Chapter One

Introduction to Stormwater
1.1 What Is Stormwater? What is Stormwater Management?

Following a rainfall event, precipitation can infiltrate into the soil, partake in plant
uptake and transportation, evaporate, or become runoff from pervious and impervious surfaces.
This fallen precipitation is known as stormwater, which can be defined as water that results from
precipitation in any form and flows over land surfaces (NJDEP, 2016). The fate of the
stormwater, or which of the paths from above it may follow, is ultimately determined by the
given landscape in which the precipitation falls. In landscapes that offer a natural system,
stormwater becomes runoff that’s filtered of pollutants and other debris by a variety of plants
(Greenville County Soil & Water Conservation District, 2020). Runoff then travels to nearby
water bodies or infiltrates the ground through previous surfaces, or surfaces that allow infiltration
to occur. This infiltration process is obstructed when naturally occurring landscapes are
disturbed or used for human development (Philadelphia Water Dept., 2018). Construction of
impervious surfaces; defined as a surface that has been covered with a layer of material so that it
is highly resistant to infiltration by water; such as rooftops, sidewalks, and paved or graded
roads–causes stormwater to be collected or redirected (NJDEP, 2016).

Figure 1.1.1

Stormwater & Urbanization

(Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group, 2001)

 The collection and redirection of stormwater caused by the transition from natural
landscapes to urban landscapes has negative implications. ​Figure 1.1.1​ portrays a general
simulation of the relationship between stormwater and urban development; overall, urbanization
leads to increased runoff and decreased infiltration. In addition, lack of vegetation in urban areas
prevents natural filtration from occurring, allowing stormwater to accumulate contaminants that
have been released from anthropogenic sources. This polluted stormwater can then infect both
ground and surface water. Excess runoff caused by urban development can also lead to flooding
and accelerated erosion. Stormwater that is collecting contaminants, redirecting rather than
infiltrating, and running off into waterways can have wide range direct and indirect negative
impacts on people and the environment.

Therefore, stormwater management is the means and efforts put forth to mitigate the
potential issues caused by stormwater. Stormwater management can be recognized in diverse
forms, including construction of various infrastructure installations, legislation creation, and
guidelines to protect open space and limit construction activities. The physical applications of
stormwater management measures, stormwater utilities, come in a variety of functions and
applications, and new and creative technologies are continually arising to better deal with
stormwater challenges (Goldman, 2017). Parties responsible for stormwater management
include units of local, state, regional, and federal agencies, as well as conservation groups, public
utility companies, and private contractors (NJDEP, 2016).

Federal agencies include the organizations such as the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). These agencies have the ability to release legislation that sets overall guidelines to
follow; in regards to stormwater management The Clean Water Act, published originally in 1972
by the EPA, is an example of legislation that serves to regulate permits managing stormwater
discharge. Another example of a federal agency is the U.S Department of Agriculture, which
creates funding for community infrastructure projects. At the state level, examples include the
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) and the New Jersey
Environmental Infrastructure Trust & Environmental Infrastructure Financing Program
(NJEIFP). State level agencies focus on the protection of the state's environment as well as
in-state programs for funding and education. Regional management practices focus on
identifying the best practices for a given region. Local organizations focus on a similar goal to
regional organizations, but due to their potentially smaller range, they often work on community
engagement. Lastly, worth mentioning is the National Association of Clean Water Agencies
(NACWA), which is a nonprofit organization recognized for advocating legislation and having a
goal of creating clean water for all. This collective effort relies on science, engineering, industry,
and community involvement to meet the ultimate goals of stormwater management. Though
challenging and often in constant need of improvement, successful stormwater management has
numerous benefits for human, economic, and environmental health.
1.2​ ​Importance of Managing Stormwater

A significant consideration within stormwater management is that of human dimensions

of the environment. Uncontrolled stormwater can threaten human safety, buildings, and heavily
relied on infrastructure. Climate analyses have estimated that heavy rainfall events have
increased over the past few decades, with many scientific projections showing this trend is likely
to continue in coming years (Kennedy, 2014). This heavy rain or snowfall that causes high
volumes of stormwater increases the risk of flooding, harm to surface water quality, and erosion
caused by runoff, thus creating a risk for all developed areas and an exceptional risk to high
density coastal regions of the U.S. (Hess et al, 2019).

