of
colors and wavelengths which vary over the day
depending on latitude and seasons (Fig. 15) with
measurable benefits over artificial light sources in
regulating circadian rhythms and maintaining
overall health [46].
The daylight penetration depends on the room
geometry as does the air distribution. In order to
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 15 Design to maximize daylight throughout the
year [47]
create stimulating high-quality interior environ-
ments, lighting design must consider source inten-
sities, distribution, glare, color rendering, and
surface modeling [47]. Improved daylight metrics
can be applied in a practical, real-world context to
take into account the temporal and spatial aspects
of daylight, as well as meeting design standards
for energy and occupant comfort [48].
Urban Pollution and Noise with Natural
Ventilation
The design of windows for natural ventilation
must also consider the effects of outdoor pollution
and noise. In the built-up urban environment,
buildings and roads make up the basic geometric
form of street canyons. Similar to a natural can-
yon, which is a steep gorge with very high sides
and a minimal valley floor, an urban canyon has
narrow street space bordered by very high build-
ings. One example of an urban canyon is the
Magnificent Mile in Chicago as shown in the
picture (Fig. 16).
It is important to understand how these topo-
graphic places affect wind patterns, pollution, and
noise. An urban boundary layer rises above the
canopy (see Fig. 17). The potential for natural
15
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 16 Urban canyon – the magnificent Mile in Chicago
[49]
ventilation is seriously affected by the reduction
of wind speed, complicated turbulent dispersion
patterns, elevated day- and night-time ambient
temperatures due to the urban heat island effect,
and increased external pollutants as well as noise
level.
Based on neural network methodologies, an
algorithm calculating the optimum sizes of open-
ings for naturally ventilated buildings located in
urban canyons for single-sided and stack-effect
configurations was derived by Ghiaus and Allard
[51]. They identify that mitigation of the urban
heat island effect can be accomplished through the
use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored
surfaces in urban areas, which reflect more sun-
light and absorb less heat. Green roofs protect the
roof materials from intense solar radiation and
prolong the service lifetime. Plants that retain
and absorb rain improve the microclimate and
also reduce the runoff water to drainage systems.
Plants and soil provide for a level of acoustic
absorption and pollution reduction for incoming
streams of natural ventilation.
Embracing nature, even in urban settings, has
been long-term inspiration and challenge for
architects and engineers. In Japan, the Osaka
Gas Corporation has sponsored an experimental
“Open Building” (Fig. 18) project NEXT21 since
1994. The structural and building services are
challenged to use resources more effectively
through systemized construction [53]. A variety
16
Natural Ventilation in
Built Environment,
Fig. 17 Cross section of
the urban atmosphere [50]
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 18 Open building in Japan [52]
of residential units have been designed by differ-
ent architects’ practices to accommodate varying
households. Substantial natural greenery was
planted on the “3D streets” formed by different
levels of building service pathways connecting
different apartments in a high-rise structure.
Green plants can reduce pollution and create
healthier microclimate in/around the building,
also connecting people to nature above street
level in urban settings. Innovative designs could
tackle the noise issue when utilizing natural
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
ventilation [54–57]. Energy-efficient measures
include fuel cells and behavior – encouraging
occupants to become more aware of how to lead
a comfortable life possible without increasing
energy consumption.
A 1993 study by Clausen et al. in a climate
chamber revealed that a change of 2.4 decipol in
the perceived air quality or a change of 3.9 dB in
the noise level has the same effect on thermal
comfort as 1
C change in the operative tempera-
ture [58]. Recently, a number of newly built
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
schools in the UK with different ventilation strat-
egies have shown that the complex interactions
between thermal comfort, ventilation, and acous-
tics are major challenges for designers [59].
The shape of the room and surface finishes
affect the sound distribution. The optimum bal-
ance of direct and indirect sound depends on the
shape of the space and the boundary surface sound
absorption. Combined acoustic and airflow design
chart and equations could help designers to
achieve both adequate acoustical insulation and
airflow rates requirement, especially in the early
stages of the design process [60]. The newly com-
pleted broadcast center in London has showcased
a range of sustainable technologies to achieve the
world’s first naturally ventilated television studios
(see details in case study).
Humidity and Condensation Prevention with
Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation is typically associated with
higher ventilation rates, especially when outdoor
conditions are cooler than indoors. In Nordic res-
idential buildings, monitoring data has shown
health risk for the residents with ventilation rates
below 0.5 ACH. Low ventilation rates may lead to
high indoor relative humidity and indoor pollutant
concentrations. Low ventilation rates and mois-
ture accumulation may lead to increased dust
mites in residential dwellings linked to asthma.
Moisture in buildings can lead to mold formation
also associated with exacerbation of asthma and
upper respiratory disease in both children and
adults [3, 61].
Studies of ventilation rate and health effects in
public buildings [62] indicate that ventilation rates
below 10 l/s per person have significantly associ-
ated with health risks and perceived air quality
complaints. On the other hand, increased ventila-
tion rates between 10 and 20 l/s per person
reduce sick building syndromes (SBS) and
improve perceived air quality. A relative humidity
range of 40–60% is generally considered accept-
able. High humidities over 60% gradually
increase the risk of mold growth, and other fungal
contamination, which may cause asthma and
other respiratory health concerns. Increased
humidity may also enhance other emissions in
17
buildings, e.g., formaldehyde from furnishings
[63]. On the other hand, low humidity (<30%)
may cause dryness and irritation of the skin, eyes,
and airways of some occupants [22] including
increased throat infections. Contact lens wearers
often experience discomfort in dry environments.
A set amount of background ventilation (e.g.,
trickle vents formed passive stack) will provide
sufficient fresh air and also work with all types of
ventilation strategies (either natural or mechani-
cal) to ensure a healthy atmosphere and reduce the
potential for condensation and mold.
Fire Safety with Natural Ventilation
In the event of a fire, flames and smoke will follow
the paths of natural ventilation. As a result, the
natural ventilation system must integrate fire
safety strategies and provide solutions which
facilitate safe occupancy, warning, escape, and
increased visibility for the fire service
[6]. Smoke ventilation designs utilize the buoy-
ancy of hot smoke to automatically open vents
(AOVs) on the fire floor in conjunction with an
AOV at the top of the smoke ventilation system to
naturally extract smoke from the common escape
routes. Depending on the building envelope and
structural configuration, automatically open vents
(AOVs) should be placed in natural/mechanical
smoke shafts, atria, internal glazed screen/
façades, and fire stairs to achieve the prime objec-
tive of keeping common escape routes clear of
smoke. Standby fans should be installed as an
emergency safety precaution.
Design Guidelines for Natural
Ventilation
The parameters which affect the air velocity and
temperature at a given point in the room include:
1. Air inlet velocity (sound emission must also be
accounted for when selecting a value for this)
2. Temperature differentials of outdoor and room
air
3. Geometry and position of air supply inlets
4. Geometry and position of air extract outlets
5. Room geometry
18 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

