Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP) - Volume-II PDF

MANUAL OF IRRIGATION
PRACTICE (MIP)
Volume-II
PUNJAB IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT

FOREWARD
Irrigation Department Government of Punjab was originally a branch of the

Public Works Department (PWD) before partition of the Indian Subcontinent. First
Edition of Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP) was published by PWD in 1943 for
guidance of irrigation engineers. The manual incorporated the irrigation set up existent
at that time and also the departmental rules, regulations and engineering techniques
in vogue.
After independence Irrigation Department Government of West Pakistan re-

printed the first edition in 1963 without incorporating changes in physical boundaries
and the engineering advancements since after 1943. However it was promised in the
Foreword of reprint that” A revised and enlarged edition incorporating all changes as
a result of independence and advancements in engineering techniques will be
available in the near future” but it could not happen till 2015 when Punjab Irrigation
Department (PID) took up with World Bank to allow utilization of provision under
component D of Punjab Barrages Improvement Phase-II Project (PBIP-II) for Re-
writing of MIP. World Bank agreed to support Re-writing of MIP being a strategic study
and a tool for better management and monitoring of key irrigation infrastructure in the
Punjab Province.
A group of editors (GOE) including an international member was selected to

review the existing MIP and other relevant documents, prepare Table of Contents
(TOC) for new MIP and recommend potential Authors. GOE also reviewed and
edited the Authors’ contributions and compiled final MIP.
Authors’ draft contributions were circulated among the Chief Engineers/senior

officers of PID being main stakeholders and users of MIP to have their suggestions
for improving the quality of the document. A workshop was also conducted to
deliberate the contents of MIP. Valuable suggestions for improvement of the
contents were incorporated.
MIP contains engineering tools and concepts that have proven useful in
planning, constructing, maintaining and operating the irrigation infrastructure
successfully. The manual is not a text book but contains sufficient background
knowledge so as to act as single book of theory and practice.
It is hoped that MIP would be a rich source of knowledge and guidance for
irrigation engineers.
ASAD ULLAH
Secretary to Government of Punjab
Irrigation Department
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Foremost, Project Management Office (PMO) - Punjab Barrages, wants to extend this
endeavor to Almighty ALLAH for the prudence bestowed upon us, in order to suffice
the standard of this revised Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP).
A remarkable appreciation is due to Group of Editors, (Dr. M. Hanif Chaudhry, Syed

Mahmood ul Hassan, Qazi Anwar Ali, Mr. Aslam Rasheed and Mr. Asrar ul Haq) for
their valuable contribution regarding developing of Table of contents, guidelines for
authors, editing and organizing the revised MIP.
It is pertinent to mention that the completion of this task was attainable owing to the
exemplary knowledge and arduous efforts of our renowned authors (Syed Mansoob
Ali Zaidi, Mr. Sajjad Hussain Naseem, Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid, Malik Ahmed Khan, Mr.
Muhammad Azam Chaudhry, Mr. Muhammad Ehsan, Mr. Ahmad Khan Bhatti, Mr.
Habibullah Bodla, Mr. Muhammad Shamshad Gohar, Mr. Ghulam Hussain Qadri and
Mr. Shafiq Ali).
Relentless efforts of Syed Mahmood Ul Hassan as Coordinator for compiling, editing,

and printing of revised MIP are also appreciated.
Revision of the MIP according to latest theories and practices is a cumulative effort to
generate valuable document, however, comments and suggestions for further
improvement of the revised MIP would be appreciated.
Amjad Saeed
Head/Project Director
Project Management Office (PMO)
Punjab Barrages Rehabilitation &
Modernization Projects,
Punjab Irrigation Department,
Lahore
Special Commendation and Deepest Gratitude to
Mr. Saif Anjum

(Secretary Irrigation March 2014-October 2017)
for his strategic initiation and continued active support,

which has proved as a succeeding milestone in
accomplishment of revision of MIP.
List of Editors/ Authors of Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP)
Sr. Name of Editor/ Position/ Designation.

No. Author
1 Syed Mahmood ul Ex-Chief Engineer Irrigation Department/ Project
Hassan, Member/ Director, LBDCIP & Ex-Head/Project Director, PMO-
Coordinator of Group of Punjab Barrages, Lahore / Working as Individual
Editors( GOE ), MIP Consultant to Asian Development Bank (ADB),
2 Mr. Aslam Rashid , Ex-Vice President (Water and Agriculture) NESPAK.
Member GOE Presently Managing Director Integrated Consulting
Services. Working as individual Consultant to ADB,
World Bank, FAO, WAPDA and other institutions at
home and abroad.
3 Mr. Israr ul Haq, Ex-Chief Engineer/Chief Strategic Planning /Reform
Member, GOE Unit, Irrigation & Power Department.
4 Dr. Muhammad Hanif International Consultant/Associate Dean (International
Ch. Programs and Continuing Education) College of
International Member Engineering & Computing, University of South Carolina,
GOE Columbia, USA.
5 Qazi Anwar Ali, Ex- Chief Engineer, Irrigation & Power Department, now
Member, GOE Consultant in LBDC Improvement Project,
6 Mr. Ahmed Khan Consulting Engineer/ Ex-Member (WATER)
Bhatti, Author, MIP WAPDA, presently Managing Director Barqaab
Consultants.
7 Mr. Muhammad Ex- Vice President, NESPAK and Consultant to
Ehsan, World Bank.
Author, MIP
8. Syed Mansoob Ali Ex-Secretary, Irrigation & Power Department, now
Zaidi, Author, MIP Consulting Engineer.
9. Malik Ahmed Khan, Ex- Chief Engineer, Irrigation & Power Department,
Author, MIP now Consulting Engineer.
10 Dr. Bagh Ali Shahid, Ex-Chief Engineer, Irrigation & Power Department,
Author, MIP now Consulting Engineer.
11 Mr. Sajjad Hussain Ex-Chief Engineer, Irrigation & Power Department,
Nasim, Author, MIP Ex-Deputy Team Leader, New Khanki Barrage
Project, now Consulting Engineer.
12 Mr. Ghulam Hussain Ex-Chief Engineer/Project Director, PMO, Punjab
Qadri, Author, MIP Barrages, Irrigation Department, now Advisor to
DESCON.
13 Ch. Muhammad International Consultant/Consultant Team Leader,
Azam, Author, MIP New Khanki Barrage Project.
14 Mr. Shamshad Gohar, International Ground Water Specialist, Ex-General

Author, MIP Manager NESPAK.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title of Chapter Author

Chapter 1: Small Dams Engr. Malik Ahmad Khan
Chapter 2: River Training & Flood Management Syed Mansoob Ali Zaidi,
Ch. Muhammad Azam
Chapter 3: Hill Torrents Management Sajjad Hussain Nasim
Chapter 4: Groundwater – Optimal Use & Muhammad Shamshad

Management Gohar
Chapter 5: Drainage & Salinity Control Ahmad Khan Bhatti
Chapter 6: Mechanical, Electrical Works & Qazi Anwar Ali,

SCADA Shafiq Ali,
Sohaib Raziq Khan Khitran
Chapter 7: Hydaulic Modelling Muhammad Aslam

Rasheed,
Muhammad Uzair
Chapter 8: Asset Management Plan Muhammad Ehsan
Chapter 9: Preparation of Annual O&M Budget Muhammad Ehsan
Chapter 10: Preparing Annual M&R Work Plans Muhammad Ehsan

and their Implementation
Chapter 11 Project Management Muhammad Ehsan

i
MANUAL OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE
SMALL DAMS
SMALL DAMS
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1
1.1. General ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Limitations .............................................................................................................. 1
2. TYPE, SITE SELECTION AND HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES FOR A DAM .................... 4
2.1. Types of Dam ......................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1. Selection of Site For a Small Dam ....................................................................... 7
2.1.2. Site for a Concrete Gravity Dam ........................................................................ 10
2.1.3. Site for an Embankment Dam............................................................................ 11
2.2. Planning and Design of Small Dams ..................................................................... 11
2.2.1. Required Surveys, Investigations and Other Studies ......................................... 11
2.3. Hydrological Studies ............................................................................................. 25
2.3.1. Data Requirement ............................................................................................. 25
2.3.2. Sources of Data................................................................................................. 26
2.3.3. Collection of Data .............................................................................................. 26
2.3.4. Water Availability Assessment........................................................................... 28
2.3.5. Design Flood ..................................................................................................... 30
2.3.6. Flood Routing .................................................................................................... 33
2.3.7. Reservoir Operation .......................................................................................... 34
2.3.8. Sediment Yield .................................................................................................. 35
2.3.9. Height of Dam ................................................................................................... 36
3. DESIGN OF DAM AND SPILLWAY ............................................................................. 39
3.1. Design of Dam ...................................................................................................... 39
3.1.1. Concrete Gravity Dam ....................................................................................... 39
3.1.2. Embankment Dam ............................................................................................. 50
3.2. Design of Spillway................................................................................................. 61
3.2.1. Location of Spillway ........................................................................................... 61
3.2.2. Type of Spillways .............................................................................................. 61
4. CONSTRUCTION OF SMALL DAMS .......................................................................... 71
4.1. Construction of Small Dams .................................................................................. 71
4.1.1. Construction Planning ....................................................................................... 71
4.1.2. Stream Diversion ............................................................................................... 80
4.1.3. ABAD Mini Dam – Ponds Schemes ................................................................... 88
ii
SMALL DAMS
5. Dam Safety Inspection, Operation and Maintenance (O&M) ........................................ 89

5.1. Dam Safety Plans ................................................................................................. 89
5.2. Operation and Maintenance (O&M) ...................................................................... 93
5.3. Gauges and Discharge Measurement Devices ................................................... 102
6. IRRIGATION SYSTEM AND AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT ................................ 109
6.1. Irrigation System ................................................................................................. 109
6.1.1. Selection of Command Area ............................................................................ 109
6.1.2. Layout and Alignment of Channel .................................................................... 110
6.1.3. Design Criteria for Design of Channel System ................................................. 110
6.2. Agriculture Development Studies ........................................................................ 124
6.2.1. Approach for Agriculture Development ............................................................ 124
6.2.2. Agricultural Development Strategy .................................................................. 124
6.2.3. Crop Water Requirements ............................................................................... 125
Appendix A: Selected Bibliography ................................................................................... 134
Appendix B: Photographs of Some Dams Completed by SDO & ID .................................. 137
Appendix C ABAD Mini Dams – Ponds Schemes ............................................................. 139
Appendix D: Inspection Forms .......................................................................................... 150
Appendix E: Design Requirements of RCC Pipes – ASTM C 361-03a∈1 ........................... 159
Appendix F: Specification for Coating of MS Pipe ............................................................. 163
Appendix G: Field Installation Procedures (RCC and PRCC Pipes ................................... 168
Appendix H: Field Installation Procedures (For MS Pipes) ................................................ 171
Appendix I: Thrust Restraint .............................................................................................. 175
List of Tables
TABLE 2-1 ICOLD POTENTIAL HAZARD CLASSIFICATION (PHC) ............................................................ 5
TABLE 2-2 ALLOWABLE CONTACT PRESSURE ON FRESH JOINTED ROCK ............................................... 17
TABLE 2-3 ENGINEERING USE CHART FOR COMPACTED SOILS............................................................. 20
TABLE 2-4 AMOUNT OF LABORATORY TESTING AND SELECTION PARAMETERS ...................................... 24
TABLE 2-5 SEDIMENT YIELD FOR VARIOUS CATCHMENTS IN THE POTHOHAR REGION ............................ 36
TABLE 3-1 STABILITY AND STRESS CRITERIA AND FACTOR OF SAFETY (FS) ......................................... 41
TABLE 3-2 PARAMETERS FOR CONCRETE DAM DESIGN FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN................................ 42
TABLE 3-3 SUMMARY OF EMPIRICAL FORMULA PROPOSED FOR DETERMINATION OF WAVE HEIGHTS ...... 51
TABLE 3-4 FREEBOARD .................................................................................................................... 51
TABLE 3-5 SUMMARY OF TRIAXIAL TESTS........................................................................................... 54
TABLE 3-6 SUMMARY OF DESIGN CASE, MINIMUM SAFETY FACTORS, AND SHEAR TEST ......................... 54
TABLE 5-1 FREQUENCY OF READINGS FOR THE MONITORING INSTRUMENTS ........................................ 91
TABLE 5-2 ROUTINE VISUAL INSPECTION FOR SMALL DAMS: RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY ..................... 92
TABLE 5-3 FORMAL INSPECTION FOR SMALL DAMS FREQUENCIES ....................................................... 92
TABLE 5-4 MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE FOR SMALL DAMS ...................................................................... 93
TABLE 5-5 ASSIGNMENT OF RESPONSIBILITIES................................................................................... 96
iii
SMALL DAMS
TABLE 6-1 CALCULATION OF CROP WATER REQUIREMENT FOR 1,000 ACRE OF MAIZE CROP GROWN IN
DISTRICT RAWALPINDI .................................................................................................................... 127
TABLE 6-2 DURATION OF GROWTH STAGES OF VARIOUS VEGETABLES AND CROPS AND THEIR
CORRESPONDENCE KC VALUES ....................................................................................................... 128
List of Figures
FIGURE 1-1: TYPICAL CONCEPTUAL LAYOUT PLAN OF SMALL DAM PROJECT .............................................. 2
FIGURE 2-1 ICOLD CLASSIFICATION OF SMALL AND LARGE DAMS .......................................................... 4
FIGURE 2-2 COMPONENTS OF ZONED EMBANKMENT .............................................................................. 7
FIGURE 2-3 TYPICAL DAM SITE IN THE VALLEY ....................................................................................... 7
FIGURE 2-4 TYPICAL LAYOUT OF DAM AND SPILLWAY ............................................................................. 8
FIGURE 2-5 PROPOSED INVESTIGATION AREA OF GRAVITY DAM ............................................................ 13
FIGURE 2-6 MINIMUM DRILLING FOR INVESTIGATION............................................................................. 16
FIGURE 2-7 SINGLE OR DOUBLE PACKER SYSTEM ................................................................................ 18
FIGURE 2-8 MATERIAL GRADING ENVELOPES ....................................................................................... 22
FIGURE 2-9 ISOHYETAL MAP OF THE POTHOHAR REGION...................................................................... 27
FIGURE 2-10 MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL IN THE POTHOHAR REGION .......................................................... 27
FIGURE 2-11 HYDROLOGICAL ZONING OF THE POTHOHAR REGION ......................................................... 28
FIGURE 2-12 RAINFALL (INCHES) V/S DIRECT RUNOFF (INCHES) ............................................................. 29
FIGURE 2-13 HYDROGRAPH FOR 1000 YEAR RETURN PERIOD ................................................................ 32
FIGURE 2-14 FLOOD ROUTING FOR THE 1000 YEAR RETURN PERIOD OF DOMELI DAM ............................. 34
FIGURE 2-15 HFL AND NORMAL POOL LEVEL AGAINST TIME FOR DOMELI DAM ........................................ 34
FIGURE 2-16 RESERVOIR STORAGE ZONES OF A DAM ............................................................................ 36
FIGURE 2-17 TYPICAL FLOOD ROUTING OF SMALL DAM........................................................................... 38
FIGURE 3-1 DIFFERENT FORCES ACTING ON A CONCRETE GRAVITY DAM ............................................... 40
FIGURE 3-2 SAMPLE DRAWING OF EARTHEN DAM FOR ANALYSIS ........................................................... 56
FIGURE 3-3 END OF CONSTRUCTION DOWNSTREAM SLOPE STABILITY CHECK (WITHOUT SEISMIC LOAD) .. 58
FIGURE 3-4 END OF CONSTRUCTION UPSTREAM SLOPE STABILITY CHECK (WITHOUT SEISMIC LOAD) ....... 58
FIGURE 3-5 STEADY STATE SEEPAGE ANALYSIS................................................................................... 59
FIGURE 3-6 STEADY STATE DOWNSTREAM SLOPE STABILITY CHECK (WITH SEISMIC LOAD) ..................... 59
FIGURE 3-7 RAPID DRAWDOWN SEEPAGE ANALYSIS (WITH SEISMIC LOAD)............................................. 60
FIGURE 3-8 RAPID DRAWDOWN UPSTREAM SLOPE STABILITY CHECK (WITH SEISMIC LOAD)..................... 60
FIGURE 3-9 FORMATION OF HYDRAULIC JUMP (ENERGY DISSIPATION) ................................................... 63
FIGURE 3-10 HEIGHT OF JUMP ON HORIZONTAL FLOOR FOR BASIN I, II AND III ......................................... 64
FIGURE 3-11 TYPE II BASIN RECOMMENDED PROPORTIONS FOR CHUTE BLOCKS AND DENTATED SILL ....... 65
FIGURE 3-12 TYPE III BASIN RECOMMENDED PROPORTIONS FOR CHUTE BLOKS,...................................... 66
FIGURE 3-13 TYPE III BASIN HEIGHT OF BAFFLE PIERS AND END SILL ....................................................... 66
FIGURE 4-1 PRESENT PRACTICE IN SMALL DAMS CONSTRUCTION.......................................................... 83
FIGURE 4-2 TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF VERTICAL SLIDE GATE AT PIPE INLET .......................................... 84
FIGURE 4-3 TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF INCLINED SLIDE GATE................................................................ 84
FIGURE 4-4 TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF VERTICAL SLIDE GATE IN DROP INLET TOWER ............................. 85
FIGURE 4-5 TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF VERTICAL SLIDE GATE IN TOWER WITH DIVIDER ........................... 85
FIGURE 4-6 SHOWING METHOD OF COMPACTION AROUND THE PIPE ...................................................... 88
FIGURE 5-1 DAMAGES IN EMBANKMENT AND FOUNDATION.................................................................... 89
FIGURE 5-2 PROCEDURAL GUIDELINES FOR A DAM SAFETY PROGRAM ................................................... 90
FIGURE 5-3 SPECIMEN OF NOTIFICATION INFORMATION FLOW CHART .................................................... 98
FIGURE 5-4 DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL STREAM GAUGE WITH STILLING WELL ........................................... 103
FIGURE 5-5 CURRENT-METER DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS ............................................................... 105
FIGURE 5-6 THE CURRENT-METER METHOD....................................................................................... 106
FIGURE 5-7 EROSION OF PART OF A CHANNEL RESULTS ..................................................................... 107
FIGURE 5-8 EXAMPLE OF A TYPICAL STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATION ON RATING CURVE.......................... 108
FIGURE 6-1 FREEBOARD DIAGRAM .................................................................................................... 111
iv
SMALL DAMS
FIGURE 6-2 TYPICAL SECTION OF PRCC PIPE ................................................................................... 116
FIGURE 6-3 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF PRCC PIPE ................................................................... 117
FIGURE 6-4 HYDRAULIC SEAL ........................................................................................................... 122
v
SMALL DAMS
MEASUREMENTS AND CONVERSIONS