In vastly developed areas like the Northeast, particularly areas of urban and coastal New
Jersey, the dangers of flooding are increasingly imminent. Developing at a rate of over 15,000
acres per year, it’s estimated New Jersey will be the first state to reach buildout sometime near
the middle of the century (Hasse and Lathrop, 2008). While rapid development has multitudes of
downsides, the creation of impervious surfaces remains one of the largest. Impermeable surfaces
cause concentrations of water collection during and after precipitation events, which leaves water
unable to naturally infiltrate into the ground or run safely to a nearby water body. This results in
pooling of water, increased velocity and increased volume of flows over the impervious surface
(Guo, 2017).

This remains the case for New Jersey; from 1995 to 2002, 35,809 acres of impervious
surface were added to New Jersey’s landscape, representing an annualized rate of 5,116 acres of
impervious surface increase per year (Hasse & Dornisch , 2009). ​Figure 1.2.1​,​ ​which displays
the percentage of impervious surfaces within several coastal towns of New Jersey, acts as an
example as to how coastal towns can face the highest risk. As a result of increased populations
and increased development, these coastal towns with high percentages of impervious surfaces
now face an array of problems. Infrastructure fails when impervious surfaces create runoff it
can’t handle; in these coastal towns, when the water can’t be pushed into the bay quickly enough
by drainage systems, it remains lingering in roadways. Without much grass, sand, dirt, and other
permeable space remaining in highly developed areas, the buildup of this water can lead to
severe flooding (Zoppo, 2019) .
​Figure 1.2.1

Impervious Coastal Towns

With about 130 miles of Atlantic coast, high percentages of impervious surfaces observed
in ​Figure 1.2.1,​ and dense populations, this goal of flood protection in New Jersey is especially
important (Zoppo, 2019). At the federal level, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management
Administration (FEMA) provides New Jersey with the Pre-Disaster Mitigation Grant Program
(PDM) as well as Flood Mitigation Assistance Grants. Aiming to reduce overall risk to the
population and structures from future hazard events, PDM also reduces reliance on federal
funding in future disasters (CCLR, 2018). The Flood Mitigation Assistance Grants provide
funding to plan for floods and implement measures to prevent them. At a state level, through the
review of permits issued by the Division of Land Use Regulation (DLUR), NJDEP works to
create stormwater rules that reduce flood hazard (CCLR, 2018).

Protecting human health in regard to our water supply constitutes another major goal of
managing stormwater. As mentioned, in the absence of a natural system stormwater runoff is
prone to collecting excess pollutants that can negatively impact overall water quality if not
properly controlled. Being “one of the major threats to water quality in the United States”, there
are numerous human health-related implications to improperly managed stormwater runoff
(Gaffield et al, 2003). Direct risks associated with stormwater runoff, particularly in urban
settings, include severe illness from exposure to contaminated water. Heavy metals and
pesticides can be incidentally ingested if water sources reused for domestic purposes and
drinking are contaminated by polluted stormwater (Ma et al, 2016). Dangers can also arise in
exposure to contaminated seafood or by contact through recreational activities. Indirect health
hazards arise from lack of adequate stormwater control that results in stagnant water pooling or
flooding. Harmful bacteria can proliferate in still water and pools can act as mosquito breeding
areas. Thus, effective stormwater management addressing these issues can prevent the spread of
sickness and infectious disease (Gaffield et al, 2003).

One way these issues are addressed federally is through the U.S. Department of
Agriculture’s (USDA) Office of Rural Development. This office’s Rural Utility Service offers
much needed water, stormwater, and waste treatment infrastructure to rural areas with the intent
of improving both economic and life quality. At a state level, the NJEIFP provides and
administers nine different low interest loans for water quality infrastructure projects (CCLR,
2018).