6. Room surface temperatures (low surface tem- a

perature components, such as glass, tend to
promote strong convection currents) W ≤ 2H
7. Position, shape distribution, and emission of
heat sources (e.g., people) H
8. Room turbulence

Natural ventilation can be difficult to control

due to the fluctuating indoor and outdoor condi- W
tions. As previously stated naturally ventilated b
buildings have to be inextricably linked to archi-
tectural form and fabric; they require holistic W ≤ 2.5H
design and significant attention to detail. Well- h approx
designed natural ventilation systems need to 1.5 m H
address the following aspects comprehensively
[64–66]:

• Site design – building location, orientation, site W

layout, and landscaping
c
• Building design – building type and function,
building form and orientation, envelope, ther- W ≤ 5H
mal mass, natural ventilation strategy, internal
H
spatial division and functions, internal heat
load, solar shading, daylight, and passive
night cooling potential
• Vent opening design – position of openings,
W
clear path of airflow, types of openings, sizing
and choice of window opening design, effec- d Edge-in, Centre-in
Centre-out Edge-out
tive area of multiple openings, provision of (E.C) (C-E)
secure, operable openings, and control strategy

The rules of thumb for effective natural venti-

lation can be simplified as follows [10], illustrated Edge-in, Centre-in,
in Fig. 19: Edge-out Centre-out
(E-E) (C-C)

