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The Battle Kursk, 1943
The Battle Kursk, 1943
of
Kursk,
1943
Number 253
Number 253
Nov/Dec 2008
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departments
43 Tanks in the Wire:
Lang Vei, February 1968
NorthVietnamese armor overrun a special forces camp 25 on design
and open the way for the siege of Khe Sanh. Kursk
by Kelly Bell by Joseph Miranda
Pike’s Pikes
by Robert Malcomson
The German 1943 summer offensive in the USSR Zitadelle (Citadel). Their most important decision was
represents an intriguing situation. The battle was in simply committing to the overall concept. Unlike
fought at a time and in a locale of the Germans’ choos- 1941 and 1942, the Germans’ objective in 1943 was
ing. They were operating well within their lines of not to knock the Soviet Union out of the war. Instead,
supply, and they had effective air cover from the Luft- they only sought to achieve an operational victory via
waffe. Further, it was the only time during the war in the destruction of the salient itself. By keeping the of-
the east the Germans deployed an operational reserve fensive limited geographically, the Germans felt sure
consisting of tanks of a quality superior to that of their they wouldn’t overextend themselves as they had in
opponent. Yet the ensuing campaign fought around the previous two years.
Kursk in July would become a turning point in World By destroying the Kursk salient, the Germans
War II. After that campaign the Soviet armed forces expected to attain several goals. First, they would
would never again surrender the strategic initiative. straighten their lines. The salient gave the Soviets a
For the rest of the war the Germans would be on the position from which they could launch thrusts deep
defensive in the east. into the German rear areas both north and south, there-
The weeks following the German debacle at Stalin- by possibly splitting in two the entire front. Further, a
grad in early 1943 saw the Soviets try to continue their front without the Kursk bulge would also require few-
offensive. They pushed back the central and southern er German troops to hold. Also, the Germans wanted
sectors of the German line from south of Orel to north to draw in and destroy the Soviet armored reserves,
of Stalino. However, Manstein’s “Backhand Blow” making it impossible for the Red Army to launch any
counteroffensive then recouped the situation, leaving large offensive later that year.
a west-jutting Soviet bulge centered around the town The Germans believed their new heavy tanks and
of Kursk. That salient would become the focal point assault guns would give them a tactical edge. They
for the German 1943 offensive in the USSR. would also concentrate the Luftwaffe to ensure air su-
The Germans went through extensive planning for periority over the attack sector. The geometry of the
the Kursk offensive, which they codenamed Operation salient itself also appeared to give them an advantage;
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other in the Mediterranean and, increasingly, a third war in On the other side of Europe, Kursk’s effect on the strategy
the sky above Germany. The attrition in aircraft was suffi- of the Western Allies was important in that it brought about
cient for the Luftwaffe to lose its entire operational strength their high command’s full and final determination to open a
each six months. At that rate, even if aircraft could be re- major new front in northwestern Europe at the first oppor-
placed, trained aircrew could not. And there were never suf- tunity in 1944. That is, in the months between Manstein’s
ficient numbers of either to create a reserve. One of the often successful “backhand blow” counteroffensive in February
overlooked effects of the Allied strategic bombing of the and the German reversal at Kursk in mid-July, the strategic
Reich was that it forced the Germans to pull fighters from consensus in the west was the Russian front had settled into
the front lines to defend the homeland. By late 1943, Ger- a pattern of strategically indecisive stalemate. The course of
man air strength in the east was cut back to the point that, events seemed similar to the one that had occurred on World
the Soviet air force would gain and maintain air superiority War I’s western front from 1915 through 1917. That percep-
against the Luftwaffe. tion was ultimately why those advocating a continued Medi-
What made Kursk significant was that, by failing to win terranean strategy for 1943 won the argument. It still didn’t
there, the Germans would lose any chance of reforming their seem if there need be any undue rush to get into western (and
operational and strategic reserves for over a year. And be- then central) Europe ahead of the Soviets. Kursk changed
cause they failed to do that, they had to deal with crises by that perception. It proved the Soviets could meet and defeat
shifting forces from one front to another. Even if a local vic- the Germans in the summer, as well as in the winter, and
tory could be gained, it was at the expense of loss elsewhere. demonstrated the front would not remain locked up inside
It would not be until late 1944, with the formation of Sixth the Soviet Union.