While the human dimensions of the environment are primary considerations of effective
stormwater management, conservation of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are important
objectives too. Natural aquatic habitats and their biological constituents can be easily degraded
by contamination, thereby leading to a variety of negative effects (Philadelphia Water Dept.,
2018). One example of contamination is acid rain, which includes any form of precipitation with
acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in
wet or dry forms, and can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic (EPA, 2020d).
As displayed by ​Figure 1.2.2,​ it causes the acidity in lakes and streams to increase and the
amount of species that can continue to tolerate the lake or stream decreases. Another example is
that of nitrogen and phosphorus, which the EPA labels as one of the leading causes of water
quality impairment in U.S. rivers, lakes, and estuaries (EPA, 2018a). New Jersey's 2014
Integrated Water Quality Assessment Report found that 31% of all freshwaters were not
supporting aquatic life uses due to exceedances of the applicable numeric phosphorus criterion
(Berry et al., 2014)​.
Figure 1.2.2

Effects of Acid Rain on Some Aquatic Species

​ s acidity increases (and pH decreases) in lakes and streams, some species are lost.
Note. A
(Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group, 2001)

A major source of contaminants is nonpoint source (NPS) pollution which is runoff that
comes from many different sources and picks up natural and human-made pollutants only to
deposit them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters and ground waters (NOAA, 2020).
While NPS pollution can’t be directly traced, catalysts typically include things such as: excess
fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas; oil, grease
and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production; sediment from improperly
managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding stream banks; salt from irrigation
practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines; bacteria and nutrients from livestock;
atmospheric deposition and hydromodification; pet wastes and faulty septic systems (EPA,
2018a). For instance, in 1981 defective and malfunctioning septic systems were becoming a
growing problem in New Jersey to the point of being referred to as, "New Jersey's Dirty Little
Secret," by the Division of Water Resources of the Department of Environmental Protection
(Carney, 1982). To better help combat this multifaceted problem, planning, designing and
maintaining such systems for housing units were the subject of a six-week course at Stockton
State College in 1982. Sponsored by the college's Center for Environmental Research, the
course was intended for engineers, planners, health officials and architects (Carney, 1982).
However, the problem is far too large for a single class to resolve the issue; in addition to the
negative effects NPS pollution has on ecosystems and natural landscapes, designated uses of
waterways can be impacted, such as fisheries or recreational uses (EPA, 2018b).

To maintain the lowest possible impact on surface water quality, the EPA established a
water quality criteria that determines the recommended maximum concentrations for pollutants
in ambient waters using values calculated using primarily laboratory data (API, 2020). A total
maximum daily load (TMDL), as defined by the U.S. Clean Water Act, identifies the maximum
amount of a pollutant that a body of water can receive while still meeting water quality standards
(EPA, 2020a). These values serve to protect most species nationally and are incorporated by state
agencies to create legally enforceable water quality standards. In New Jersey, NJDEP enforces
these standards through Surface Water Quality Standards (SWQS), N.J.A.C. 7:9 B, which
establishes the policies, stream classifications and surface water quality criteria necessary to
protect the quality of New Jersey’s surface waters.

In addition to carrying contaminants, stormwater runoff picks up soil and dust particles,
or sediment from developed and natural landscapes. Defined as solid material; mineral or
organic; that is either in suspension, being transported, or has been moved from its site of origin
by air, water or gravity as a product erosion, sediment can range in size from small, pea-sized
gravel to tiny soil particles, less than 2 millimeters in diameter and is a result of any soil that is
not protected from rainfall or runoff (NJDEP 2016). Sediment pollution can form in the water
bodies themselves as well, typically as a result of high water flow. High enough concentrations
of sediment can impact water quality by increasing Total Suspended Solids (TSS), or the total
quantity measurement of solid material per volume of water (NJDEP, 2016). Noted as one of the
main “conventional” pollutants designated by the Clean Water Act, high levels of TSS can
reduce water clarity and ultimately lead to inability to meet water quality standards (EPA,
2018a). Ultimately, one of the most dangerous aspects of sediment pollution is the advanced
erosion it causes. While natural erosion produces nearly 30 percent of the total sediment in the
United States, accelerated erosion from human use of land accounts for the remaining 70 percent
(IDEM, 2020). High velocity or flow of stormwater can also cause significant stream bank
erosion and widened stream channels, making nearby surface waters vulnerable to sediment
deposition and nearby populated areas more susceptible to flooding (NJDEP, 2016).