• Single-sided single-opening (mainly driven by

wind turbulence) can be effective up to a depth
of two times the floor-to-ceiling height, typi-
cally 4–6 m (Fig. 19a).
• Single-sided double-opening (mainly driven
by buoyancy forces) can be effective up to a
depth of 2.5 times the floor-to-ceiling height,
typically 7–8 m (Fig. 19b).
• Cross ventilation with ventilation openings on
both sides, generally opposite sides of a space
(mainly driven by wind), can be effective up to
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 19 Schematic diagrams of the different forms of
natural ventilation: (a) single-sided single-opening, (b)
single-sided double-opening, (c) cross ventilation, and (d)
atrium ventilation [68]
a depth of five times the floor-to-ceiling height,
typically 15 m (Fig. 19c).
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment 19

Stack ventilation
through a rooflight
Wind-assisted
external ventilator Roof vent and glazing
Louvres for lower floors with glare protection
adjusted to
reject summer
Single-sided
radiation
ventilation

Air supply through

floor diffusers

Louvres
adjusted to
admit overcast
sky luminance
Air intake on
North elevation
to floor duct

Louvres
adjusted to Transfer
act as lightshelves grille Manually
operable
windows in
summer with
BMS control
of fanlights

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 20 Illustration of combined natural ventilation strategies [44]