Panzer Army, that they would create new force capable of
intervening on any front. By that time it was way too late.
The Germans needed a victory at Kursk to maintain them-
selves in the east. They didn’t get it.
was obvious to the Soviet high command—even before all times, often even subordinating them to the infantry
getting confirmation from the Western Allies—Kursk armies.
was going to be the German target and, accordingly, Kursk therefore started and ended as nothing more
the Kremlin concentrated on that sector. By committing than a battle of attrition, the kind of battle the Soviets
their reserves at Kursk, the Soviets created a local force could win. Unlike previous German offensives, losses
superiority there for their side starting with the first day were taken in the panzer units from the start of the cam-
of the German attack. paign. That was unprecedented and disastrous: the Ger-
The Soviets had actually figured out an overall coun- mans needed the panzers not just for the breakthrough
ter to the blitzkrieg. At that Kursk they built successive but also for exploitation. By suffering the losses they
lines of fortifications, each containing anti-tank artillery did, the Germans could not make any exploitation.
and mines, backed up by armored reserves. Further, they While the Germans inflicted more losses on the Sovi-
had an organizational advantage from their independent ets at Kursk than they suffered themselves, the battle
anti-tank brigades, in that those units allowed them to proved to be another important psychological and mili-
concentrate strength at threatened sectors. tary turning point in that it marked the end of their op-
The greatest advantage held by the Soviets, then, erational ascendancy.
wasn’t so much from their superiority in numbers, but The Kursk operation also played into Soviet com-
in their having a superiority in the types of units needed mand and control capabilities. Once the Germans had
to fight particular battles. Their many artillery divisions committed themselves to attacking the flanks of the sa-
allowed them to concentrate their offensive firepower lient, it was obvious where the panzers would head. Ac-
when the time came to go over to the attack. Most criti- cordingly, the Soviets could respond to German moves
cally, they formed powerful tank armies, each roughly in a timely way. As the Germans advanced, reinforce-
equal in size and strength to reinforced Western armored ments could be fed into threatened sectors. Compare
corps, which they used as operational shock forces and that with the 1941 campaign, when the Germans had
reserves. Those tank armies were initially kept out of the options all along the front. Even the 1942 campaign was
line to avoid attrition, and were then unleashed where comparatively more open, with the Germans having a
they could generate decisive attacks and counterattacks. choice of everything from rolling up the southern end of
Compare that to what had become the Germans’ general the Moscow line, to seizing Stalingrad, to advancing to
practice of keeping their panzer divisions on the front at the Caucasus oil fields.
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The need for air to support pro- of detection, the avoidance of which AIP systems during World War II: the
pulsion has been one of the limita- is their primary advantage in naval Walter system and the closed-cycle
tions on submarines for most of the operations, and limits the duration diesel electric system. They achieved
last century. The introduction of and range of their submerged opera- more success with the former, and
nuclear power solved the problem for tions. abandoned the latter, during the war’s
those countries with the money and As a result, most Western naval closing days. The Walter system re-
technological industry to build and officers consider conventional subma- lied on pumping highly concentrated
support such vessels. Few countries, rines to be of only limited utility in but chemically unstable hydrogen
however, can afford the construction long-range or broad-ocean opera- peroxide over a catalyst that triggered
and infrastructure costs involved in tions. They see them essentially as combustion in a burning chamber.