To prevent sediment pollution, the EPA works with construction site operators to
confirm that proper stormwater controls are in place so that construction can proceed in an
environmentally conscious manner (EPA, 2020b). To best manage effects on sediment and
erosion caused by runoff though, TMDLs are determined by the states and EPA regions and
implemented by the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). In New Jersey,
the management of soil erosion and stormwater from virtually all non-agriculture,
construction-based soil disturbances is done through its adoption of the NJ Soil Erosion and
Sediment Control Act (N.J.S.A. 4:24-39 et seq). The act requires all construction activities
greater than 5,000 square feet to be developed in accordance with a plan to control erosion
during construction. The plan must also ensure that erosion will not occur once construction is
completed (NJDA, 2017). One example of erosion control occurred in Ocean City, New Jersey
only fifteen miles away from where Stockton University’s first campus opened (Warner, 1969).
As the college prepared for it’s first class, Warner (1969) wrote an article discussing how
beaches nearby were at risk of full degradation as a result of advanced erosion brought forward
by construction. This was later avoided in 1981 when the New Jersey Short Master Plan,
endorsed by Stockton Faculty, was released and set plans to restore the suffering beaches
(NJDEP, 1981).

Lastly, properly managed stormwater can promote improved groundwater recharge.

Groundwater recharge is an important step in the hydrologic cycle, as precipitation infiltrates
back into the ground to be taken up by plants or returned to subsurface aquifers (NJDEP, 2016).
Protecting natural landscapes and limiting the area of impervious surfaces can enhance
stormwater infiltration rates. Creating stormwater infrastructure, such as rain gardens and other
“green infrastructure”, can have similar positive effects. These types of management that aid
groundwater recharge help protect from flooding, and can allow water to infiltrate into soils for
uptake by plants, leading to healthier terrestrial ecosystems (NJDEP, 2016).
While there are several types of management, a pivotal component of public health and
clean water is the collection and treatment of domestic sewage and wastewater (EPA, 2018b).
There are two types of public sewer systems used in the United States for collecting and
conveying sanitary sewage, combined sewer systems (CSS) and sanitary sewer systems (SSS).
Combined sewer systems collect and convey sanitary sewage and urban runoff in a common
piping system, whereas sanitary sewer systems collect and convey sanitary sewage separately
from urban runoff. In locations where SSSs exist, urban runoff is collected and conveyed in a
separate storm sewer system. There are approximately 20,000 SSSs in the U.S. serving 147
million people and approximately 1,100 CSSs serving 43 million people (Office of Water
Programs, 2008). A majority of municipalities use two major types of sewer systems, which are
combined sewer outfalls and sanitary sewer overflows. Both collect sewage and wastewater
from homes, businesses, and industries and deliver it to wastewater treatment facilities before it
is discharged to water bodies or land, or reused (EPA, 2018b).

1.3 Combined Sewer Outfalls

 Combined sewer outfalls (CSO) are those that are designed to collect the rainwater
runoff, sewage, and industrial wastewater into one pipe (EPA, 2018b). A majority of these
systems transport all of the wastewater to a sewage treatment plant, where it is treated and then
discharged into a nearby water body. Issues arise with CSOs due to their potential to overflow
during heavy rainfall or snowmelt, causing excess wastewater to be discharged directly into
nearby streams, rivers, or other water bodies. With excess water containing stormwater as well as
untreated human and industrial waste, toxic materials, and different debris, the water being
discharged from CSOs contaminates waterways with microbial pathogens, suspended solids,
chemicals, trash, and nutrients that deplete the dissolved oxygen content. (EPA, 2018b).
Approximately 850 billion gallons of untreated wastewater stormwater gets discharged into
waterways every year as a result of CSOs (Tibbetts, 2005).