• Stack ventilation is mainly driven by tempera- • Low-energy lighting

ture differences between the hot air in the
occupied space and the cooler external air.
The effective depth of a stack ventilation sys-
tem is up to five times the floor-to-ceiling
height. Stack ventilation can also be enhanced
by the wind effect or through the use of a solar
chimney, i.e., solar-driven stack
ventilation [67].
• Different forms of atrium ventilation are illus-
trated in Fig. 19d [68].
Figure 20 illustrates how various natural ven-
tilation strategies can be integrated into design.
For natural ventilation to be effective for ther-
mal comfort, it may be critical for heat gains to be
kept below 35 W/m2 to avoid excessive over-
heating. This means there is a need to reduce
solar loads, daytime highs, and internal gains by:
• Solar protection
• Vented façades
• Thermal mass
• Plug load management including the use of
cloud computing, which can reduce computer
heat gains considerably
Benefits of Natural Ventilation
The indoor environmental advantages of natural
ventilation are predominantly gained by the elim-
ination or reduced use of mechanical systems:
• Less energy is consumed.
• Less mechanical system space is needed.
• Maintenance is simpler.
• Durability is improved.
• Mechanical noise is eliminated.
• Occupants gain control of air quality and tem-
perature using windows.
• Costs are lower.
• A higher level of daylight is provided with
well-designed windows.
The disadvantages of natural ventilation
include:
20
• The driving pressure depends on the wind
and/or the stack effect, and both are variable
and cannot be easily controlled.
• There has to be an integrated approach to
design between the architect and the engineer
with regard to built form, orientation, massing,
internal layout, selection of window types, and
their positioning in the façade.
• Internal heat gains are limited to less than
35 W/m2.
• There is no filtration or control of outdoor
pollution or moisture content.
• Outdoor noise can be an issue.
Most significantly, however, the ventilation
rate depends on the strength and direction of
wind and/or buoyancy forces and the resistance
of the flow path. The uncontrollable feature of
natural ventilation can result in the air change
rate varying significantly and being distributed
unevenly to internal spaces giving periods of inad-
equate ventilation, or periods of over ventilation.
Health and Productivity
There is a unique relationship between an individ-
ual, the environment, and the building they
inhabit. The complicated interaction between the
environmental stimuli, such as air and surface
temperatures, humidity, air movement, and air
purity, and the interlinked social and psychologi-
cal factors of individuals and their organization
influences the sense of well-being, health, and
productivity [20, 69]. Loftness et al. [70] captures
the impact of access to the natural environment,
including natural ventilation, on health and pro-
ductivity (Fig. 21a, b). In addition to the health
and productivity benefits brought by design with
access to the natural environment, there are mea-
surable energy benefits. Effective daylighting can
yield 10–60% reductions in annual lighting
energy consumption. There is evidence of poten-
tial 40–75% reductions for cooling energy con-
sumption when natural ventilation is interactively
supported by mixed-mode HVAC systems. Sus-
tainable and healthy built environments result
from integrating the natural diversity of the
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
region – its unique climate and seasons, textures,
sounds, smells, and variety of landscape and
species.
Mixed Mode: The Selection of
Ventilation Strategies
CIBSE [64] gives the following monograph to
help the decision process for selecting whether
to use natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation,
mechanical assist to cooling, and air-conditioning
(Fig. 22).
Decision-making can be substantially
improved through the use of computer-aided pre-
diction models. Chen [71] presented an overview
of ventilation performance prediction methods,
including analytical models, empirical models,
small-scale experimental models, full-scale exper-
imental models, multizone network models, zonal
models, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
models. Recent applications of these simulation
tools were examined in terms of their contribu-
tions to design practice and/or to research. CFD
applications in modeling of wind-driven natural
ventilation [72] have shown improved prediction
capability for complex naturally ventilated build-
ings. Not reliant on simulation alone, Walker [73]
developed a methodology to evaluate natural ven-
tilation in a multizoned commercial office build-
ing by combining full-scale building monitoring,
reduced-scale physical experiment, and CFD sim-
ulation. Simulation that incorporates detailed ther-
mal sensation and comfort models provides more
accurate predictions on the dynamic responses of
occupants to building environments, and
advanced coupling in simulation extends the pre-
diction capability of CFD and brings the needs of
the human occupancy into the design of buildings
[74, 75]. The integration of CFD with dynamic
building simulation (BS) models and geographic
information systems (GIS) data would be a prac-
tical way to take advantage of the strength of the
other models for optimal natural ventilation
design and analysis. Figure 23 illustrates an appli-
cation of CFD for advanced natural ventilation
design in hospitals. Lomas and Ji [76] evaluated
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
simple natural ventilation (SNV) and advanced
natural ventilation (ANV) designs in terms of
overheating risk in healthcare buildings given
current and future climate conditions. They also
proposed an overheating risk criterion compatible
with adaptive thermal comfort – an emerging
approach to defining comfort in naturally venti-
lated environments (see Chapter ▶ Adaptive
Comfort and Mixed-Mode Conditioning). Both
field monitoring and modeling studies reveal that
advanced natural ventilation could offer greater
resilience to climate change, particularly as a
refurbishment strategy.
The strengths and weaknesses of a wide range
of design simulation tools have been summarized
by governmental and professional organizations
Fig. 21 (continued)
21
in DoE and IBPSA [77, 78]. Educational
resources and practical equations for various
design stages and step-by-step guided case studies
will help multidisciplinary professions to design
and build sustainable buildings that incorporate
natural ventilation [68, 79–81]. The following
case studies showcase innovative solution to nat-
ural and mixed-mode ventilated buildings in the
built environment.
Natural Ventilation and Mixed-Mode
Case Studies
Six case studies have been selected to illustrate the
sophistication and diversity of naturally ventilated
and mixed-mode commercial building projects.
22
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 21 Health and productivity gains from access to the
natural environment. (a) Health gains from access to the
Case Study 1: Liverpool John Moores
University, UK
The award-winning Liverpool John Moores Uni-
versity art and design academy was designed by
Rick Mather Architects, engineered by
Whitbybird Engineers, and built by Wates Con-
struction. The building was designed from 2004
and opened in 2008 (see Fig. 24).
The 11,000 m2 five-story university academic
building has a number of important environmental
initiatives in the client brief including a 25%
energy savings below UK conservation of fuel
and power building regulations, a BREEAM tar-
get of Very Good, and a 10% onsite renewable
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
natural environment. (b) Productivity gains from access to
the natural environment [70]
energy target. To meet these requirements, the
design team reviewed a number of architectural,
structural, and services engineering options and
concluded that a mixed-mode ventilation scheme
utilizing thermal mass with heat recovery would
be of particular benefit to the low-energy goals.
The building design team used the latest computer
modeling techniques to prove compliance with
industry standards for thermal comfort, with par-
ticular attention to the prevention of overheating
(see Figs. 25, 26, 27, and 28).
The building is designed for cross and stack
ventilation through multiple benefits from a
heavyweight thermal mass during the spring and
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment 23

Start
No
Are Can Is
max. heat Yes re-design No Is No seasonal
gains more than reduce gains to Occupancy mixed-mode
30–40 30–40 transient? acceptable? Yes
–2
W.m ? W.m–2?