vi
SMALL DAMS
1
SMALL DAMS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
This manual is designed specifically for engineers involved in the siting, design and
construction of small dams in the various parts of the Punjab, Pakistan. Such dams
are suitable for supplying water to irrigation schemes, for rural and other water
supplies (when properly operated and maintained) and for conservation measures.
The manual is derived from the standard practices in design and construction in the
World over and has been prepared to provide practical and useful guidelines for siting,
designing and constructing small dams and their appurtenants. Thus, the manual
essentially provides a comprehensive and pragmatic means for the practical
understanding of the principles and procedures used in small dam construction and
for the users to safely and competently construct small dams without recourse to the
costly, complex and sophisticated design and construction techniques associated with
dams on larger catchments.
1.2. Limitations
This manual provides guidelines for Small Dams with negligible potential hazard of
Low ICOLD Classification PHC-I with regard to height, H, of dam and volume of water,
V, stored in the reservoir. These dams are built over competent foundations using
acceptable construction materials. For dams over questionable problematic soils and
with materials of inferior quality, opinion of dam expert must be obtained. Furthermore,
the users of these guidelines must refer to standard text books or manuals given under
selected bibliography of this manual for planning, detailed design and construction
(Appendix A). Appendix B presents photographs of a number of dams completed by
Small Dam Organization (SDO), Punjab Irrigation Department (ID).
2
SMALL DAMS
Figure 1-1: Typical conceptual layout plan of small dam project

3
SMALL DAMS
SMALL DAMS FOR IRRIGATION

STORAGE
4
SMALL DAMS
2. TYPE, SITE SELECTION AND HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES FOR

A DAM
2.1. Types of Dam
Any blockade or obstruction natural or man-made, which obstructs the stream flow is
called a dam.
Dams may be classified as follow into a number of different categories, based on
different criteria:
(i) Use –Water stored is used for irrigation supplies, domestic supplies, power
generation livestock etc. (storage dams, diversion dams, detention dams etc.).
(ii) Hydraulic Design – overflow dams, non-overflow dams etc.
(iii) Materials used – earthfill or rockfill embankment dams, concrete dams,
masonary dams, gabion dams, inflatable dams etc.
(iv) Height (H) of dam – and reservoir Volume (V); Mini dams, small dams, medium
dams and large dams
French Committee of ICOLD use height (H) of dam and volume (V) of water stored in
storage reservoir for the classification of dams with regard to height of dam.
Small Dams are defined as having the characteristics:
2.5𝑚 < 𝐻 < 15 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 2 √𝑉 < 200
Figure 2-1 presents the ICOLD classification of small dams and large dams based on
“H” and “V”.
Figure 2-1 ICOLD Classification of small and large dams

5
SMALL DAMS
➢ Practice in Pakistan
Small dams are planned, designed and constructed in Pakistan by the following
Authority / Organization / Agency:
Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA, Pakistan)
Small Dams Organization Irrigation Department (IDs) of Punjab, KPK, Sindh
and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan
Mini Dam–Ponds Schemes for rainwater harvesting by Agency for Barani
Areas Development (ABAD)
For Small Dams Design and Construction, USBR Small Dam Design revised
edition 1977 is a widely used reference for planning, design and construction of
small dams in Pakistan which imposes height (H) restriction of 15 m for small dams.
However, in Pakistan restriction on height of small is not observed and dams of
height, H, > 40 m have been designed and constructed as small dams.
▪ Hazard Classification of Dams
The ICOLD recommends the application of the PHC (Potential Hazard Classification)
presented in Table 2-1, together with the parameter, for a general classification of the
hazard potential rating of the small dams. Although the PHC method can be
considered as a useful method for assessing potential risk downstream, it is also
recommended to consider local and natural conditions of each dam, such as, its
structure, people, properties and environmental conditions downstream.
Table 2-1 ICOLD potential hazard classification (PHC)
PHC I II III
𝐻 2 . √𝑉 𝐻 2 . √𝑉 < 20 20 ≤ 𝐻 2 . √𝑉 < 200 𝐻 2 . √𝑉 ≥ 200
Life Safety Risk ~0 < 10 > 10
Economic Risk Low Moderate High or Extreme
Environment Risk Low or Moderate High Extreme
Social Disruption Low (Rural Area) Regional National
I) High Hazard Potential Dam (III): dam’s failure or mis-operation will probably
cause loss of human life (even if it is only one person);
II) Significant Hazard Potential Dam (II): no probable loss of human life but can
cause major economic loss, environmental damage, disruption of lifeline
facilities, or impose other concerns;
III) Low Hazard Potential Dam (I): no probable loss of human life and low economic
and/or environmental losses (losses mostly limited to owner’s property).
Regardless of classification system a country adopts, it is important that the
Regulation establishes a Risk Prioritization Criteria and based on this
6
SMALL DAMS
classification, defines responsibilities and requirements. In Pakistan, however,

SDOs do not have any Potential Hazard Classification (PHC).
▪ Dams Falling in Pothohar Region
Majority of irrigation storage dams built by Small Dams Organization (SDO), Punjab
Irrigation Department (PID) located in Pothohar region of Punjab are concrete gravity
dams or embankment dams (earthfill or rockfill dam types). About 90% of the dams
are embankment dams and remaining 10% are of concrete or masonary dams. Almost
all dams fall under PHC-I (with low potential hazard). ABAD Mini Dam–Ponds
however, almost 100% are of embankment type (for further discussion on ABAD Mini
Dam–Ponds, refer to Appendix C).
Generally following two types of small dams are constructed in Pothohar Plateau:
Concrete Gravity Dam
Due to advances in concrete technology (e.g. use of conventional concrete or roller
compacted cement and concrete, RCC) construction of masonary gravity dams has
been taken over by concrete gravity dams.
Embankment Dams (Earthfill or Rockfill Dams)
Embankment may be homogenous or zoned; comparison of these follow:
• Homogeneous
- Homogeneous dams are easier to construct and are therefore less expensive
to build.
- Homogenous embankments are appropriate where available fill materials are
predominantly of one soil type.
- Homogeneous dams are also appropriate when the height of the dam is
relatively low. Many small embankments that pose little or no downstream risk
are homogeneous.
• Zoned
- Embankment zoning is sometimes necessary to produce a stable structure
when material availability or land is limited. Zoned embankments typically can
have steeper slopes using less material. Figure 2-2 show component of zoned
embankment dam.
- Zoned embankments generally control seepage much more efficiently than do
homogenous embankments.
- Most of the larger embankment dams with significant downstream risk are
zoned.
7
SMALL DAMS
Figure 2-2 Components of zoned embankment
2.1.1. Selection of Site For a Small Dam

Factors affecting the site selection for small dams are discussed in the following
paragraphs:
i. Shape and size of valley
For economic feasibility of a storage project, it is necessary that the length of dam
should be as short as possible and for a given height it should store good volume of
water. The river valley should open out upstream to create good reservoir as shown
in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3 Typical dam site in the valley

8
SMALL DAMS
It is necessary for economic feasibility that the bulk of material required for the dam is
available in the close vicinity of the dam site and materials excavated from the
appurtenants are used in the construction of the dam for economy.
ii. Water tightness of reservoir
The rim of the reservoir should be water tight up to the proposed elevation of the dam
crest and free from slides.
iii. Site for spillway
In the case of masonry or concrete dams it is not very important; however, in case of
an embankment dam, the spillways are to be located away from the dam shown in
Figure 2-4:
Figure 2-4 Typical layout of dam and spillway

iv. Diversion during construction
A narrow gorge will make manoeuvring of construction equipment required for
diversion work difficult as compared to relatively wider gorge in open valley. Stream
diversion problems play an important role in the selection of dam site. This factor may
affect the design of dam, the construction schedule and the overall cost of the project.
v. Geological and geotechnical conditions of site
The site should preferably have good sound rock for foundation (including bed and
abutments) of adequate strength and water tightness. For concrete dam, solid rock at
the surface or within a reasonable depth below the river bed is essential. Embankment
dams have more flexible foundation requirements and are built on foundation
comprising weaker rocks and/or competent soils. Storage dam should not be built on
open gravel foundation, as seepage water losses will be significant.
vi. Topography of the site
Topography dictates in general, the choice of type of dam. A narrow valley with steep
slopes favour a concrete dam with overflow section for spillway. The low rolling plains
site with wider valley are suitable for an embankment dam (earthfill and/or rockfill) with
separate spillway. The location of spillway is an important consideration which is
controlled by project topography that will govern, in turn, the final selection of type of
dam.
9
SMALL DAMS
vii. Hydrological conditions of the stream and catchment area

It is an important factor to determine the height of dam and its appurtenant structures
including water storage capacity of the reservoir. Depending on rainfall reasonable
estimate is required regarding size of catchment to fill the reservoir at least once in a
year.
viii. climate at site
Weather reports, rainfall data, precipitation, temperature, wind velocity,
hydrometrological reports, stream flow data, stream / catchment sedimentation, water
quality data etc. are factors which affect the site selection.
ix. Sedimentation
An estimate is required to assess sediment yield from the catchment per sq. miles per
year. Initial planning could be made by assuming rate of sedimentation as 2AF/per
year/sq.mile of catchment. As no. of small dams have already been constructed,
accurate sedimentation estimation can be made from the data available in the
Irrigation Department.
x. Materials required for construction
Materials required for construction are:
• Sand, gravel, boulder or rock fragments.
Sand and gravel are used for concrete aggregates in concrete in the concrete dam
and concrete appurtenant structures such as spillway, intake and outlet structures.
Sand and gravels are also used for filters and drains of an embankment dam. Rock
fragments and boulders are used as rip rap for upstream slope protection.
• Soils
- Impervious soils (clays, silts and mixes of sand, silt and gravel of CL, ML, GC,
GM, GS groups of Unified Soil Classification System, USCS (ASTM D2487) are
used in impervious core for water tightness and seepage reduction through dam
and foundations.
- Pervious soil sands and gravel (GM, GS, SP etc.) are used in shells to improve
structural strength of embankment dam section.
xi. Size and location of command area
The command area should be at reasonable distance from the dam to keep the water
channels as short as possible, with minimum cross drainage works.
xii. Channel alignment
The channel should follow the highest contour. The alignment should avoid deep
valley crossing by syphons and for reasons of economy excavation and filling should
be balanced as much as possible.
10
SMALL DAMS
xiii. Access to the site