When they were first introduced in the mid 1850s, combined sewer systems were
considered a major improvement to the sanitary issues in cities. Prior to their introduction, city
streets were lined with cesspool ditches that overflowed when it rained, with waste and
stormwater collected into the same pipes running underground and discharged directly into the
waterways (Tibbetts, 2005). In the early 1900s, wastewater treatments plants were erected and
cleaned the wastewater before being discharged. As described above however, these systems
easily overflow when there is too much stormwater. That has led to the CSOs becoming part of a
debate over the best way to manage stormwater runoff and sewage in older US communities
(Tibbetts, 2005).
Asymmetrically, sanitary sewer systems are standardly responsible for the transport of
household, commercial and industrial wastewater to a sewage treatment plant for treatment. The
networks of pipes that make up SSSs collect wastewater from residential, commercial, and
industrial sources; sources include sinks, showers, toilets, and other producers of sewage and
wastewater (MSU Water, 2014). SSS’s exclude most storm water drainage by having a separate
main subsurface pipe running to a treatment facility, while storm sewers transport rainwater and
melted snow and are then discharged into a waterbody (MSU Water, 2014). Combined sewer
systems are shared underground pipes responsible for directing both the sewer and stormwater
into a treatment system before being discharged into a waterway. In the majority of
municipalities these two systems are separate and serve as remnants of the early infrastructure in
the United States, mostly located in older urban areas.

In 1994, the EPA issued the CSO control policy through the NPDES. This became the
national framework for controlling CSOs (EPA, 2018b). The main purpose of this document is to
help guide compliance with the requirements of the Clean Water Act. The policy mandated that
communities should eliminate, and if not possible, reduce their CSOs. The EPA began working
with municipalities to improve their sewage systems so that they could comply with CWA goals
by offering communities that still use CSOs two options to comply - either build separate pipes
underground for sewage and stormwater or keep the existing infrastructure and somehow expand
it. By expanding the existing pipes, these towns would be able to store the overflow during heavy
rain (Tibbetts, 2005). As of 2004, there are still approximately 772 cities in 32 states that use
CSOs (EPA, 2018a). Most of these can be found in Maine, New York, Pennsylvania, West
Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Illinois. The EPA found that most of the cities with CSO
problems have populations less than 10,000 people. It is believed that larger municipalities have
a more sufficient tax base and water users to be able to finance changes to the sewer systems.

Sewage collected in a sanitary sewer typically continually runs to a sewage treatment

plant, where it is filtered and treated before being released (MSU, 2014). They are not designed
to collect large amounts of stormwater runoff from precipitation events and SSS’s are usually
accompanied by a separate stormwater system, such as a municipal separate storm sewer system
(MS4) which is discussed below. These separate systems allow runoff to drain and be piped
separately from other water drainage sources, thereby reducing the amount of water to be treated
at a treatment facility. Though this load on the sewage flow is reduced, a separate stormwater
system typically directs water to a water body, and is typically untreated.

Untreated discharges from SSSs are commonly called sanitary sewer overflows, or SSOs,
and can occur at any time, during either dry or wet weather (EPA, 2018b). They can extend to
include overflows out of manholes and onto city streets, sidewalks, and other locations. Possible
causes of sanitary sewer overflows include blockages, line breaks, sewer defects, power failures,
improper sewer design, and vandalism. SSOs contamination potential for waterways can create
serious water quality problems, with an additional potential of backing into homes and causing
damage to property and public health (EPA, 2018b). The EPA has estimated that every year
there are 23,000 to 75,000 SSOs in the US (EPA, 2018b). The SSOs that reach waters of the US
are point source discharges.

1.4 Separate Storm Sewer Systems

The most common regulated separate storm sewer system is the municipal separate storm
sewer system (MS4). Although the name contains the word “municipal”, these systems can be
owned and managed by local governments, state governments, or certain other public entities
that discharge untreated stormwater into local water bodies, such as public universities (EPA,
2020b). An MS4 typically consists of a series of pipes, retention basins, ditches, and inlets that
collect stormwater from impervious surfaces (Yencha, 2020). MS4s are common throughout the
United States, and can be divided into two phases based on their location. If located in a city or
county with a population over 100,000 people, an MS4 is considered “Phase 1”. If located in a
small town or non-traditional area such as a public university, it is considered “Phase 2” (EPA,
2020b). Regulated MS4 areas account for approximately 4% of the total United States land area,
but 80% of the population (EPA, 2018c). New Jersey, in particular, contains a large quantity of
MS4s (​Figure 1.4.1)​ .
Figure 1.4.1