Yes Yes Can capacity

No effects absorb
swing in temp.
No
and IAQ? Yes

Yes No Is Yes
this a peak
season?
Yes
Can See also
Does
courtyards or Is zonal AM13:
the building No No
atria reduce width mixed-mode Mixed
have a narrow to less than acceptable? mode
plan? 15 m? No ventilation
Yes Is
Yes Yes
Yes this a
perimeter
zone?
Are
noise and No No
pollution levels
acceptable?

Yes

Can Is
Is tight
occupants No Yes close control Yes
temperature
adapt conditions of RH required?
with weather control required?
(better than
(= ±1 K)
changes? ±10%)

Yes No
No
Is
No humidification
required in
winter?

Yes
Mechanical
Natural Mechanical Comfort Full air
ventilation and
ventilation ventilation cooling conditioning
humidification

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 22 Flowchart for selecting a ventilation strategy [64]

summer, utilizes single-sided natural ventilation Case Study 2: Tamworth Academies –

with mechanical extract during peak summer with
nighttime free cooling (see Fig. 25), and during
winter operates as a sealed building with heating
provided by a biomass pellet boiler. A weather
station provides data to the BEMS to ensure the
automated windows are aligned with the ventila-
tion strategy.
Staffordshire, UK
Two secondary school academies were commis-
sioned by Tamworth County Council in 2009.
Designed by Aedas architects and engineered by
WSP and CTM, the two 9000 m2 two-story build-
ings were completed by Willmott Dixon Con-
struction and opened in 2010 (Fig. 29). These
24 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,

Fig. 23 Advanced natural ventilation system design in
hospital using CFD [76]

school buildings met the government’s 60% car-

bon reduction targets compared to 2002 UK build-
ing regulations and achieved the BREEAM
environmental target of Excellent.
It was the aim of the architectural, structural,
and services engineering teams to design a low-
energy building that was future proofed against
rising energy costs. The client team requested a
life cycle cost solution, with low ongoing costs.
The building was designed to operate as a natu-
rally ventilated building predominantly, with a
highly efficient mechanical ventilation and ther- Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 24 LJMU Liverpool façade in nighttime. (a) LJMU
mal conditioning system during peak summer and Liverpool exterior; (b) LJMU Liverpool façade in night-
extremely cold winters. To extend the period of time (Source: Rick Mather Architects)
natural ventilation and natural cooling, the project
incorporated TermoDeck by Tarmac, an inte- mechanical ventilation and thermal conditioning
grated structural mixed-mode ventilation scheme is communicated to the occupants alongside
utilizing thermal mass free cooling with energy- weather station data on flat screen TVs.
efficient heat recovery (see Fig. 30). The mea-
sured impact of night cooling of the thermal
mass for next day ventilation cooling is as high Case Study 3: BSkyB Broadcast Center –
as 4
C (see Fig. 31). London, UK
Other features of these two school buildings Designed by Arup Associates (architects and
include the use of chilled water cooling with engineers), the BSkyB broadcast center (Fig. 32)
ground source heat pumps to manage zones with is located in West London and houses the world’s
high internal gains due to communication tech- first naturally ventilated television studios
nologies. The seasonal operation of natural and [82]. Thirteen giant ventilation chimneys provide
stack ventilation, with nine lining the building’s
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment 25

Natural Ventilation in
Built Environment,
Fig. 25 Exposed concrete WARM AIR
soffit for thermal mass CONCRETE SCAB COOLED AT NIGHT TIME VENTILATION
OUT
benefit (Source: Lee
Hargreaves, WSP UK Ltd.)
RADIANT
HEAT
EXCHANGE
COOL AIR CONVECTIVE
IN HEAT EXCHANGE

Natural Ventilation in 11 12
Built Environment, 10
14
Fig. 26 Sun path analysis 15
for external façade design 9
(Source: Whitbybird 16
Engineers) 17
8 18
19
7