building and maintaining a nuclear “mobile minefields” suited primarily The resulting exhaust and steam then
submarine force. As a result, most of for “choke point operations” where passed over a turbine, driving the
the world’s navies still use conven- constricted waters force surface units submarine at speeds of 20 knots or
tionally powered submarines that to transit through their operating more. Hydrogen peroxide’s instability
employ diesel-electric and battery- areas. The advent of air-independent- necessitated its storage in excep-
powered propulsion systems. Those propulsion (AIP) systems promises tionally clean fuel tanks, since any
conventional submarines are much to change that assessment, however, contact with dirt, dust or metal could
quieter than their nuclear counterparts expanding conventional submarine trigger a disastrous chemical reaction.
underwater but, unlike the nuclear operating areas and flexibility by The Walter system propelled the
subs, they must either snorkel or enabling them to remain submerged Type XXVI coastal submarines, but
surface to re-charge their batteries for up to three weeks. they didn’t enter service in time to
by running their diesel engines. That Germany was the first country to see combat. Those taken over by the
requirement increases the probability attack the problem, developing two Allies proved all but impossible to
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One of the most decisive battles in history was fought near an obscure fortress in
Armenia in AD 1071. It would bring down one empire and lay the groundwork
for the Western counterattack into the Middle East, the Crusades. The name of the
battle—Manzikert.
Eleventh century Armenia lay in a geographically Late in the 11th century the Byzantines and Seljuks
unenviable situation in an equally unfortunate time pe- were preoccupied with numerous political and military
riod. Sandwiched between the Byzantine Empire and matters, such as their uneasy relations with each other.
the Seljuk Sultanate, this principality was eyed greedily That was fortunate for the Armenians because they had
by both powers because of its wealth and strategic po- little unity themselves. Living mainly in clans, they
sition. The central Asian trade route known as the Silk feuded incessantly among themselves, raiding each
Road wound through Armenia, making it a rich mercan- other both for revenge and booty.
tile center. Its own resources of fruit, cattle, iron, cop-
A New Emperor
per, borax, salt, jewels, arsenic, silver, and gold ensured
the wealth of the country. Its artisans were renowned for In 1068 a new Byzantine emperor, Romanos IV Dio-
their skill in producing fine weapons, carpets, leather, genes, assumed the purple in Constantinople and found
and fur garments. And its mountainous terrain made it himself instantly beset by enemies on every side. The
a natural fortress athwart the caravan highways. Who- Normans in Italy, Magyars in Hungary, Uze and Patzi-
ever controlled Armenia controlled transcontinental nak Turks in the Balkans, and the delicate situation in
commerce. Determined to maintain their independence Armenia presented Diogenes with a host of political and
and culture, the Armenians had resolutely resisted all military challenges that would tax his abilities to the ut-
foreign influences. Their success, wealth, and pugna- most. As a general he had distinguished himself on bat-
cious temperament aroused jealous hatred among their tlefields versus the Patzinaks, and his military outlook
lowland neighbors. was a signal for a new direction in foreign policy in the
Byzantine world.
strategy & tactics 35
The Seljuks were among the many Turkish tribes who from southern Italy to the Armenian foothills, as well as
had traditionally roamed the steppes. Unlike in the Balkans. The Byzantine heartland was in Anatolia,
their predecessors and contemporaries, where sturdy warrior-peasants formed the solid core of their
however, the Seljuks (Sunni Muslims) armies. At the center was the great capital city of Constanti-
didn’t loot, burn and kill and then nople, where the emperor sat. Actually, the emperor was by
move on in search of new locales to this time called basileus, which means “sovereign lord”—a
pillage. Instead they settled on the far cry from Roman and Greek republican ways.
lands they subdued, creating a more The Byzantines had a long record of military efficiency.
permanent polity. By 1040 they In the early 11th century, the empire was on the march, push-
controlled all of Persia and simply ing back the Muslims and expanding its frontiers. Byzan-
walked into Baghdad and set up tine armies campaigned in Syria and threatened to retake
their rule there. The Abbasid caliph Jerusalem, lost to the Arabs in the seventh century. In 1018
there was wise enough not to resist the Byzantines conquered Bulgaria. They also defeated the
the powerful invaders and accepted Normans in Italy at the second Battle of Cannae (where Han-
being reduced to a figurehead under nibal had defeated the Romans 13 centuries prior).