The site should be easily accessible through network of roads and railways available
in the vicinity of site. This is important for transportation of materials equipments,
personal etc. required for dam site, selection in planning and design stage and during
construction of the project.
xiv. Environmental and resettlement issues, socio-economic surveys and
evaluation
Rapid increase in population and construction activities have made detrimental effects
on environment. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that all developments should be
environment friendly making minimum effects on fish, wildlife and human inhabitants.
The project should ensure environmental and ecological balance. Displacement of
population due to the implementation of the project should be kept as minimum as
possible.
For small dams environmental impacts usually are small and may not require
significant mitigation works.
xv. Quantities and cost estimate
Preliminary Quantities are computed on the basis of feasibility level design / drawings,
BOQs prepared and costs are computed using Irrigation Department Composite Rates
Schedule or market rates (for items not covered in ID schedule).
xvi. Economic analysis
Perform economical analysis to assess economical feasibility of the project.
If the dam site fulfill all requirements mentioned in this sub-section, detailed studies
are started for planning of the project.
2.1.2. Site for a Concrete Gravity Dam
Choice between arch concrete dam, buttress concrete dam or gravity concrete dam
depends on quality of rock foundation at site. A site for a concrete gravity darn should
have the following characteristics:
1. Bed rock should be sound and resistant to the expected static and dynamic
forces, including earthquakes.
2. The valley slopes should be stable under full reservoir. This requirement also
applies to the abutments.
3. The foundation rocks should be approximately of one geologic classification to
avoid variations in the value of the modulus of elasticity.
4. The dam foundation should be stable and safe against sliding and settlement.
5. The foundation and the reservoir rim should be water-tight and the rim free from
slides.
6. The rocks at the site should be resistant to solution, erosion, decomposition,
and other detrimental effects.
11
SMALL DAMS
7. The reservoir drainage area, includes rocks and overburden, should be

resistant to erosion and therefore not likely to contribute such heavy silt loads
to the reservoir that its useful life span is severely decreased.
8. Geologic and topographic conditions should permit a favourable location of (a)
spillway and diversion tunnel, and (b) power house and outlet works, if any.
9. The location of construction materials, mainly concrete aggregates, should be
within an economically hauling distance from the project.
2.1.3. Site for an Embankment Dam
The exploration programs are similar to concrete or masonry dams. However, an
embankment dam can be constructed on relatively inferior foundations of suitable soils
and / or rock due to its relatively greater flexibility.
The spillway studies for embankment dams are more important than for concrete or
masonry dams. In fact the best design practice places a spillway adjacent to or at
some distance from the embankment dam rather than over the face.
The following factors need to be studied for an embankment dam site.
i. In earth dam foundations, tight contact between the embankment and the
foundation along with control of seepage at the plane of contact between the
embankment and the foundation contact must be ensured.
ii. Potentially unstable layers, such as bentonite seams or weak layers, must be
considered in the stability analysis of the embankment against sliding.
iii. Presence of thick clay seams in the foundation are subject to excessive
settlement due to consolidation and require flatter slopes to reduce the bearing
pressure on the foundation.
iv. In embankment dams founded on alluvium and glacial deposits, it is necessary
to determine the continuity of permeable strata and the possible direction of
eventual seepage.
The final selection of the dam site is based on a comparative analysis of all data
discussed above, the criteria for the comparison being cost and availability.
2.2. Planning and Design of Small Dams
This section describes planning and design procedures for small dams.
2.2.1. Required Surveys, Investigations and Other Studies
Preliminary surveys, investigations and studies are as follows:
Topographic Surveys.
Geological Surveys
Geotechnical Investigations
Hydrological Studies
Other Studies
12
SMALL DAMS
i. Topographic surveys
Topo-Surveys are important for the planning and design of all storage schemes. The
following surveys are generally required.
ii. Preliminary location survey
Some reconnaissance field work is necessary for the selection of preliminary design
of various component of the proposed project. Survey maps on scale of 1:50,000 and
20 meter contours are available from Survey of Pakistan (SOP). From these maps,
assessment of catchment area and location of command area and alignment of
channel are made. For project design following further survey will be required.
i. Dam site survey
Scale 1 in 500
Contour interval 0.5 m
ii. Reservoir survey
Scale 1 in 2000
Contour interval 1m
iii. Command area survey
Scale 1 in 2000
Contour interval 1m
iv. Strip survey along channel
alignment
Scale 1 in 1000
Contour Interval 0.5 m
v. Structure survey
Scale 1 in 200
Contour interval 0.5 m
iii. Control survey points
The purpose is to provide permanent and accessible Bench Marks (BM) to be used as
reference points throughout implementation period of the project. These BMs are to
be connected with the existing BMs of Survey of Pakistan (SOP) in the vicinity of the
project.
iv. Extent of survey
Once the axis of the dam is finalized; the dam site survey should extend as per limit
shown in Figure 2-5 for Concrete Dams. Similarly, reservoir survey should extend up
to highest flood level (HFL). In case of Embankment Dam, survey should extend 600
ft upstream and downstream of the dam axis. Spillway survey should cover approach
control structures, chute and discharge channel up to nallah bed downstream of the
13
SMALL DAMS
dam axis. Once the reservoir survey is completed, area capacity curve may be drawn
easily by an experienced cad operator.
Figure 2-5 Proposed investigation area of gravity dam

Source: Theory and design of irrigation structure, Vol.-II, canal and storage works,
1993
Geological survey
After completion of topographic survey of dam site an experienced geologist should
carry out geological survey and prepare detailed geological maps of the dam and
spillway sites for planning. The type and extent of geological investigations shall be in
accordance with the size and type of dam.
Geological investigations are performed to determine surface and subsurface
conditions at the project site with respect to the following:
i. Classification of soil and bed rocks.
ii. Stratigraphy and geological structure of the ground.
iii. Strike and dip of rock bedding and measurement of joint plan.
iv. Confirmation of alignment axis of the dam for safe and economical construction
of the dam.
14
SMALL DAMS
v. Mode and direction of folding

vi. Identification state of fault at fractured zones.
vii. Distribution and degree of weathered zones
Geotechnical investigations
1. Investigations for foundations (bed and abutments)
Subsurface investigations are required to determine the following characteristic of
foundations:
Nature of soil overburden at rock formation with regard to geology, history of
deposition and flooding etc.
Depth, thickness and composition of each stratum.
Location of groundwater and its possible seasonal fluctuations.
Type and depth of bed of rocks.
The Engineering properties of the soil and rock strata with in influence zone that affect
the design and construction of the project.
2. Phases of investigation
Phase I Reconnaissance pre-feasibility phase investigations to determine the geologic
nature of the soil and rock formation and to estimate their structure and composition
by site visit visual appraisal and review of available data / reports through desk study.
Phase II Preliminary Investigation to determine the depth, thickness and composition
of the soil and rock strata and the level of groundwater, and to determine their
engineering properties for use in feasibility level designs.
Phase III Detailed Design phase investigations to secure accurate data on the
engineering properties of the soil and rock strata to be used as a basis for detailed
design and construction planning.
Phase IV Design Construction Phase Investigations
When any anomaly is revealed during excavation in the construction phase,
construction investigation are made to secure data necessarily required for revision of
design and construction drawings and technical specifications.
➢ Phase I: reconnaissance investigations
The object of reconnaissance is to evaluate the site conditions on the basis of best
available knowledge and from a study of the surface features. This information is used
in the preliminary location studies and also aid in planning the exploratory program. A
thorough geological study is essential during the reconnaissance work to determine
the general nature of the formation and particularly their minerology and structure. The
structural study of the formation reveals defects, such as faults, fissures and caverns
and also indicate the possibility of earthquake and faults which have direct effect on
the structure.
15
SMALL DAMS
Site Visit for inspection and appraisal

An examination of the site and adjacent areas reveals much valuable information with
regard to topography, surface soils, rock out crops etc. The check list is given below:
-Topography: Flat, gently undulating, sharp hills, mountains
-Surface Soil: Loose, hard, moist, dry, boulders or gravels
-Rock out crop: Hill side weathered and unweathered
-Surface Water: Stream seasonal or perennial
-Groundwater: Well, seeps, spring and artisan wells
-Land use: Cultivated or barren.
➢ Phase II: preliminary investigations
Preliminary investigations are required for feasibility level design with regard to type,
alignment, height of dam etc. This phase of investigations include:
i) Exploration by test pits, trenches, augerholes, drill boreholes etc.
ii) Preparation of geological map of the area covering all geological features
significant to the project.
iii) Sources and brief description of construction materials available in the project
vicinity.
iv) Possibility of reservoir leakage.
v) Establishing vertical and horizontal survey control points.
vi) Preparation of Geological report by experienced geologist or geotechnical
engineer giving general outline of the regional geology, dam site geology,
apparent geological problems at the dam site, with special attention to faults or
bedding in the outcrop and definite recommendation regarding additional
exploration
vii) Preparation of preliminary feasibility level design of the dam.
➢ Phase III: detailed design investigations
On the basis of preliminary feasibility level design, detailed exploratory programme is
planned. The initial bore hole locations are generally based on the following criteria:
One vertical or inclined drill hole on each abutment and one or more drill holes in the
river section to determine the depth of river fill, as shown in Figure 2-6.
16
SMALL DAMS
d1 3m Minimum
Below Rock Surface
Figure 2-6 Minimum drilling for investigation

Normally abutment holes are drilled approximately to > 3 m below the bed formation
of rock and holes in the bed of stream to 1.25 H (height) of dam.
At least one hole in the spillway for foundation studies, if located away from the dam.
Depending on site conditions, additional holes may be required for preparation of
geologist x-section at the dam site.
➢ Phase IV: construction stage investigations
To investigate anomalies and problems revealed during construction stage excavation
construction stage investigations are performed for the modification of construction
drawings and technical specifications.
3. Methods of geotechnical investigations
Normally two methods of investigation are used:
Direct Method
Trenches, pits, shafts adits and drilling holes are used for Investigations.
Indirect Method
Mostly Geo-physical methods (Electrical Resistivity, Seismic, Gravity etc.)
Four methods of drilling are commonly used:
Rotary Drilling
Wash Boring
Light Percussion Boring
17
SMALL DAMS
Augering
Rotary Drilling
It is of two types:
Straight rotary
Reverse rotary
- Straight rotary
The Drilling fluid is pumped through the drilling rods and it returns through the
space between wall of the holes and drilling rods to the surface. This method can
be used for all type of formations.
- Reverse rotary
The drilling fluid is run through the space between walls of the hole and drilling
rods, then pumped out through the drilling rods under cutting. This method is used
for big size holes and in collapsable strata.
Rock quality description (RQD)
The ratio of the core length to the distance drilled, expressed as percentage is the core
recovery. RQD is a quantitative measure of the core lengths >10 cm. Descriptive terms
as per BS 5930 are following and their respective allowable contact pressure on fresh
jointed rock are given in the Table 2-2.
R.Q.D Term
0% to 25% Very poor
25% to 50% Poor
50% to 75% Fair
75% to 90% Good
90% to 100% Excellent
Table 2-2 Allowable contact pressure on fresh jointed rock
Allowable pressure
Rock quality R.Q.D
T sf Kn/m2
Excellent 90-100 200-300 20,000-30,000
Good 75-90 120-200 12,000-20,000
Fair 50-75 65-120 6500,-12000
Poor 25-50 30-65 3000-6500
Very Poor 0-25 10-30 1000-3000
0 <10 <1000
Water pressure test (WPT)

Water Pressure tests are carried out to measure the water tightness of rock strata. A
simple WPT involves isolating a segment of a hole generally 3-6 m in length by means
of single or double packer (see Figure 2-7).
18
SMALL DAMS
Figure 2-7 Single or double packer system

Source: Theory and design of irrigation structure, Vol.-II, canal and storage works,
1993
The water is injected into the strata either between the bottom of the bore hole and
the packer or into strata between the upper and lower packers. When water loss
under a pressure of 10 kg/cm2 is one liter per minute per meter length of the
hole, the permeability is said to be one lugeon (Lu).
The lugeon can be calculated by the following equation, if injection pressure of 10
kg/cm2 cannot be reached.
Lu = 10Q/P
where
Q = Injection Volume (Liter/Minute)
P = Injection pressure (kg/cm2)
Simple rule to convert lugeon unit to permeability is to take one lugeon unit as equal
to permeability to 1.75 x 10-7 cm/sec.
Lugeon is used for the design and planning of all grouting works.
19
SMALL DAMS
4. Investigations for construction materials and laboratory testing

Investigations are required for the construction materials to determine the
characteristics of the materials and quantities of material available from each source.
Investigations for construction materials
Selection of type of dam is based on available construction materials. Mainly three
type of materials are used in dam construction:
a) Sand and gravel for concrete aggregates, filters, drains and transition zones
b) Impervious material for core
c) Random Fill for shoulders or shells
d) Material for riprap of U/S slope erosion protection
Investigation of sands and gravels
A competent geologist or material engineer should perform the investigation. In his
investigation programme, he should collect the following information:
i) Location of the source and the amount of material available from the source.
ii) Topography of source area (whether it is in a valley, on a high terrace). A
contour map on scale of about 1 : 5000 with contour interval of 1.5 m.
Impervious core material
Impervious core material should have the following characteristic:
- Water tightness when placed in compacted rolled layers
- Easily compactible
- Resistant to erosion and piping
- Strong
- Self-healing material
A suitable impervious material for is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay of moderate to
low plasticity. It should be sufficiently cohesive to permit a small sample to be easily
molded in the hand but should not be sticky or spongy. The most desirable borrow
area contains a homogeneous distribution of the selected material to a depth of at
least 4 m (see Table 2-3 and Figure 2-8 for suitability of materials).
20
SMALL DAMS
Table 2-3 Engineering use chart for compacted soils

21
SMALL DAMS
22
SMALL DAMS
Figure 2-8 Material grading envelopes

Source: FAO-64, Manual on Small Earth Dams
23
SMALL DAMS
Materials for riprap

Riprap is a layer of large, durable rock fragments. Its purpose is to preserve the shape
of a surface slope or underlying structure by preventing erosion due to wave action or
stream current.
The rock selected for riprap should be roughly squared and reasonably flat faced. The
specific gravity of 2.6 and higher are preferred, as the rock must be heavy enough to
resist displacement by wave action and thrust from drifting objects. The established
quarries already existing are at Taraqi Hills near sohawa District Jhelum, Margalla Hills
and Kallar Kahar Range. Rip rap from these sources has successfully been used for
existing Dams. Bedding under the rip rap could also be manufactured from the same
material (i.e., rock spalls from these sources).
Materials to avoid
Should there be any question about a soil’s suitability, it is safest to avoid using it.
Some materials should never be used in dam construction, in particular the following:
• Organic material (except when used to dress the top of embankment and other
parts of the dam site at the end of the construction period). The overall organic
content should be < 2%.
• Decomposing material.
• Material with a high proportion of mica, which forms slip surfaces in soils of low
clay percentages.
• Calcitic soils such as clays derived from limestone which, although generally
stable, are usually very permeable.
• Fine silts, which are unsuitable for any zone of the dam.
• Schists and shales which, although often gravelly in texture, tend to disintegrate
when wet. Schists may also contain a high proportion of mica.
• Cracking clays that fracture when dry and may not seal up when wetted in time
to prevent piping through them (soil of CH, MH groups).
• Sodic soils, which are fine clays with a high proportion of sodium [with the ESP
(exchangeable sodium percentage) > 15% and PH ranging from 8.5 to 10].
They are dispersive clays and prone to internal erosion (piping).
• Laboratory testing for selection of design parameters
Laboratory tests on selected representative samples should be carried out to confirm the field assessment
and to determine the chemical, physical and engineering characteristics of the subsoil-water (soils and
rocks) encountered during field investigations. The tests listed in the Table 2-4 are conducted by
experienced qualified technicians under the guidance / supervision of a qualified geotechnical engineer in
well-equipped laboratory.
24
SMALL DAMS
Table 2-4 Amount of laboratory testing and selection parameters