6
N

eastern elevation and another four on the west. The
construction provides a solution to eliminating
external noise as well as naturally ventilating the
studios to remove excessive heat generated by
studio lights. Fresh air is supplied through an
acoustically lined labyrinth built in between the
underside of the studio’s concrete floor and the
enclosure over the street. This configuration creates
big air paths to minimize noise from air delivery as
well as eliminating street noise (Fig. 33).
In order to prevent a common stack ventilation
problem – air cooling in the flue and dropping
back into a room – the flues are lined and insulated
on the inside. In an intermediate mode, the venti-
lation system will run on extract only to pull the
air up the chimney and warm it. When the right
flue surface temperature has been reached, the
air’s natural buoyancy will take over, and the
system will switch to the natural ventilation
mode automatically.
At the south end of the building, a glazed
atrium houses a series of meeting rooms, a café,
and breakout spaces, with access between levels.
The 8-m-deep office areas on the west elevation
26 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

850
top-hung opening window(no requirement for
restricted opening to be confirmed by LJMU)

1500
side-hung opening window (restricted?)

1100
fixed transluscent panel

PART EXTERNAL ELEVATION PART SECTION

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 27 External façade design (Source: Rick Mather Architects)

30

25

20
Temperature (C)

15

10

–5 Dry resultant temperature: room 214 (room 214.aps)

Dry-bulb temperature: (room 214.aps)

–10
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Date: Sun01/Jan to Sat 30/Dec

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 28 Thermal modeling chart (Source: Whitbybird Engineers)

are ventilated using single-side natural ventila-
tion. The 15-m-deep office areas on the east ele-
vation utilize three additional chimneys in the
atrium at the center of the building to help draw
air across the floor plates. Natural light through
these atriums are additional benefit of the design.
Case Study 4: Commerzbank – Frankfurt,
Germany
Norman Foster and Ove Arup’s Commerzbank in
Frankfurt, Germany (see Fig. 34), demonstrates
that sustainable urban architecture featuring natu-
ral ventilation, vast amounts of daylight, and
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment 27

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 29 Tamworth Landau Forte exterior (Source: WSP)

Natural Ventilation in
Air supply to
Built Environment,
hollowcore
Fig. 30 TermoDeck system
concrete plank (Source:
Tarmac Termodeck)

Surface away
from room

Surface facing
into room

Air supply
to room

pleasant exterior views can be achieved within a and outdoor views to green, natural spaces. The
deep building at the scale of the skyscraper. operable, layered façade allows natural ventilation
The three thin buildings laid out in a triangular- into the office spaces, and the winter gardens
shaped plan provide the rigid structural support provide controllable natural ventilation for the
needed for a high-rise building alongside func- building.
tional cores located at each corner of the triangle.
The central atrium that is formed by the buildings
Case Study 5: Queen’s Building, De Montfort
provides light both vertically from the glass roof
University, UK
at the atrium’s top and horizontally from the win-
The Queen’s Building (Fig. 35), designed by
ter gardens that displace one of the office areas for
Short and Ford Associates architects and Max
six floors in a spiraling pattern. These winter
Fordham LLP engineers and built in 1993, fea-
gardens, which rotate around the façade of the
tures large venting chimneys, heavy thermal
building, allow for natural ventilation from the
mass, shallow floor plans, operable windows,
offices into six-story atria. Natural light is also
and generous ceiling heights to facilitate natural
brought directly into the center providing daylight
ventilation and daylighting. This traditional brick
28 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

Natural Ventilation in
36 Lightweight
Built Environment,
Fig. 31 Temperature time Lightweight with
lag for lightweight and night vent
34
heavyweight buildings Heavyweight
(Source: Tarmac Heavyweight
Termodeck) with night vent

Internal temperature/°C
32

30

28

26

24

0 6 12 18 24
Time/h

building has deep insulation-filled cavity walls

and concrete floor slabs, buffering the indoors
from outdoor temperature peaks. The glazed ven-
tilation shafts also help to provide natural lighting.
In the auditoria fresh air enters through louvers in
the façade supplying plenums below the raked
wooden floor and wall inlets which are controlled
by the building energy management system.
Since being the Green Building winner of the
Year in 1995, the Queen’s Building has served as a
“Living Lab” to showcase innovative natural ven-
tilation and ventilative cooling technologies and
demonstrate ways of achieving significant carbon
reductions in academic buildings.