Seljuk control. After the death of the soldier-emperor Basil II in 1025,
Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan Byzantine leaders pursued a policy of retrenchment. A series
(1029-72, the name means “Valiant of emperors deliberately neglected arsenals, weakened fron-
Lion”) turned his covetous gaze on tier garrisons, cut military salaries, and mustered out reserv-
Syria and Egypt, which were then ists. Part of the reason was financial, to reduce the drain on
ruled by the Shia Fatimids. Unlike the economy of supporting a large military. But it was also
Baghdad, the Fatimid Caliphate of a matter of survival. Increasingly, the empire was wracked
Egypt wouldn’t be a walkover, and by civil wars and coup attempts, as power-hungry generals
its leaders quickly showed their defi- marched on Constantinople to claim themselves emperor.
ance by supporting anti-Seljuk insur- The empire’s own armies were becoming a greater threat
gents. than its foes.
Apart from the political rivalry between the Fa- Constantinople increasingly preferred to pay its enemies
timids and Seljuks, there were the traditional economic ten- not to attack. The Byzantines were masters of treachery and
sions between these regions. Since antiquity, trade between subversion, which is where one of the modern meanings of
central Asia and the Mediterranean littoral had been a source “byzantine” originated. The Byzantines would bribe other
of wealth. Merchants ranging across the region favored two powers to attack the empire’s enemies, thereby diverting
routes. One followed the Euphrates River north, then crossed hostile forces to faraway theaters of operation. A fragile se-
Syria to the markets of Lebanon. The other went up the Red curity was maintained for a time, but damage was also done.
Sea, caravanned across Sinai or sailed down the Nile. A va- By encouraging their people to think they could avoid mili-
riety of 11th century Syrian rulers strove to dominate opulent tary confrontation, a generation of Byzantine rulers weak-
Lebanon. Egyptian and Mesopotamian states periodically ened their will to bear arms. The empire became vulnerable
clashed over control of the entire Near East. to invasion by resolute enemies who refused to be bribed.
Because of its enmity with Fatimid Egypt, the Seljuk One such enemy appeared in the form of Alp Arslan, who
Sultanate needed to keep the peace with its other power- had his own dreams of imperial glory. Thus began the chain
ful neighbor, the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines, heirs of events that led to the Battle of Manzikert.
to the classical Roman Empire in the east, controlled lands
Ruin of an Empire
Following Manzikert, the Byzantine Empire sank tion was either killed, starved or fled. Constantinople,
into a decade-long self-destructive civil war. Realizing while remaining a powerful city and still ruling terri-
he was no longer a threat, Alp Arslan released Dio- tories in the west, had lost the heartland that had been
genes, who returned home and tried futilely to regain the core of its military might.
his throne. In the end, he was blinded by Andronicus
Begin the Millennium
Ducas. Ironically enough, Diogenes died as he was
trying to raise the money to pay the ransom Alp Arslan With the Byzantine bulwark against Islam gone,
had demanded. the balance of power across the Near East changed
forever. The Muslims had the upper hand. In 1081
Fatally weakened by fighting against itself, Byzan-
Alexius Commenus assumed the throne and began to
tium was helpless to resist the Turkish warrior bands
attempt another restoration of Byzantine power. The
that swept into Anatolia. While Alp Arslan himself
empire, however, was literally a hollow shell of its for-
probably had no desire to destroy the Byzantine Em-
mer self: it controlled only the coastlines of Anatolia,
pire, numerous tribal raiders poured into the military
though its hold was still secure at Constantinople and
vacuum. The countryside was ravaged and the popula-
40 #253
Godfrey of Bouillon.