Test description Standard Utility of Remarks
applicable data
1. Physical characteristics
Classification
of soil
(ASTM
ASTM D4-
• Grain size analysis D2487)
22, C136
Concrete
Mix. Design,
Filter Design
ASTM
• Atterberg Limits (PL, LL, SL)
D4318
Classification
• Sp. Gravity (SG) ASTM D854
of soil
2. Compaction test
• Standard Proctor ASTM D698
Classification
• Modified Proctor D1557
of soil
ASTM
• Maximum and Minimum D2453 and Classification
No. of tests
Densities ASTM of soil
depends on
D2454
site
For
conditions
ASTM identification
3. Crumble Test revealed
D6572 of dispersive
during field
soils
investigation
4. Shear strength tests
For use in
Bearing
capacity
ASTM (B.C) &
• Triaxial (UU or UC or CD)
D2850 settlement
Analyses
and stability
of slopes
• Direct Shear Shear
ASTM
Strength of
D3080
Soils
Uniaxial
shear of soil
• Unconfined Compression ASTM
or rock for
Strength D7012
use in
design B.C
25
SMALL DAMS
Test description Standard Utility of Remarks

applicable data
5. Chemical characteristics BS 1377
• PH Value
* For
identification
• ESP (exchange of sodium of sodic soils
percentage) susceptible
to dispersive
behaviour.
• CL, SO4 of Soil For selection
of cement
OPC or SCR
• CL, SO4 of Sub-surface For water
water used in
concrete mix
see BS3148
OPC: Ordinary Portable Cement
SRC: Sulphate Resisting Cement
* For dispersive soils ESP > 15% and pH 8.5 to 10.5
2.3. Hydrological Studies
The scope and objective of these guidelines is limited to hydrological data collection,
estimation/assessment of availability of flows, peak flood discharge at dam site, flood
flows in spillway, reservoir capacity to assure adequate water for irrigation or other
water supplies during droughts.
In general the objectives of these guidelines are;
• To provide the user the knowledge of data requirement, about the source of
data, and evaluation and extension of data.
• To familiarize the user with various methods for synthesizing data at an
ungauged site.
To provide an overview of various analysis techniques available to determine water
availability, peak flood discharge, reservoir capacity.
2.3.1. Data Requirement
The basic requirement is of observed long term stream flow data with gauge at the
project site. Generally such data is not available for the small irrigation project sites.
To use indirect methods to develop the stream flow series, the following data shall be
obtained:
(i) Catchment area with rain gauge locations and their long–term rainfall data
(ii) Stream flow and rainfall data of adjoining catchments.
26
SMALL DAMS
2.3.2. Sources of Data

Rain gauge locations, rainfall and other climatological information, such as
temperature, wind velocity, evaporation, humidity and pan evaporation etc., are
available from the Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD), Islamabad and its
regional offices.
Major rivers and its tributaries are being gauged regularly by Water and Power
Development Authority (WAPDA) and long-term records of water levels, discharges
and sediment load at every gauging site are available.
The information about catchment can be obtained from survey of Pakistan maps.
Moreover, Digital Elevation Model, Aster having resolution of 30 meters is sufficient to
delineate watershed, stream boundaries etc.
2.3.3. Collection of Data
The data from above sources may be obtained after receiving permission from
competent authority or on payment, if available for sale.
As stated earlier, the observed stream flow data is generally not available at the
proposed irrigation site and in many cases not even a single rain gauge exists in the
entire catchment. In such a situation, a gauging station near the site and a few rain
gauges in the catchment should be established.
There are sufficient rainfall gauges stations in the vicinity of Pothohar region. Gujjar
Khan and Cherat are operated by Water and Power Development Authority. Chakwal,
Mianwali, Jhelum and Islamabad are operated by Pakistan Meteorological
Department, whereas remaining gauging stations are operated by Irrigation
Department. The normal annual rainfall in Pothohar region varies from 400 mm to
1200 mm depending upon location as shown in the Annual Normal Isohyetal Map
(Figure 2-9), the maximum being in the northeastern area and the minimum in the
southeastern. The months of significant rainfall in a year are July, August and
September. About 45% of the rainfall occurs in these months. As this region falls in
sub-tropical zone, there is appreciable variation in the summer and winter
temperatures. January is the coldest month, while June is the hottest month. The
absolute mean monthly temperature in the valley ranges from 1°C in January to 46°C
in June.
There is a large spatial rainfall variation in the Pothohar region. Annual average varies
from 487 mm in the sub-humid south western to 1,766 mm at Murree in the
southeastern area, as shown in Figure 2-10. Monthly rainfall varies significantly, most
of the rainfall occurs in the monsoon season (July to September).

Murree, hill station, situated at North East direction has rainfall of 1766 mm.
27
SMALL DAMS
Figure 2-9 Isohyetal map of the Pothohar region
2000
1800
1600
1400
Rainfall (mm)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Chakwal
Durabi
Murree
Cheart
Islamabad
Jhelum
Mianwali
Gujjar
Talagang
Chaklala
Khan
Figure 2-10 Mean annual rainfall in the Pothohar region

28
SMALL DAMS
2.3.4. Water Availability Assessment

i. Empirical approach
The surface water availability has been estimated for the Valley. Rainfall is the only
source of runoff in the Valley. Several major streams/nullahs bring flows towards the
low-lying areas. There is limited information on gauging stations at any of the
streams/nullahs in the project area. Therefore, limited stream flow record is available.
The data availability and approach used for the estimation of surface water availability
in the valley is described in the following paragraphs.
During 1987-1990 Hyundai Consultants [1] studied some of its existing dams and
established monthly rainfall-runoff relationships using recorded rainfall-runoff and
developed regression equations for the three zones, as shown in Figure 2-11.
Figure 2-11 Hydrological zoning of the Pothohar region

Zone A: BishanDaur River at Missa Runoff = 0.983*10-7*(Rainfall+112.6)3.5 Equation 1
Zone B: Sill River at Chahan Runoff = 0.9222*10-2*(Rainfall+21.3)1.6 Equation 2
Zone C: Ling River at Kahuta Runoff = 0.428*10-2*(Rainfall+32.5)1.5 Equation 3
Example
Domeli Dam with catchment of 170 Km2 (65.65 mile2) is in Zone C shown in Figure 2-
9. Estimate monthly runoff yield for agriculture purposes.
29
SMALL DAMS
For the calculation of monthly rainfall in a particular area, isohyetal map (Figure 2-9)
of the average rainfall drawn from the rainfall data of Pakistan Meteorological
Department can be used. Jhelum station that lies in the vicinity of the Domeli
catchment has mean monthly data from 1954 to 2015.
Step 1: Synthesize rainfall data of Jhelum data
Step 2: Using Equation for Zone C, determine the direct runoff (monthly)
Step 3: Multiply direct runoff with catchment area to determine mean monthly runoff
for the dam site using following equation.
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑒 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑡
𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3
= ( ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑚2 ∗ 1000 ∗ 0.0008107)
1000
If daily rainfall data is available, it is recommended to use US Soil Conservation
Service (US SCS) method to validate empirical method of water availability.
ii. US soil conservation service (US SCS)
The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has developed a widely used curve–number
procedure for the estimation of runoff. The effects of land use and treatment, and thus
infiltration, are included. The procedure was developed empirically from studies of
small agricultural watersheds.
The SCS procedure consists of selecting a storm and computing the direct runoff by
the use of curves founded on field studies of the amount of measured runoff from
numerous soil cover combinations. A runoff curve number (CN) is extracted from the
table Runoff Curve Numbers for Hydrologic Soil-Cover Complexes (Antecedent
moisture condition AMC-II) [2].
Selection of Curve Number (CN)
Figure 2-12 Rainfall (inches) V/S direct runoff (inches)

Source: “Hydrology” suppl a section 4 Engg Handbook U.S Department of Agriculture
SCS 1968.
30
SMALL DAMS
Methodology for Computation of Mean Annual Runoff

Runoff is calculated for each month from the mean monthly rainfall event from the
selected curve number. It gives direct runoff Q (mm) for each month.
The mathematical relationship for various variables for estimation of runoff is as under
S = (1000 / CN) – 10
where
S = Potential Maximum Retention (Soil characteristics) feet
CN = Curve number
(P−0.25)2
Q = P+0.85
P = Mean Precipitation in mm / month
S = Slope of the curve
Q = Direct runoff in feet / month
2.3.5. Design Flood
Technical and financial viability of a project depends upon the design flood. It requires
extensive analysis of the data available and model / technique used, according to
accepted engineering practices. Following scenarios should be considered:
➢ Soil conservation services (SCS) method
Design storm
Frequency analysis of maximum daily rainfall data using Gumble extreme value
distribution. These values of maximum rainfall were utilized to estimate design flood
and generate design flood hydrograph. The design flood for small earthern dams
should be considered as 1000 year return period and 200 year return period for
concrete dams. Following parameters are required to compute design flood.
i. Catchment characteristics
Physiographic characteristics including catchment area, length of the longest channel,
maximum and minimum elevation of stream, vegetal cover and its density and soils
were incorporated for the calculation of design flood hydrograph by SCS method.
The calculation steps for in the derivation of design flood hydrograph using SCS
method are explained as follows:
Time of concentration
The Time of Concentration (Tc) is the time taken by the rainfall to travel from the farther
most point to the dam site. The calculation of Tc incorporates characteristics of the
catchment under study. Time of concentration was calculated using Kirpich equation.
0.385
11.9  L3 
Tc =  
 H 
31
SMALL DAMS
where
Tc = Time of Concentration in hours
L = Length of longest water channel in mm
H = Elevation Difference between highest elevation and at dam site in
mm
Estimation of time to peak
The time to peak (Tp) is the time from the start of rising of hydrograph to the peak rate,
in hours. The Tp is calculated using the following equation:
D
Tp = + 0.6Tc
2
where
Tp = Time to peak, in hours
D = Duration of excess rainfall, in hours
Tc = Time of concentration, in hours
Estimation of Direct Runoff
The direct runoff generated from the rainfall data is calculated as follows
1000
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑜 𝐶𝑁 =
10 + 𝑆
where
CN = Curve No. selected based on the antecedent storm conditions
S = Maximum potential difference between rainfall P and direct runoff
Q, in inches
Q=
(P − 0.2S )2
P + 0.8S
where
Q = Direct runoff, in inches
P= Storm rainfall, in inches
Estimation of peak rate of flow for unit rate hydrograph
The peak rate of flow for unit rate hydrograph is calculated as:
484  A
qp =
Tp
where
qp =Peak discharge, in cfs
A =Drainage area, in sq. miles
Q =Total runoff, in inches
Tp =Time to Peak
32
SMALL DAMS
Unit hydrograph
The dimensionless hydrograph of Victor Mockus [3] was used to determine unit
hydrograph of each hydrological unit. This requires knowledge of unit storm duration,
time to peak and peak discharge of the unit hydrograph. Knowing peak discharge and
time to peak of the unit hydrograph, complete unit hydrograph was obtained by
multiplying time ratios and discharge ratios of the dimensionless hydrograph with time
to peak and peak discharge of the unit hydrograph, respectively.
Synthesis of flood hydrograph
The magnitude and distribution of rainfall are obtained for the design storm. The hourly
rainfall distribution used for further calculations. The runoff is redistributed according
to intervals of D-hours assuming that intensity of rainfall within D-hour to be uniform.
Cumulative and incremental precipitations are calculated from the redistributed pattern
considering the losses obtained by the adopted curve number. Incremental
precipitation is multiplied by the ordinates of unit hydrograph for each increment. All
such hydrographs are plotted with their order and place on the time axis and their
ordinates at the same time are summed up to get flood hydrograph. Figure 2-11 show
the unit hydrograph of Domeli dam using for 1000 year return period.
60000
50000
40000
Discharge (cusecs)
30000
20000
10000
0
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
Time (hrs)
Figure 2-13 Hydrograph for 1000 year return period
Hydrological Modelling System Model developed by Hydrologic Engineering Centre
(HEC-HMS) is very efficient and user friendly model that can be used for the rainfall
runoff modelling. This is freely available and can be downloaded from
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-hms/.
33
SMALL DAMS
2.3.6. Flood Routing

The design flood hydrograph are routed through spillway using Inflow-Storage-Depth
(ISD) method for determination of appropriate spillway size and highest flood level in
the reservoir. ISD method is based on the equation
2𝑆1 2𝑆2
(𝐼1+ 𝐼2 ) + ( − 𝑂1 ) = + 𝑂2
𝑡 𝑡
where
I1 = Inflow rate at time 1.
I2 = Inflow rate at time 2.
O1 = Outflow rate at time 1
O2 = Outflow rate at time 2
S1 = Storage at time 1
S2 = Storage at time 2
t = time
The input parameters are:
1. Design flood hydrograph (calculated from design flood)
2. Area-Elevation-Capacity Curve (From topographical survey)
3. Spillway rating curve
4. Width of the waterway
5. Spillway coefficient of discharge
6. Maximum conservation level
Using above parameters flood routing is carried out and the maximum outflow through
spillway and surcharge above the crest of spillway are calculated. The maximum flood
routing level is estimated against the flood peak. These parameters are considered for
the design of the dam.
HEC-HMS may be used for flood routing. This uses a model finite–difference
approximation of the continuity equation.
The typical inflow outflow hydrograph computed from flood routing is shown in Figure
2-12 and graph of normal pool level (NPL) and HFL is shown in Figure 2-13.
The computed outflow and Reservoir Level using HEC HMS model is shown in Figure
2-12 and Figure 2-13. This is freely available model and can be downloaded from
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil /software/hec-hms/.
34
SMALL DAMS
50,000
45,000
Inflow
40,000
35,000 Outflow
Discharge (Cusecs)
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (hr)
Figure 2-14 Flood Routing for the 1000 year return period of Domeli dam
1193.00
1191.00
1189.00
1187.00
HFL
1185.00
Level (ft)
1183.00 Normal Pool Level