Case Study 6: Major Refurbishment Project –

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 32 BSkyB broadcast center in West London [82]
David Attenborough Building, University of
Cambridge, UK
The David Attenborough Building (former Uni-
versity of Cambridge’s Arup Building) was orig-
inally built in 1971 in the “Brutalist” style. The
16,000 m2 reinforced-concrete multistory build-
ing had a poorly insulted concrete façade with
ribbons of steel-framed single glazing. A full-
energy audit together with a thermal-imaging
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment,
Fig. 33 Natural ventilation flow within the BSkyB tele-
vision studios (Source: Arup Associates)
survey of its fabric explained why the existing
building was one of the most energy-intensive
buildings on the university’s estate. An occupant
satisfaction survey also revealed that the building
was too hot in summer and too cold in winter
[85, 86].
Closely working with Nicholas Hare Archi-
tects and Cambridge Conservation Initiative
(CCI), BuroHappold pioneered an extensive Sus-
tainability Framework beyond BREEAM to set
ambitious project-specific targets across 10 head-
line themes and 50 subthemes.
29
The integrated refurbishment strategies for the
David Attenborough Building (opened in
February 2017) are illustrated in Fig. 36 and
detailed in the following list:
• Natural ventilation zoning strategies
i. Natural ventilation of all perimeter office
bays
ii. Cross ventilation for upper levels
iii. Single-sided ventilation for levels 1 and 2
iv. Window vents with temperature and car-
bon dioxide automated control
• Overheating prevention
i. Utilizing the thermal mass of the concrete
on the lower floors
ii. Adding phase-change materials on top
floor
iii. Adding the low-energy intelligent commu-
nication technology
• Daylight harvesting, lighting, and acoustic
control
i. New glass atrium provides daylight deep
into floor plan with BIPV for glare control
ii. Combined lighting and acoustic raft?? for
acoustic control and low energy
consumption
iii. LED lighting update in the corridors
iv. Lighting controls for daylight dimming
and occupancy sensing
• Soft landing and smart metering to ensure
sustainable occupation
i. Energy and water submetering per floor
ii. Energy displays in the foyer of the building
With a shared vision, integrated and collabora-
tive project teams, engaging all stakeholders, and
a willingness to share lessons learned as a stan-
dard industry practice, a comprehensive hand-
book was produced. This set design,
construction, and post-occupancy targets to
ensure headline targets, including a 40% reduc-
tion in operational carbon emissions, a 30%
reduction in water use per person, and a 60%
total roof coverage for biodiverse green roofs
[85, 86].
30 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, Fig. 34 Commerzbank, Frankfurt, Germany. (a) Building section [83]. (b)
Winter garden and interior view design [84]
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment 31

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, (d) The Queen’s Building – natural ventilation strategy
Fig. 35 The Queen’s Building, De Montfort University, (Source: Professor Malcolm Cook, Loughborough
Leicester, UK. (a) Exterior view and stack outlets. (b) University)
Exterior view and air inlets. (c) Interior view of auditorium.
32 Natural Ventilation in Built Environment

Natural Ventilation in Built Environment, building model [85]. (b) Integrated refurbishment strate-
Fig. 36 David Attenborough Building, University of gies [86]
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK. (a) Perspective views of the

Future Directions is necessary to achieve a sustainable built environ-

ment [87, 88] and provide the optimum cost-benefit
Sustainable design requires a long-term approach to value for all stakeholders in the building industry
ensure resiliency that integrates all passive condi- [89]. Natural ventilation should be integrated in all
tioning strategies. Holistic design and construction projects, recognizing that various factors can limit
Natural Ventilation in Built Environment
its use at times. Vernacular architecture demon-
strates that natural ventilation and ventilation
cooling can work effectively in many climates.
Modern solutions demand a unity of thought
between architects and the engineers, introducing
hybrid systems that allow natural ventilation to be
augmented by mechanical ventilation and cooling
as needed. These hybrid systems are common in
Europe driven by the demand for low-carbon build-
ings. Natural ventilation and ventilation cooling are
critical for resiliency in the face of climate change
and critical for enhancing the well-being of building
occupants through increased ventilation rates,
important environmental variability (alliesthesia),
and increased connection to the natural environment.
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