42 #253
Willoughby his outfit had been attacked by North Viet- That same day, a Special Forces patrol discovered a
namese regulars two days earlier in the Laotian border clandestine hard-surface road built into the bed of the
village of Ban Houei San. He claimed those Commu- shallow Sepone River marking the Vietnam-Laos bor-
nists had been elements of the NVA 304th and 325th der. That would make it possible for armor to approach
Infantry Divisions. Most significantly, he said tanks Lang Vei while leaving only minimal tracks.
spearheaded the attack. On 3 January the Marines at Khe Sanh engaged
Since the Communists had never before used tanks and killed a group of NVA soldiers outside that base.
against US forces in Vietnam, the report was as un- Marine intelligence ascertained the dead were NVA
expected as it was unwelcome. Lang Vei was in a regimental staff officers who’d been on a personal re-
forward position, and the Special Forces’ duties had connaissance of Khe Sanh. There was then little doubt
shifted from border surveillance and area pacification in the US military command that a major enemy at-
into almost daily fire fights with Communist forces tack was in the offing in the I Corps Zone that covered
probing from Laos. The enemy build-up had to mean northern South Vietnam.
something, and the abrupt appearance of tanks could American intelligence shifted into overdrive,
mean that something was about to start. quickly identifying two regiments of the NVA 325C
Willoughby’s concerns were validated when, later Division camped 15 miles northeast of Khe Sanh, two
that day, US Air Force ground attack jets spotted and regiments of the 320th Division about 15 miles to the
attacked five NVA tanks just inside the Laotian border. northwest, and the 304th Division stationed just across
The jets knocked out one tank but lost the others in the the border in Laos. Those units had to be there for a
jungle. reason, and Khe Sanh and Lang Vei were the obvious
Back at Lang Vei, the Laotian colonel’s report was targets.
suddenly accorded new respect when, on 30 January, a Responding to the information about enemy armor,
North Vietnamese deserter told the Americans a major Willoughby had more than 100 M-72 light anti-tank
assault on Lang Vei was planned, but for reasons un- weapons (LAW) rush-delivered to Lang Vei. The M-72
known to him had been repeatedly postponed. He also LAW was a one-shot, disposable version of the World
claimed to have heard the unmistakable clanking of War II bazooka. He immediately set his men to train-
tank tracks in the jungle adjacent to his bivouac. ing with the weapon. He also reinforced the already
44 #253
Aftermath
Of the 11 PT-76 amphibious tanks the NVA de- Lang Vei soon slipped into obscurity as the broader Tet
ployed that night, seven were confirmed destroyed, offensive captured media attention worldwide. Never-
with two more listed as probable kills. Approximately theless, Lang Vei was a novel and significant clash that
250 of the 400 men the 304th NVA Infantry Division heralded a new chapter in the war because of the Com-
sent against Lang Vei were estimated to have become munists’ commitment of tanks to battle. The 1972 and
casualties. Twenty-three of the camp’s 24 US Special 1975 NVA offensives would be led by tank regiments,
Forces troops were dead, wounded or missing, includ- and that long drive to Saigon can be said to have begun
ing those who’d made it back to Khe Sanh. The Mon- at Lang Vei.
tagnards suffered worst, with 269 dead, wounded or
missing.
A major problem was defective and inadequate
anti-tank weaponry. It had been the first encoun-
ter Free World forces had with Communist armor in
Vietnam. Recoilless rifles had been used previously Sources
as “bunker busters” against enemy strongpoints or to Lightbody, Andy. and Poyer, Joe. The Illustrated History of Tanks,
fire anti-personnel rounds. More meticulous anti-tank Publications International, LTD., 1989.
training would be needed. Nalty, Bernard C. The Vietnam War, Crown Publishers, 1979.
Stockwell, David B. Tanks in the Wire, Daring Books, 1989.
Of course, Lang Vei was just part of the country- Weir, William. Fatal Victories, Archon Books, 1993.
wide Tet offensive, during which the NVA and VC Welsh, Douglas. The Complete Military History of the Vietnam
attacked targets throughout South Vietnam. Bigger War, Dorset Press, 1990.
battles were fought at Hue, Saigon and Khe Sanh.
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Contents:
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