National Map of Regulated MS4s

(EPA, 2020b)

Because MS4s capture relatively clean stormwater and keep it separate from sanitary
sewage, the volume of wastewater needing treatment at a sewage treatment plant is greatly
reduced. The separation also provides relief during times of heavy rainfall and snowmelt, as the
resulting stormwater does not cause the overflow of sewage into water bodies, streets, and
basements associated with CSOs. It can also reduce regulatory burden, as MS4 permits are
generally simple. However, despite these advantages, there is a danger in discharging stormwater
directly to waterways. Without proper management practices, stormwater pollutants such as trace
metals, nutrients, sediment, and litter may be directly discharged in local water bodies. This can
offset the environmental benefits derived from the elimination of untreated sanitary sewage
discharges (EPA, 1999).

To combat stormwater pollutants entering water bodies, MS4s are regulated under the
NPDES. However, unlike a typical NPDES permit, an MS4 permit does not require specific
end-of-pipe effluent limits based on state-determined water quality standards or best available
treatment technology. Instead, MS4 permits require the development of a Stormwater
Management Plan and the implementation of best management practices. MS4 permitting is
discussed in detail in ​Section 2​.

There are several cities which have recently converted their combined sewer systems to
separate sanitary and storm sewers. In New Jersey for instance, the total number of CSO outfalls
was reduced more than 20% and solids and floatables controls were installed at remaining CSO
outfalls to prevent solids that are greater than one half inch from entering the waterway ​(Van Abs
et al., 2014)​. This was following individual CSO permits adopted in 2015 that maintained
commitment to working with CSO permittees and CSO communities to reduce or eliminate
CSOs. To better meet this goal, NJDEP reserves funds and provides principal forgiveness loans
for CSO abatement projects utilizing green practices such as green roofs, rain gardens, porous
pavement, and other activities that maintain and restore natural hydrology by treating stormwater
runoff through infiltration into the subsoil, treatment by vegetation or soil, or stored for reuse.
For example, the Northwest Resiliency Park in Camden County, New Jersey, is a multi-phase
project that serves a number of different purposes including but not limited to;

● on-grade stormwater detention through green infrastructure;

● on-grade public park and open space; and
● subsurface stormwater quantity and quality treatment. The subsurface stormwater storage
will be designed to receive approximately 1 million gallons of stormwater flows from a
new high-level storm sewer system designed by the North Hudson Sewerage

Continuing outside of New Jersey, Minneapolis, Saint Paul and South Saint Paul,
Minnesota completed one of the largest sewer separation projects in the 1990s. Their separation
project covered more than 21,000 acres, and involved installing 189 miles of storm sewers and
11.9 miles of sanitary sewers (​Figure 1.4)​ . Though very costly, this enormous project was
necessary—before the separation, an overflow occurred an average of once every three days
(EPA, 1999). While there are still small isolated sections of combined sewer, there were no
overflows in Minneapolis from 2010-2018. This drastic reduction allowed for the termination of
the last combined sewer overflow permit in the state (Minnesota Pollution Control Agency,
2018).

Figure 1.4.2

State Environmental Officials Observing The Separation of Sewer Systems in 1993 Saint Paul,
Minnesota

(Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, 2018)

 In addition to stormwater and pollution-related benefits of converting to a separate sewer
system, there are other infrastructure-related benefits. A variety of necessary infrastructure
updates, such as the installation of handicap ramps in sidewalks, the repaving of roads, and the
replacement of utility lines, can be more cost-effective if done in conjunction with sewer
separation. In Saint Paul, the sewer separation project allowed for cheaper street pavement,
handicap ramp installation, gas and water main installation, lead water pipe replacement, and
street light installation. However, there are drawbacks to separating sewer systems. The process
itself involves extensive construction, which results in noise and sediment pollution, erosion, and
possible disruptions in sewer service (EPA, 1999). Cities must carefully weigh the advantages
and disadvantages of a sewer separation project.
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