(R.L - 1175)
1181.00
1179.00
1177.00
1175.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (hrs)
Figure 2-15 HFL and Normal pool level against time for Domeli dam
2.3.7. Reservoir Operation
A reservoir operation and simulation study is carried out to determine the water
releases after storing the water for small dams. The aim of small dams are to store the
35
SMALL DAMS
water during flood period and regulate it during low flow period during a year and on
long-term basis to meet the irrigation requirements.
➢ Water demand
Based on the agricultural survey, command area for the project is determined.
Computation of crop water requirements for irrigated crops is fundamental in designing
an irrigation system and scheduling of irrigation. The pattern of crop water use
determines the capacities of distribution system and storage capacity of dams. This
information is also needed in determining the volume of water required to meet
monthly and seasonal requirements for fields, farms and the project area as a whole.
The crop water requirements of various crops grown in the project area are calculated
by using Crop Coefficient Approach. According to this approach, crop evapo
transpiration (ETc) is calculated by multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration
(ETo) by the crop coefficient (Kc).
ETc = KcETo
where
ETc = Crops evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Kc = Crop coefficient (unit less)
ETo= Reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)
➢ Irrigation releases
Several computer models such as Design Reservoir, HEC ResSim, can be used to
simulate reservoir operation to determine irrigation releases for the monthly or ten–
day basis. These models have proven capability to provide assessment of the probality
of failure at various demands levels.
2.3.8. Sediment Yield
The total amount of eroded material that is transported by water from catchment to a
downstream control point, such as a reservoir, is known as the sediment yield.
Sediment yield can be estimated by correlating observed sediment loads and water
discharge.
Sediment data is collected by Surface Water Hydrology Project, SWHP, WAPDA for
the adjoining catchment areas in the Pothohar region. Sediment record for 4 gauging
stations (Table 2-3) is available from where sediment yield per sq mile can be
estimated in the Pothohar region.
36
SMALL DAMS
Table 2-5 Sediment yield for various catchments in the Pothohar region
Mean
Mean
Catchmen Data annual
annual
Sr. t area record sediment
River Station runoff
No. yield
(ac-ft/sq- (ac-ft/sq-
(sq-mile) Years
mile) mile)
Siran
1 Phulra 408 36 1218.1 3.9
RIver
Haro
2 Garlia 1180 37 583.9 2.7
River
Haro
3 Khanpur 300 32 733.3 3.1
River
Soan Dhok
4 2500 42 444 5.17
River Pathan
2.3.9. Height of Dam
Note different reservoir storage zones of a dam to select its height shown in Figure
2-14.
Figure 2-16 Reservoir storage zones of a dam

Following steps are used to set the height of a dam:
(i) Dead storage level (DSL)
‒ Sedimentation
‒ Critical Level of Command Area
Depending upon the characteristics of catchment area rate of sedimentation (AFt
per year per sq. mile) of catchment is selected. Dead Storage (DS) is provided to
accommodate the deposits during life of dam (50 years for small dams) and DS
level is determined.
Once highest level of command area which is to be irrigated from the reservoir is
known, rough L-section of the channel is drawn by assuming slope of the channel
as 1 in 2000 and taking losses in syphon as 1 ft per 1000 ft length. The calculations
37
SMALL DAMS
are done backward to arrive at certain level in the reservoir which would be required
to bring the entire command area under flow irrigation.
The maximum level from above calculated gives the DSL.
(ii) Normal reservoir level (NPL)
Following are steps to set NPL:
1. Decide cropping pattern.
2. Calculate crop water requirement per 1,000 acres.
3. Determine total availability of water (refer Hydrology Section).
4. Simulate reservoir operation by using computer model (refer Hydrology
Section Reservoir Operation).
5. Work out different options by considering different command areas and
select live storage with permissible water shortages.
6. Once live storage is selected, corresponding level from storage capacity
curve, give the required NPL.
(iii)Flood routing
Data required
‒ The inflow hydrograph (refer Hydrology Section)
‒ Storage elevation curve for the reservoir (from contour survey of reservoir)
‒ Outflow elevation curve (from spillway rating curve)
Carryout flood routing by using the latest computer programme ([3] or Spread Sheet
Model) and draw inflow hydrograph and routed flood hydrograph corresponding level
from storage elevation curve. A typical flood routing of small dam is shown in Figure
2-15. This would give HFL.
38
SMALL DAMS
Discharge cusecs
Hours
Figure 2-17 Typical flood routing of small dam
(iv)Freeboard
Calculate freeboard by considering the factors explained in section freebaord Page
3-44 to page 3-46.
Add freeboard to HFL as calculated above to decide top of dam.
References
1. Small Dams, Design, Surveillance and Rehabilitation - PETITS BARRAGES
Conception, Surveillance et Réhabilitation, 2011
2. Theory and design of irrigation structure, Vol.-II, canal and storage works, 1993 by
R.L Gupta
3. Source: USBR Earth Manual
4. Stephens, T. (2010). Manual on small earth dams: a guide to siting, design and
construction (No. 64). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO).
5. Hyundai Engg. Co. Ltd., Design Manual for Small Dams – Geotechnical Field
Investigations
6. Design Manual Volume 1 Hydrology and Hydraulics for small dams projects
Hyundai Engineering co. Ltd. Korea, 1990
7. "Hydrology," Suppl. A to sec. 4, Engineering Handbook, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 1968.
8. Scharffenberg, W. A., & Fleming, M. J. (2006). Hydrologic Modeling System HEC-
HMS: User's Manual. US Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering
Center.
39
SMALL DAMS
3. DESIGN OF DAM AND SPILLWAY

3.1. Design of Dam
3.1.1. Concrete Gravity Dam
• Design criteria
Fundamentally a gravity dam should satisfy the following criteria:
It shall be safe against overturning at any horizontal position within the dam at the
contact with the foundation or within the foundation.
It should be safe against sliding at any horizontal plane within the dam, at the
contact with the foundation or along any geological feature within the foundation.
The section should be proportional so that the allowable stresses in both the
concrete and the foundation do not exceed the permissible limits.
Technically a concrete gravity dam derives its stability from the force of gravity of the
materials in the section and hence the name. The gravity dam has sufficient weight so
as to withstand the forces and the overturning moment caused by the water
impounded in the reservoir behind it. It transfers the loads to the foundations and
hence good foundations are necessary for the gravity dam.
The forces that give stability to the dam are:
Weight of the dam
Thrust of the tailwater
The forces that destabilize the dam include:
Reservoir water pressure
Uplift
Forces due to waves in the reservoir
Ice pressure, if applicable
Temperature stresses
Silt pressure
Seismic forces
Wind pressure
The forces to be resisted by a gravity dam may be classified into following two
categories:
Forces, such as weight of the dam and water pressure which are directly calculated
using the unit weight of materials and properties of water pressure.
Forces such as uplift, earthquake loads, silt pressure and ice pressure which are
estimated only on the basis of assumptions of varying degree of reliability. In fact to
evaluate this category of forces, special care has to be taken and reliance placed on
available data, experience and judgment.
40
SMALL DAMS
Figures 3-1 show the position and direction of the various forces acting on a concrete
gravity dam. Forces like temperature stresses and wind pressure are not shown. Ice
pressures being uncommon in Pakistan context have been omitted.
Figure 3-1 Different forces acting on a concrete gravity dam

Source: Module 4, Hydraulic Structures for Flow Diversion and Storage, Version 2 CE
IIT, Kharagpur
41
SMALL DAMS
Loading combination
Designs should be based on the most adverse combination of probable load
conditions, but should include only those loads having reasonable probability of
simultaneous occurrence. Combinations of transitory loads, each of which has only
remote probability of occurrence at any given time, have negligible probability of
simultaneous occurrence and should not be considered as a reasonable basis for
design. Temperature loadings should be included when applicable.
Gravity dams should be designed for the appropriate loading combinations which
follow, using the safety factors prescribed in next sections.
Usual loading combination
Normal design reservoir elevation, with appropriate dead loads, uplift, silt, ice, and
tailwater. If temperature loads are applicable, use minimum usual temperatures.
Unusual loading combinations
Maximum design reservoir elevation, with appropriate dead loads, uplift, silt, minimum
temperatures occurring at that time if applicable, and tailwater.
Extreme loading combination
Normal design reservoir elevation, with appropriate dead loads, uplift, silt, ice, usual
minimum temperatures if applicable, and tailwater, plus the effects of the Earthquake.
Table 3-1 lists the stability and stress criteria and factor of safety for various loading
combinations.
Table 3-1 Stability and stress criteria and factor of safety (FS)
Resultant Foundation Concrete stress
Load Minimum
location bearing
condition sliding FS Compressive Tensile
at base pressure
Usual Middle 1/3 2.0 < allowable 0.3 f'c 0
Unusual Middle ½ 1.7 < allowable 0.5 f'c ′ 2/3
0.6 𝑓𝑐
Extreme Within 1.3 < 1.33 x 0.9 f'c ′ 2/3
0.5 𝑓𝑐
Base allowable
Note: f'c is 1-year unconfined compressive strength of concrete. The sliding factors of
safety (FS) are based on a comprehensive field investigation and testing program.
Concrete allowable stresses are for static loading conditions. Source EM 1110-2-2200.
• Properties of concrete
The specific properties of concrete used in the design of concrete gravity dams include
the unit weight, compressive, tensile, and shear strengths, modulus of elasticity, creep,
Poisson’s ratio, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, specific heat,
and diffusivity. These same properties are also important in the design of RCC dams.
Investigations have generally indicated RCC will exhibit properties equivalent to those
42
SMALL DAMS
of conventional concrete. Values of the above properties that are to be used by the
designer in the reconnaissance and feasibility design phases of the project are
available in ACI 207.1R-87 or other existing sources of information on similar materials
(see Table 3-2). Follow-on laboratory testing and field investigations should provide
the values necessary in the final design. Temperature control and mix design are
covered in EM 1110-2-2000 and EM 1110-2-2006.
Table 3-2 Parameters for concrete dam design for preliminary design
Applicable ASTM
Description of properties Unit and value
standard
• Concrete
- Unit Weight (𝛾𝑐) 24 KN/m3
ASTM C39, ASTM C172
- Strength 14 MPa (mm)
and ASTM C31
Tensile (𝑓𝑡) 2.3 (𝑓 ′ 𝑐)2/3 ASTM C496
Shear (𝑓𝑠) 10% (𝑓 ′ 𝑐)
ASTM C 78 (Modulus of
- Modulus of Elasticity (E)
Rupture test)
- Creep ASTM C512
- Poisson’s Ratio (µ) ASTM C469
• Water
Unit weight (𝛾𝑤) for water
9.8 KN/m3
pressure competent
• Soil
Moist Unit Weight ((𝛾𝑠 ) 19.5 KN/m3
• Rock Foundation Unite ASTM D7012, ASTM
24 KN/m3
Weight (𝜸) D2113
• Silt
- For Horizontal Load 13.6 KN/m3
- For Vertical Load 19.25 KN/m3
PGA, from Seismic
From seismic map of
• Seismic Loads of Pakistan (OBE,
Pakistan
MCE)
For actual detailed design, these parameters must be established through field and /
or laboratory testing
43
SMALL DAMS
Sample stability calculations for design of gravity dams

Non-overflow section
Geometric input
Total height of dam H 100 ft
Top Width of dam (T1) 20 ft
h1 15 ft
h2 85 ft
D/s Slope(H:V) 0.70: 1
Bottom Width B 70 ft
Silt deposition hs 30 ft
Normal Reservoir Head,
85 ft
Hn
Max. Reservoir Head,
90 ft
Hm
Tail Water at normal
5 ft
reservoir htw
Tail Water at max.
15 ft
reservoir htm
µ Co-efficient of friction 0.75
Seismic Factor 0.1 g
Design input
Density of Concrete 𝛾𝑐 150 lb/ft3
Density of water 𝛾𝑤 62.4 lb/ft3
Density of Silt (submerged condition) 𝛾𝑠 70 lb/ft3
Angle of repose for soil θ 33 degree
Coefficient of active earth pressure ka 0.29 radian
Allowable bearing pressure 20000 lb/ft2
Shear strength of joint q 29.23 Kips/ft2
Angle which upstream face of dam makes with vertical Θ1 0 degree
Calculation of horizontal and vertical forces
Description Qty. Unit
Horizontal forces
Positive
Normal Reservoir Head = (𝛾𝑤 *Hn^2*0.5)/1000 225 (kip/ft)
Maximum Reservoir Head = (𝛾𝑤 *Hm^2*0.5)/1000 253 (kip/ft)
Silt Pressure = 0.5.Ka.(𝛾𝑠 /1000).hs 9 (kip/ft)
Negative
Tail Water Head = (𝛾𝑤 *htw^2*0.5)/1000 0.8 (kip/ft)
Tw
44
SMALL DAMS
Description Qty. Unit

Tail Water Head max.= (𝛾𝑤 7.0 (kip/ft)
Twm *htm^2*0.5)/1000
Seismic effects
EQ on Structure = 0.1 W 62 (kip/ft)
Vertical forces
Downward
Self-Weight of dam
W1 = (T1*H*𝛾c)/1000 300 (kip/ft)
W2 = (0.5*(B-T1)*h2*𝛾c)/1000 319 (kip/ft)
Upward
Uplift Vertical Force in Normal Conditions
U1 = (𝛾𝑤 *(Hn-htw)*B*0.5)/1000 174.7 (kip/ft)
U2 = (𝛾𝑤 *htw*B)/1000 21.8 (kip/ft)
Uplift Vertical Force in Max. Reservoir
U1 = (𝛾𝑤 *(Hm-htm)*B*0.5)/1000 163.8 (kip/ft)
U2 = (𝛾𝑤 *htm*B)/1000 65.5 (kip/ft)
Moments due to various forces about toe
Force Moment Moment
Section
(kip/ft) Arm (ft) (kip-ft/ft)
Normal Reservoir Head 225 28.3 6386.9
Max. Reservoir Head 253 30.0 7581.6
Silt 9.3 10.0 92.9
Normal uplift
U1 174.7 46.7 8154
U2 21.8 35.0 764
8918
Max. uplift
U1 163.8 46.7 7644
U2 65.5 35.0 2293
9937
Weight of dam
W1 300.0 60.0 18000
W2 318.8 33.3 10625
28625
Tail water (minimum & maximum)
Tw 0.8 1.7 1.3
Twm 7.0 5.0 35.1
Earthquake
EQ* 61.9 38.8 2403.1
* Center of Gravity from O CGy = 38.8 ft
45
SMALL DAMS
Usual loading combination

Resisting moments Mr Overturning moments Mo
Normal Reservoir
Self-Weight 6386.9 (kip-ft/ft)
Head
W1 18000 (kip-ft/ft) Silt 92.86 (kip-ft/ft)
W2 10625 (kip-ft/ft) Uplift Pressure
Tail Water U1 8154 (kip-ft/ft)
Tw 1.3 (kip-ft/ft) U2 764 (kip-ft/ft)
Total Mr 28626 (kip-ft/ft) Total Mo 15398 (kip-ft/ft)
Overturning check
FOS = Resistive Moment / Overturning Moment = Mr / Mo
MR / Mo = 1.86 >1.5 OK
Sliding check
Factor of safety against sliding = µ*ΣV/ΣH
422.1
ΣV = kip/ft
9
233.9
ΣH = kip/ft
3
µ*ΣV/ΣH = 1.35 >1 OK
Shear Friction Factor = (µ*ΣV+Bq)/ΣH

(µ*ΣV+Bq)/ΣH = 10.10 >4 OK
Compressive stresses
Calculation of stresses
e = B/2 -x̄
x̄ = ΣM/ΣV
1322
ΣM= kip-ft/ft
8.5
422.1
ΣV = kip/ft
9
x̄ = 31.33 Note: resultant at a distance x̄ from toe
e = B/2 -x̄ 3.67
Normal compressive stress @ Toe
Pmax=ΣV/B(1+6e/B) 7.93 kip/ft2 <20 OK
Normal compressive stress @ heel
Pmin = ΣV/B(1-6e/B) 4.14 kip/ft2 <20 OK
46
SMALL DAMS
Unusual Loading Combination

Max. Reservoir 7581.
Self Weight (kip-ft/ft)
Head 6
(kip-
W1 18000 Silt 92.86 (kip-ft/ft)
ft/ft)
(kip-
W2 10625 Uplift Pressure in Max. Res.
ft/ft)
Tail Water (Max.) U1 7644 (kip-ft/ft)
(kip-
Twm 35.1 U2 2293 (kip-ft/ft)
ft/ft)
(kip- 1761
Total MR 28660 Total Mo (kip-ft/ft)
ft/ft) 2
Overturning Check
Mr / Mo = 1.63 >1.5 OK
Sliding Check
ΣV = 389.43 kip/ft
ΣH = 254.99 kip/ft
µ*ΣV/ΣH = 1.15 >1 OK
(µ*ΣV+Bq)/ΣH = 9.17 >2.7 OK
Calculation of Stresses
e = B/2 -x̄
x̄ = ΣM/ΣV
ΣM= 11048.4 kip-ft/ft
ΣV = 389.43 kip/ft
e = B/2 -x̄ 6.63
Normal compressive stress @ toe

Pmax=ΣV/B(1+6e/B) 8.72 kip/ft2 <24 OK
Allowable stresses 20% higher than for normal loading case

Pmin = ΣV/B(1-6e/B) 2.40 kip/ft2 > 0 < 24 OK
47
SMALL DAMS
Extreme loading combination

Resisting moments Mr
Self-Weight
W1 18000 (kip-ft/ft)
Tail Water
Tw 1.3 (kip-ft/ft)
Total Mr 28626 (kip-ft/ft)
Increase in hydro static pressure due to earthquake
Calculation of moment due to increase in hydro static pressure
Cm 0.735
Cy 0.735
Py 0.389844 kip/ft²
Total Force 9.9078853 kip/ft
Moment due to increase in hydrodynamic pressure 842.1702 (kip-ft/ft)
𝜽
𝑪𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟎°
𝑪𝒎 𝒚 𝒚 𝒚 𝒚
𝑪𝒚 = [ (𝟐 − ) + √ (𝟐 − )]
𝟐 𝒉 𝒉 𝒉 𝒉
𝑷𝒚 = 𝑪𝒚 𝜶𝒘𝒉
𝑴 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟗𝑷𝒚 . 𝒀𝟐
Overturning moments Mo
Normal Reservoir Head 6386.9 (kip-ft/ft)
Silt 92.86 (kip-ft/ft)
Uplift Pressure
U1 8154 (kip-ft/ft)
U2 764 (kip-ft/ft)
EQ (Inertia) 2403.1 (kip-ft/ft)
EQ (due to Increase in Hydro Dynamic Pressure) 842.2 (kip-ft/ft)
Total Mo 18643 (kip-ft/ft)
Overturning check
Mr / Mo = 1.54 >1.5 OK
48
SMALL DAMS
Sliding check
ΣV = 422.19 kip/ft
ΣH = 295.80 kip/ft
µ*ΣV/ΣH = 1.07 >1 OK

(µ*ΣV+Bq)/ΣH = 7.99 >1.5 OK
Calculation of stresses
e = B/2 -x̄
x̄ = ΣM/ΣV
ΣM= 9983.2 kip-ft/ft
ΣV = 422.19 kip/ft
e = B/2 -x̄ 11.35

Pmax=ΣV/B(1+6e/B) 11.90 kip/ft2 <26.6 OK

Pmin = ΣV/B(1-6e/B) 0.16 kip/ft2 > 0 < 26.6 OK
End of construction
Moments due to forces about heel
Section Force (kip/ft) Moment arm (ft) Moment (kip-ft/ft)
W1 300.0 10.0 3000

W2 318.8 36.7 11688
14688
EQ 61.9 38.8 2403.1

49
SMALL DAMS

Self Weight EQ Force 2403 (kip-ft/ft)
(kip-
W1 3000 (kip-ft/ft) Total Mo 2403
ft/ft)
Total MR 14688 (kip-ft/ft)
Overturning check
Mr / Mo = 6.11 >1.5 OK
Sliding check
ΣV = 618.75 kip/ft
ΣH = 61.88 kip/ft
µ*ΣV/ΣH = 7.50 >1 OK
(µ*ΣV+Bq)/ΣH = 40.57 >4 OK
Calculation of Stresses
e = B/2 -x̄
x̄ = ΣM/ΣV
12284.
ΣM= kip-ft/ft
4
ΣV = 618.75 kip/ft
Note: resultant at a distance x̄ from
x̄ = 19.85
heel
e = B/2 -x̄ 15.15
Pmax = ΣV/B(1+6e/B) 20.32 kip/ft2 <26.6 OK
Pmin = ΣV/B(1-6e/B) -2.64 kip/ft2
50
SMALL DAMS
Allowable tension ( 25 % of compression)

5.078763 kip/ft2
=
Actual Tension = 2.64 kip/ft2 < 5.07 Ok
Note: Similarly overflow section could be analyzed.
3.1.2. Embankment Dam
For Earthen dam, free board has got special significant as dam could be over topped
due to insufficient free board.
• Freeboard
Freeboard is the vertical distance between the crest of the embankment (without
camber) and the reservoir water surface. The more specific term "normal freeboard''
is defined as the difference in elevation between the crest of the dam and the normal
reservoir water level, as fixed by design requirements. The term ''minimum freeboard''
is defined as the difference in elevation between the crest of the dam and the
maximum reservoir water surface.
The freeboard must be sufficient to prevent overtopping of the dam by wind setup,
wave action, or earthquake effects. Initial freeboard must allow for subsequent loss in
height due to consolidation of embankment and/or foundation. The crest of the dam
will generally include overbuild to allow for post-construction settlements. The top of
the core should also be overbuilt to ensure that it does not settle below its intended
elevation.
The rough surface of dumped riprap, reduces wave uprush to approximately 1 .5 times
the height of the wave, but uprush may be considerably more for smooth surfaces
such as concrete. Because there are no specific data on wave height and wave rideup
the determination of freeboard requires judgment and consideration of local factors.
A summary of empirical formula proposed for determination of wave heights is given
in an American Society of Civil Engineers report, from which the following Table 3-3
was extracted.
51
SMALL DAMS
Table 3-3 Summary of empirical formula proposed for determination of wave

heights
Wind velocity, miles
Fetch*, mile Wave height, feet
per hour
1 50 2.7
1 75 3.0
2.5 50 3.2
2.5 758 3.6
2.5 100 3.9
5 50 3.7
5 75 4.3
5 100 4.8
10 50 4.5
10 75 5.4
10 100 6.1
* Fetch is the distance over which the wind can act on a body of water. It is generally
defined as the normal distance from the windward shore to the structure being
designed.
For the design of small dams with riprapped slopes, it is recommended that the
freeboard be sufficient to prevent over-topping of the dam due to wave rideup equal
to 1.5 times the height of the wave as interpolated from the above tabulation,
measured vertically from the still water level. Normal freeboard should be based on a
wind velocity of 100 miles per hour, and minimum freeboard on a velocity of 50 miles
per hour. Based on these assumptions and on other considerations of the purpose of
freeboard, as previously discussed, the following Table 3-4 lists the least amount
recommended for both normal and minimum freeboard on riprapped earthfill dams;
the design of the dam should satisfy the most critical requirement.
Table 3-4 Freeboard
Normal Free Board, Minimum Free Board,
Fetch, Miles
Feet Feet
Less Than 1 4 3
1 5 4
2.5 6 5
5 8 6
10 10 7
Freeboard in seismic zone
In seismic zones, the elevation of the top of the dam should be the maximum
determined by either (1) maximum water surface plus conventional freeboard or (2)
flood control pool plus three percent of the height of the dam above streambed. This
requirement applies regardless of type of spillway.
• Camber
52
SMALL DAMS
Camber is ordinarily provided along the crest of earthfill dams to ensure that the
freeboard will not be diminished by foundation settlement or embankment
consolidation. It is based on the amount of foundation settlement and embankment
consolidation expected for a particular dam.
For dams on relatively non-compressible foundations, cambers of about 1 percent of
the height are commonly provided. Straight-line equations should be used to vary the
amount of camber and to make it roughly proportional to the height of the
embankment.
• Crest width
The crest width is, as a rule, determined empirically and largely by precedent. The
following formula is suggested for the determination of crest width for small earthfill
dams.
𝑧
𝑊 = + 10
5
where
W = width of crest in feet, and
z = height of dam in feet above the stream–bed
For ease of construction with power equipment, the minimum width should not be less
than 12 feet.
• Filter and drains
A material selected for the protective filter has to satisfy four main requirements as
follows:
(1) The filter materials should be more pervious than the base material in order that
there will be no hydraulic pressure buildup to disrupt the filter and adjacent
structures.
(2) The voids of the inplace filter material must be small enough to prevent base
material particles from penetrating the filter and causing clogging and failure of the
protective filter system.
(3) The layer of the protective filter must be sufficiently thick to provide a good
distribution of all particle sizes throughout the filter and also to provide adequate
insulation for the base material where frost action is involved.
(4) Filter material particles must be prevented from movement into the drainage pipes
by providing sufficiently small slot openings or perforations, or additional coarser
filter zone if necessary.
The following limits are recommended to satisfy filter stability criteria and to provide
ample increase in permeability between base and filter. These criteria are satisfactory
for use with filters of either natural sand and gravel or crushed rock and for filter
gradations which are either "uniform" or "graded":
53
SMALL DAMS
𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
(1) 𝐷 = 5 𝑡𝑜 40, Provided that the filter does not contain more than
15 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
5 percent of material finer than 0.074 mm. (no. 200 sieve)
(2) 𝐷 = 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
(3) 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚85𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒
(4) The grain size curve of the filter should be roughly parallel to that of the base
material.
If more than one filter layer is required, the same criteria are followed; the finer filter is
considered as the ''base material'' for selection of the gradation of the coarser filter.
In addition to the above criteria, the following requirements for graded filters should be
met:
(1) The filter material should pass the 3-inch screen for minimizing particle segregation
and bridging during placement. Smaller maximum particle sizes may be specified.
Also, filters must not have more than 5 percent minus No. 200 particles to prevent
excessive movement of fines in the filter and into drainage pipes causing clogging.
(2) The gradation curves of the filter and the base material should approximately
parallel in the range of finer sizes, because the stability and proper function of
protective filters depend upon skewness of the gradation curve of the filter toward
the fine, giving a support to the fines in the base material.
(3) The filter material adjacent to the drainage pipe should have sufficient coarse sizes
to prevent movement of filter material into the drainage pipe. The maximum size
of perforations or openings of the drainage pipe is selected as one-half of the 85-
percent grain size of the filter material.
Although normally specified, the following guides are given for filter construction:
(1) The subgrade before filter placement should be firm and, if necessary, be lightly
tamped or rolled.
(2) Clean filter material should have sufficient water content (3 to 10 percent) during
placement, and the placement method should be such that segregation is
prevented.
(3) Thin filters are usually firmly compacted with light flat rollers, or are tamped to a
firm condition. Unless otherwise specified, thick filters are compacted to 70 percent
relative density in a manner similar to free-draining sand-gravel backfill to prevent
settlement.
(4) The filter layers for coarse filter material (3-inch maximum size) are usually not less
than 8 inches in thickness, and layers of finer filter material are often 6-inch
minimum thickness. However, for severe field conditions such as high head,
variations in base material, or filter gradations which are near the extreme coarse
54
SMALL DAMS
limit, the minimum thickness of 8 inches may be specified. For zoned filters these
minimum thicknesses may be specified and are maintained for each layer.
(5) Where drainage pipe is used in a filter system, the capacity of the pipe should be
sufficient to collect the seepage water and to conduct it to a place of discharge.
(6) While the pipe is being laid, the openings are often protected from inflow of fines
of the filter material by burlap or other suitable permeable material.
• Selection of shear parameter
The selection of shear parameter to be tested meeting site conditions is normally
based on specific test methods. A summary and explanation are given in Table 3-5.
Table 3-5 Summary of triaxial tests
Test method Application in stability analysis
UU Test represents end of construction condition
(Undrained, for core zones. Also applicable to impervious
Unconsolidated) foundations where consolidation is slow in
also known as quick test “Q” comparison with rate of earthfill placement.
CU (Consolidated, Test represents behaviour of impervious or
Undrained) semi-pervious materials of embankments or
also known as Rapid test “R” foundations which consolidated during
construction and which were exposed to stress
change during sudden draw down conditions.
Test also used to analyse stationary conditions
in downstream slope.
CD (Consolidated, Test applicable to impervious and semi-
Drained) pervious soils with hydrostatic pore pressures,
also known as Slow test “S” before or after shear, under slow increase in
load is revealed. Also used to evaluate shear
values under setting out conditions where
excess hydrostatic pressure during the life of
the dam is determined.
• Minimum safety factors against slip circle failures
A summary of recommended minimum safety factors, shear test and application is
shown in Table 3-6.
Table 3-6 Summary of design case, minimum safety factors, and shear test
Minimum
Shear Applicable to slope of
Design case safety
test embankment
factor
UU or CD Upstream & downstream
End of construction 1, 3
* slopes
Sudden draw from full Upstream slope of full
1, 2 CU or CD
supply level section
55
SMALL DAMS
Minimum
Shear Applicable to slope of
Design case safety
test embankment
factor
Normal operation 1, 5 CD Downstream slope
Seismic forces, (cases
1, 1 Both slopes
above)
* In zones where no significant hydrostatic pore pressures are expected, use strengths
as determined in CD test.
Note: Effective stresses are to be used.
• Slope stability analysis of earthen dam
Introduction to Geostudio (Slope W, Seep W)
GeoStudio is a product suite for geotechnical and geo-environmental modeling, broad
enough to handle all your modeling needs.
Slope/W
SLOPE/W is the leading slope stability CAD software product for computing the factor
of safety of earth and rock slopes. SLOPE/W can effectively analyze both simple and
complex problems for a variety of slip surface shapes, pore-water pressure conditions,
soil properties, analysis methods and loading conditions.
Seep/W
SEEP/W is a finite element CAD software product for analyzing groundwater seepage
and excess pore-water pressure dissipation problems within porous materials such as
soil and rock. Its comprehensive formulation allows you to consider analyses ranging
from simple, saturated steady-state problems to sophisticated, saturated/unsaturated
time-dependent problems. SEEP/W can be applied to the analysis and design of
geotechnical, civil, hydrogeological, and mining engineering projects.
Procedure
Basically there are four major steps for the computation of results:-
1. To create a project
2. Defining a Stability Model
3. Designate properties and Boundary Conditions
4. Solve Manager and Viewing the analysis results.
Step 1: To create a project
For example to run analysis for slope stability or seepage, we will go to new project to
create new project for slope stability.
Step 2: Defining a stability model
56
SMALL DAMS
Beginning an analysis is as simple as defining the geometry by drawing regions and

lines that identify soil layers, or by importing a DXF™ file. To sketch up a model we
have to go to sketch tool on the top bar menu and then select polyline in order to draw
the desired regions.
Step 3: Designate properties and boundary conditions
By going to top bar menu in key in we can define specific soil properties, pore water
pressures and define trial slip surfaces.
Step 4: Solve Manager and Viewing the analysis results.
Once we have solved our seepage analysis or stability analysis, this software offers
many tools for viewing the results. Display the minimum slip surface and factor of
safety, or view each one individually. View detailed information about any slip surface,
including the total sliding mass, a free body diagram and a force polygon showing the
forces acting on each slice. Similarly generate contours or x-y plots of any computed
parameter, such as head, pressure, gradient, velocity, and conductivity.
Note: These are the major steps in order to have general concept about stability and
seepage analysis. For actual analysis, detailed manual available on Geostudio
website shall be required to be studied.
Available Data
Dam parameters
The following data has been taken from the Figure 3-2.
Dam type = Earthfill
Bottom width = 690 ft.
Height of dam = 120 ft.
U/S Slope = 1V : 3 H
D/S Slope = 1V : 2.5 H
Figure 3-2 Sample drawing of earthen dam for analysis

Geotechnical laboratory results
Laboratory tests are to be carried on soil samples to obtain following parameters;
• Unit weight ɣ
• Cohesion, c.
• Internal frictional angle, φ
57
SMALL DAMS
• Hydraulic conductivity, K
• Volume of compressibility, Mv
Stability Analysis Conditions
End of Construction - Unconsolidated Un-Drained (UU) test
Steady State - Consolidated Drained (CD) test
Draw down - Consolidated Drained (CD) test
Factor of safety
Refer Table 3-6 Summary of design case, minimum safety factors and shear test.
Sample example
End of construction downstream slope stability check (Figure 3-3)
Materials assumed
Drain
Model: Mohr-Coulomb
Unit Weight: 130 pcf
Cohesion: 0 psf
Phi: 30°
Core
Model: Mohr-Coulomb
Cohesion: 630 psf
Phi: 0°
Shell material
Model: Mohr-Coulomb
Cohesion: 75 psf
Phi: 22°
Foundation
Model: Mohr-Coulomb
Cohesion: 105 psf
Phi: 32°
Critical Slip Surface
Sr. Radius
Number FOS Center (ft) Entry (ft) Exit (ft)
# (ft)
(5.044, (17.6068, (2.53316,
1 218 2.295 16.109
18.084) 8) 2.17184)
58
SMALL DAMS
Figure 3-3 End of construction downstream slope stability check (without seismic load)
Similarly other cases like steady state (with or without seismic load) and Rapid draw
down (with or without seismic load) can be analyzed by following the above procedure.
Their final output Figures 3-4 to 3-8 are given below.
Figure 3-4 End of construction upstream slope stability check (without seismic load)
59
SMALL DAMS
Figure 3-5 Steady state seepage analysis
Figure 3-6 Steady state downstream slope stability check (with seismic load)
60
SMALL DAMS
Figure 3-7 Rapid drawdown seepage analysis (with seismic load)
Figure 3-8 Rapid drawdown upstream slope stability check (with seismic load)
61
SMALL DAMS
3.2. Design of Spillway

3.2.1. Location of Spillway
Spillway can be built as part of the main dam or separately. Concrete or masonary
spillways can be built in the river section where rock foundations are suitable, e.g.,
concrete dam. Separate spillways are required for all type of embankment dams.
3.2.2. Type of Spillways
Common types of spillway are:
i) Overflow or Ogee spillway
ii) Straight drop or free overfill spillway
iii) Syphon spillway
iv) Shaft or morning glory spillway
v) Side channel spillway
vi) Chute Spillway
In small dams, generally type (i) and type (v) spillways are constructed.
Overflow or ogee spillway
The spillway is provided in concrete dam in the center of the valley. Flip bucket is
provided if the rock is sound and not erodible. In case of erodible rock downstream of
the dam, a stilling basin is provided to dissipate the energy in the basin.
Caution
In case of flip bucket downstream rocks conditions should be studied carefully
especially if there are alternate beds of shale. The toe of the bucket should be placed
at solid rock formation. Failure of Dhok Tahlian Dam in 2005 was attributed for this
factor, as toe of the bucket was at shale formation which lost strength with the passage
of time and the dam overturned when it was at normal pond level.
Chute spillway
The main components of side spillway are:
i) Approach Channel
ii) Control Section
iii) Chute Section
iv) Stilling Basin
v) Tail race Channel
o Approach channel & control section
Depending upon topography, the control structure is located on at the downstream
end of the approach channel. The control section comprises of overflow Ogee-shape
crest which is designed on the criteria developed for spillway by USBR and US Army
Crops for Engineers once out flow characteristics of spillway are decided, flood routing
determines the maximum reservoir level attained when the spillway is passing design
discharge. The entrance velocity should be limited and transition should be gradual to
62
SMALL DAMS
minimize head loss through the channel. A greater approach depth with the
accompanying reduction in approach velocity will result in large discharge coefficient
and shorter crest length for a given discharge.
o Discharge over the spillway
The discharge over spillway crest is determined from the following formula
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐿𝑒 𝐻𝑒1.5
where
C = Coefficient of discharge
Le = Effective length of spillway
He = total specific emergency load above the crest
o Chute section
The chute section extend from the control section to the terminal structure. Steepest
slope may be adopted depending on site condition to minimize cutting. Generally chute
slopes range from 3H : 1V to 4H : 1V and have given satisfactory hydraulic
performance in completed small dams.
Terminal structure / stilling basin
Terminal structures are used to safely pass the spillway discharge into the outlet
channel/ main river channel. Typical types used in chute spillways are: a hydraulic-
jump stilling basin, a flip bucket, and plunge pool combination. Downstream of the
terminal structure, riprap is ordinarily provided to prevent scour and erosion of the
outlet channel.
For design of basin, the following steps are followed:
Discharge intensity in the basin is calculated by unit discharge, q = Q/W, where Q is
the design discharge and W is the selected width of the basin.
Then head Z from surcharge upstream water level to stilling basin floor level is
calculated, which is equal to E1 i.e., the actual energy level at stilling basin. This is
given by the equation and shown in Figure 3-9.
E1 = D1+ C/D1^2
where
C = q2/2g
D1 = water depth entering the basin
E1 should become equal to Z by iteration of D1 values.
Velocity entering the basin V1 is calculated as q/D1.
63
SMALL DAMS
Figure 3-9 Formation of hydraulic jump (energy dissipation)

i) Hydraulic jump in stilling basin
The stilling basin employs the hydraulic jump for energy dissipation and is the most
effective method of dissipating energy in flow over spillways. Two basic parameters
determined for design of stilling basin are the apron elevation and length of cistern. It
is ensured that the hydraulic jump forms under all conditions of flows and stays at the
toe of the glacis. If the jump leaves the downstream toe and forms on river bed, it can
cause tremendous scour.
The principle of conservation of linear momentum results in the classical hydraulic
jump equation
𝐷2 /𝐷1 = 1⁄2 [(1 + 8𝐹12 )1/2 − 1]
The Froude no. at the toe, i.e., before the jump has been calculated using flowing
equation.
F1= V1/ (gD1)1/2
To ensure that a stilling basin performs efficiently, i.e. dissipation of energy is done
properly basin has been designed in such a way that the elevation of tailwater depth
in the downstream nullah not be significantly less than the elevation of conjugate depth
of jump. Otherwise jump sweeps out from the basin and as a result downstream
riverbed is scoured. If the conjugate depth is too low the jump will be drowned and as
a result, loose its efficiency as an energy dissipater.
The length of the jump/ length of the basin can be calculated by obtaining L/d 2 against
Froude no. for basin II and III from the following 3-10.
64
SMALL DAMS
Figure 3-10 Height of jump on horizontal floor for basin I, II and III
Source: USBR, 1987
ii) Factors in design of stilling basin
Several parameters govern the design calculations of stilling basin, such as
a. Nature of foundation,
b. Approach Froude number,
c. Impact angle of flow with respect to stilling basin floor,
d. Tailwater level and
e. Economical considerations.
iii) Types of basin
Type II and Type III basin are generally adopted for spillway design. Type II basin is
adopted for high dams, earth dam spillways and large canal structures while type III is
a short basin adopted for canal structures, small outlet works, and small spillways.
Type II and III basin may be used for Froude numbers greater than 4.5. Selection
criteria for a basin depend on the flow velocities entering the basin and the unit
discharge.
Type II
This stilling basin is for spillways up to 200 ft high and for flows up to 500 cfs. per foot
of basin width and velocities greater than 60 fps, provided the jet entering the basin
has reasonably uniform velocity and depth as shown in Figure 3-11.
65
SMALL DAMS
Figure 3-11 Type II basin recommended proportions for chute blocks and
dentated sill
Source: USBR, 1987
Chute Blocks
Spacing, width and height, D1 = water depth entering the basin
Side space = 0.5D1
Dentated sill
Height of dentate sill, h2 = 0.2 D2 = 0.2 * downstream conjugate depth (height of jump)
Width w2 and spacing s2 = 0.15 D2
Top width = 0.02 D2
Type III
This basin is developed for a class of smaller structures in which velocities at the
entrance to the basin are moderate or low (up to 50-60 feet per second) and
discharges per foot of width are less than 200 cfs.
The energy dissipation arrangement includes chute blocks, baffle piers and end sill.
Their size and spacing are given in Figure 3-12.
66
SMALL DAMS
Figure 3-12 Type III basin recommended proportions for chute bloks,
baffle piers and end sill
Source: USBR, 1987
Chute blocks
Spacing s1, width w1, height h1= D1= depth entering the basin
Side spacing = 0.5 D1
Baffle pier
Distance from chute block= 0.8D2
The height of baffle pier and end sill may be calculated by obtaining h 3/D1 and h4/D1
against Froude no. from Figure 3-13.
Figure 3-13 Type III basin height of baffle piers and end sill
Source: USBR, 1987
67
SMALL DAMS
Height of baffle pier = h3

Top width = 0.2 h3
Width w3 and spacing s3 = 0.75 h3
Side space = 0.375 h3
End Sill
Height of end sill = h4
Discharge (Q = V.A) in the tail channel is to be calculated using mannings equation
for velocity.
1.486 2/3 1/2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
Where:
n = mannings coefficient of roughness
𝐴 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
R = Hydraulic radius = 𝑃 = 𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
S = Bed Slope in ft / ft
Flow Area is to be calculated by:
A = FSD (Bed width + FSD x Side Slope of Channel)
Wetted perimeter is to be calculated by:
P = Bed width + 2 x FSD x (1+ Side Slope2)0.5
a. Uplift Pressure Control
Failure by Direct Uplift
The water seeping below the structure exerts an uplift pressure on the floor of the
structure. If the pressure is not counter-balanced by the weight of concrete or by the
moment of resistance of concrete section in case of RCC floors, the structure will fail
by rupture of a part of the floor. Cut-off of sufficient depth will be needed both on
upstream and downstream of the hydraulic structure.
Drainage Arrangement / Relief well
Drainage arrangement is provided for safe removal of excess seepage water below
an energy dissipation structure in order to counter act uplift pressure. For this purpose
a filter is to be provided which a layer or a combination of layers of graded pervious
materials with perforated pipes designed and placed in such a manner as to provide
drainage and yet prevent the movement of soil particles with seepage water.
The pore spaces in foundation material below the energy dissipators get filled with
water which exerts pressures in all directions. Such pressures depend upon head of
water in the reservoir and also on tailwater head.
With proper care, uplift pressures on the energy dissipators can be minimized by
providing weep holes, surface drains, drainage holes in foundation rock and providing
relief wells in pervious foundations.
68
SMALL DAMS
Additionally, Weight of concrete floor and anchorage to the rock, if provided, shall be
designed to withstand uplift and dynamic pressures with ample factor of safety to take
care of limitations in accurate evaluation of such pressures.
The relief wells shall be connected to a grid of drains under the energy dissipators.
The grid of drains shall be connected below the energy dissipators to lead water into
sumps generally provided below the energy dissipators and/or on backsides of the
end training walls. Water is pumped out from sumps for its disposal from suitable
locations above the maximum tailwater level.
The spacing of drain/relief holes may vary from 3 to 10 m (9.84 to 32.81 ft) in both
directions and their depth may vary from 20 to 40 percent of tail water depth when no
other supporting data is available.
The drains holes are usually of 75-100 mm (3 to 4 inches) diameter. They shall be
drilled after completion of the foundation grouting in their vicinity, if any, to avoid their
clogging.
Design example:
Design an ogee type spillway with crest at 1470 ft. amsl and design discharge
of 8755 cusecs, clear width at crest equal to 100 ft and width at basin equal to
80 ft with elevation of stilling basin at 1331 ft. amsl. The tail channel has invert
of 1336 ft. aml with bed slope of 1:1000.
Solution:
Discharge over spillway
Design Discharge required 549 cfs
Spillway crest level EL. 2023.00 ft amsl
head at crest ( by trial /
ho 3.918 ft
assumption)
Clear width of spillway W 15.50 ft
Approach 2020.75 ft amsl
P 2.25 ft
P/Ho 0.50
Discharge coefficient, C0 3.8
Stilling basin Elevation EL. 2001.00 ft amsl
Discharge intensity q = Q/W
q 35.42 cusecs / ft
Approach velocity Va = q/(P+ho)
Va 5.74 ft/sec
Head due to approach velocity ha =q2/2g(P+ho )2
ha 0.512 ft
Maximum Surcharge Level EL. 2027.43 ft amsl
Ho 4.4296 ft
Discharge passing Q=CLHo3/2 549.1 cusec
Ho/2 2.21
69
SMALL DAMS
ha/Ho 0.1156
Stilling Basin
width of basin W 15.50 ft
Discharge intensity in basin q 35.42 cusecs / ft
Distance from surcharge water
Z 26.43 ft
level to stilling basin
Ho/2 2.21
Velocity at Entrance to basin V1 39.48 fps
Depth of flow entering basin D1 0.897 ft
Froude No. F 7.35
Subsequent Depth
D2/D1 = 1/2*((1+8 F2)0.5-1)
Depth of flow in stilling Basin D2 8.88 ft
water surface elevation in stilling
EL. 2009.88 ft amsl
Basin
Minimum tail water depth Ref fig 11.
T.W.D/D1 8.10
Peterka
T.W.D 7.27 ft
Tail channel invert 2003.65 ft amsl
water depth at start of channel 6.23 ft
Ref fig 12.
L/D2 2.60
Peterka
Length of Cistern L 23.10 ft
Type III basin
Chute blocks Spacing s1= D1 0.897 ft
width w1, height h1 0.897 ft
0.5d1, side space 0.449 ft
Baffle pier
0.8D2 ,Distance
7.107 ft
from chute block
h3/D1 1.800 Ref fig 18.
Peterka
h3, height of baffle
1.615 ft
pier
0.2h3, top width 0.323 ft
0.75h3, width w3
1.211 ft
and spacing s3
0.375h3, side
0.606 ft
space
End sill
Ref fig 18.
h4/D1 1.40
Peterka
h4, height of end
1.26 ft
sill
70
SMALL DAMS
The sizing of the tail channel should be such that it passes a discharge of 549 cusecs
at a water depth of 6.23 ft.
The width of the basin is 15.5 ft, so the tail channel is also taken as 15.5 ft wide.
Longitudinal slope is given as 1:500. The side slope cutting depends on the rock type.
In this case it is taken as 1 vertical 0.5 horizontal, z = 0.5.
Flow area is calculated as:
A = 6.23 (15.5 + 6.23 x 0.5) = 115.97 ft2
Wetted perimeter is calculated as
P = 15.5 + 2 x 6.23 (1+0.5)0.5 = 29.43 ft
𝐴 115.97
Hydraulic Radius = 𝑅 = = = 3.94 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 29.43
1.486 1 1/2
𝑉 = 0.035 (3.94)2/3 (500) = 4.74 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 (n = .035, roughness coefficient depends on
the rock / soil type)
Q = V.A
= 4.74 x 115.97
= 549.40 cusecs
Hence the channel section selected can safely pass a discharge of 549 cusecs.
References:
1. Module 4, Hydraulic Structures for Flow Diversion and Storage, Version 2 CE IIT,
Kharagpur
2. MANUAL-EM, E. N. G. I. N. E. E. R. "1110-2-2200. 30 June 1995." US Army Corps.
of Engineers. ENGINEERING AND DESIGN. Gravity Dam Design.
3. Manual, Engineers. "EM 1110-2-2000 Standard practice for concrete for civil works
structures, Department of the army." US Army Corps of Engineers, Washington,
DC (1994): 20314-1000.
4. Concrete, Mass. "ACI 207.1 R. 87." ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part I,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI (1993).
5. Hyundai Engg. Co. Ltd. Korea, Design Mnaula for Small Dams
i. Fill Dam
ii. Concrete Gravity Dam
iii. Hydrology and Hydraulics
6. Design of Small Dams, United States Department of the Interior. Bureau of
Reclamation (USBR).
7. Design of Concrete Gravity Dam, USBR.
8. Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basin and Energy Dissipation by AJ Peterka.
9. Hydraulic Energy Dissipators by Ed ward A. Elevatorski.
10. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2005.
11. Earth and Earth Rock Dams by James L. Sherar
71
SMALL DAMS
4. CONSTRUCTION OF SMALL DAMS

4.1. Construction of Small Dams
4.1.1. Construction Planning
General
After successfully completing pre-construction phase (i.e., Detailed design, Technical
specifications, tender documents, award of contract etc.) the Construction Phase
commences. Planning for construction phase for project execution and
implementation is as important as the pre-construction phase.
The most important aspect of planning of construction is to ensure completion of
construction within the allocated schedule and budget in accordance with the
approved Project Plans & Specifications, accepted technical practices and
professional requirements conforming to the conditions of Construction Contract.
Important Aspect of Construction Planning
(i) Check surveys and layouts;
(ii) Selection of plant and equipment
(iii) Selection of construction material and source approval;
(iv) Construction techniques and workmanship;
(v) Foundation preparation and treatments;
(vi) Filter and drain for seepage control;
(vii) Inspection and monitoring of construction activities including QA/QC Control;
(viii) Surface protection
Further details of these are given in the following sections.
Check surveys and layout
The surveys and layout of dam and appurtenant structures is the first step for
construction. For ensuring accuracy of layout of the Contractor works, Construction
Engineer (CE) checks the surveys, control points and setting out as work proceeds.
The setting out of centre-lines and structures is the responsibility of the Contractor.
The Construction Engineer (CE) provides control points. Particular importance should
be given to the following:
i) The type and number of appropriate survey instruments and periodic
adjustment controls.
ii) Adequate connection of setting out surveys to the control-bench marks network;
main centerlines are to be linked to the bench mark networks by observation of
at least three network fix points, and the Construction Engineer (CE)
periodically check the fix points established by the Contractor.
iii) Control of measurements against the influence of refraction.
The measurement and correction of the overall fix point and benchmark.
72
SMALL DAMS
Plant and equipment

Consideration of what plant and equipment is available, the conditions of operation
and distances materials are to be moved, as well as size and type of dam to be built,
are the most important factors in determining the plant and equipment to be used.
Selection of construction material and source approval
The source approval of the material intended to be used on the project by the
Contractor is granted by the CE for construction materials including steel
reinforcement, aggregates, stone, earthfill, cement, water stops, admixtures etc., on
the basis of prescribed tests, factory certificates and mill tests conducted by factory
laboratory. After the source approval, regular tests will be conducted in the laboratory
established at the site for aggregates, concrete and earthfill. For materials like cement,
steel reinforcement, samples will be taken periodically from the consignments
delivered at site as provided in the technical specifications of the project. The
contractor will get these materials tested by Central Materials Testing Laboratory
(CMTL) WAPDA, University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore, PITAC, Lahore,
Department of Earth Sciences, Punjab University, Lahore and Punjab Highway
Research Institute, as directed by the CE.
Construction techniques and workmanship
Important items (Earthfill Dams):
• Construction should begin to cutoff trench;
• Construct in nearly horizontal lifts that extend abutment to abutment;
• Borrow materials should be hauled onto lift (or layer) placement areas and NOT
PUSHED IN PLACE.
• Once dumped, soils should be spread for dozing equipment so that their
thickness is no greater than 9 inches (or as directed by the CE) after
compaction;
• Rocks should be raked to the outer thirds of the embankment, both upstream
and downstream;
• Rocks in fill should be less than 75% compacted lift thickness in size;
• Rocks should be spread out evenly and not allowed to form coarse open
pockets;
• After fill has been spread and moisture properly adjusted, the soil should be
compacted by either rubber tired equipment (front end loader with bucket filled)
or equipment specifically designed for soil compaction.
• The embankment should be built up fairly uniformly over the entire width and
length of each section as it is constructed.
• Caution: Bonding between lifts is important to prevent problems. Prior to
placing the next lift (or layer), the prior lift should be scarified a maximum of 2
inches deep. Do not leave lift surfaces to become too dry. Organic content of
soil, and other deleterious matter should be removed.
73
SMALL DAMS
a) Foundation cutoff:
Sometime it is necessary to provide a cutoff trench. The cutoff is constructed of
impervious material and is generally located near the centerline of the dam. Ideally the
cutoff should extend to an impervious layer in the foundation, either soil or rock. Cutoff
trenches prevent excessive seepage from moving under the dam, by lengthening the
seepage path.
Care must be taken not to place cutoff trenches on untreated fractured bedrock, as
material in the trench could be piped into the fractures or exposed to high erosive
water force.
If the dam is located on permeable soils, it is necessary to provide a cutoff trench that
extends down to a low permeability layer. The cutoff should extend the full width of the
dam, including to above the normal water line in each abutment.
Caution: If a cutoff to bedrock or to an impervious soil layer cannot be achieved, there
is a good chance the reservoir will have seepage problems, perhaps even to the extent
where the reservoir will not hold water at all. This is very common. There are several
creative solutions to dealing with this situation. If you suspect this may be the case
with your dam, it is highly recommended that you consult an experienced dam
hydraulic engineer.
b) Fill placement - compaction
Two variables that greatly influence the embankment fill density are the compactive
effort (i.e., degree of compaction, DC) and the moisture content (Optimum Moisture
Content, OMC). Both are described below.
Compaction: Compaction is the process of mechanically increasing the density of the
soil. By increasing the density, the strength of the soil is dramatically increased. A well-
compacted soil is less likely to settle. Earth embankments are constructed in layers,
commonly referred to as lifts. Dense, well-compacted lifts paramount to having a safe
dam. Compaction can be enhanced by increasing the weight of the roller on the soil,
by increasing the number of passes, or by decreasing the thickness of each lift as it is
added to the embankment. The maximum diameter of stone or cobble allowed in
compacted fill is generally limited to about 75 percent of the thickness of the
compacted layer.
Proper compaction at the contact between the embankment, abutments, outlet pipes,
and concrete structures is important. It is generally recommended that thin lifts using
hand-operated tampers or hand operated vibratory plate compaction be used in these
situations. The fill is commonly compacted to a maximum compacted lift thickness of
4 inches. To improve bonding of lifts, scarify the compacted surface with a roto-tiller
or similar tool.
When the material that is being compacted is impervious. It should be as fine-grained
as practicable. The soil must be plastic enough to penetrate all irregularities and form
a well-bonded seal. The moisture content is often increased slightly to produce more
74
SMALL DAMS
plasticity in these areas. The plasticity of the contact zone of soil is sometimes
increased by mixing bentonite with the available impermeable soil.
Caution: If compacting around plastic pipes, be careful that rocks are removed. Rocks
can easily damage plastic pipes. Rocks with a diameter greater than 1 inch must be
removed within 6 inches of the pipe.
Fill placement – optimum moisture content (OMC): Moisture is vital to proper
compaction. Moisture acts as a lubricant within the soil, sliding the particles together.
Too little moisture means inadequate compaction, too much moisture leaves water-
filled voids that weakens the soil.
The water content at maximum soil density is termed as Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC). Generally, it is recommended to have soils either at optimum moisture content
or slightly above optimum. Soils compacted substantially drier than optimum water
content may settle upon saturation. Settlements can cause embankment cracking, and
even failure. Soils compacted substantially wet of optimum will be weak and non-
supportable.
For pervious material, the need for water control during compaction depends on grain
size. If the pervious material is gravel, no water-content control is necessary. If the
material is sand or contains significant proportion of sand sizes, the material should
be maintained in as saturated a condition as possible during rolling. The effect of
insufficient water in pervious sand causes the sand to “bulk” which will results on low
strength and density when it dries up. Soils that have “bulked” might also tend to settle
upon saturation.
Dry soils are treated by sprinkling water on the soil after it has been spread, but before
it is compacted. The soil must then be worked to thoroughly blend the added water
into the soil. This is typically accomplished by disking with a disk plow or by blading
the material back and forth with a grader. If water is retained in pockets of wet soil,
very poor compaction will result. The coarser and less plastic the soil, the more easily
water can be added and worked into it uniformly.
Note-1: For clays, sometimes it is impossible to get a uniform moisture distribution by
adding water on the fill as it is placed. Pre-wetting of borrow materials will result in
more uniform moisture distribution and may be more economical. If the soil is being
processed through a screening plant to remove oversize cobbles, a considerable
quantity of water can be blended into the soil by sprinkling at that time.
Note-2: The design of an embankment is strongly influenced by the natural water
content of borrow materials. While natural water content can be decreased to some
extent, some borrow soils are so wet they cannot be used in an embankment unless
slopes are flattened. Excessively moist impervious soils may be unusable as
embankment fill, and reducing moisture content would be impractical because of
anticipated rainfall during construction. The cost of using drier material requiring a
longer haul should be compared with the cost of using wetter materials and flatter
slopes. It is generally easier to add water to dry soil than to reduce the water content
of wet soil.
75
SMALL DAMS
Good compaction: Much information can be gained by observing the action of

compacting and hauling equipment on the construction surface. The action of the roller
will indicate whether the water content of the material is satisfactory and if good
compaction is being obtained. The action varies depending on whether the fill is
pervious or impervious.
Using construction equipment to judge water content:
• When compacting impervious fill, if on the first pass of a rubber-tired roller, the
tires sink to a depth equal to or greater than one-half the tire width, or the soil
ruts excessively after several passes, or if at any time during rolling the material
is taking place ahead of the roller weaves or undulates, the water content of the
material is too high.
• If the roller tracks then vary only slightly or not at all and leaves the surface hard
and still after several passes, the soil is probably too dry.
• For most soils having proper water contents, the roller will track nicely on the
first pass and the wheels will embed 3 to 4 inches. There should always be
some penetration into soil at its proper water content, through the penetration
will decrease as the number of passes increases.
• When using a tamping foot roller, another observation to be made is whether
or not the feet are coming out clean, the soil is generally too wet when large
amounts of material are being picked up by the feet and knocked off by the
cleaning teeth. There should only be a minor amount of soil sticking if it is at its
proper water content.
• At proper water content there will always be a noticeable “springing” of the
embankment surface as it reacts to the passage of any heavy construction
equipment.
• A sudden sinking or rising of the surface under the weight of the passing
equipment is a good indication that a soft layer or picket exists below the
surface. If there is no spring at all, it is probable that several lifts of fill have been
too dry.
• Caution: When compacting pervious sands and gravels, if the hauling and
compaction equipment sinks in or causes ruts in the fill surface, this indicates
that water applied during compaction is not draining through the material as it
should. Watch out! This could indicate that the pervious material has been
contaminated, and is not draining as free as it should be.
How to determine adequate compaction:
1. Field and laboratory testing
• Samples of earthfill materials are tested in the on-site laboratory to determine
OMC and maximum dry density relationship of each earthfill materials, using
ASTM D698 or ASTM D1557 whichever is specified in the project
Specifications.
76
SMALL DAMS
• Field density tests are performed on compacted layer using ASTM D1556 or
other ASTM D standard methods suitable to site conditions.
• Compute Degree of Compaction (DC) and moisture content. DC ≥ 95% and
Moisture Content should be ± 2 OMC of ASTM D698 or ASTM F1557 whichever
is applicable.
2. Hand methods
• Lightly hammering a piece of rebar into newly compacted fill can tell you a lot.
3. Keeping track of passes
• Generally 8 to 10 passes are necessary to get adequate compaction.
(i) Foundation preparation and treatments
Before you begin to construct your embankment, attention must be given to the
foundations. A properly prepared foundation is critical to the safety and long life of the
embankment. First you must do an assessment of the foundation materials. What soils
are present in the foundation? How thick are soil layers? How deep is bedrock? This
can be easily done by examining a test pit dug with a backhoe.
Caution: Gravels and sands make a poor embankment foundation. Gravels are highly
permeable and could allow excessive seepage, which could in turn lead to
embankment or dam failure or inability to hold water. Do not build your embankment
or dam on gravels.
Preparation of a soil foundation
• Scarification: loosen soils to ensure that the engineered fill bonds well with the
underlying soils (usually to a depth of 6 inches).
o During the scarification process it is not unusual for large rocks and cobbles
to be brought to the surface. Any material larger than 6 inches in diameter
should be removed before the placement of fill material.
• Apply adequate moisture, so that a good bond is made.
• Smooth and lessen the angle of abutment slopes.
o It is difficult to compact fill against slopes steeper than 2:1. Poor compaction
can cause a seepage path to develop.
o Steep abutment slopes can cause cracking of the embankment fill.
Preparation of a rock foundation
• Remove loose material.
• Seal fractures with an overlay of dental concrete.
Caution: Failure to properly seal bedrock fractures has been the cause of many
embankment or dam failures! Embankment material can easily be piped into open rock
fractures! If you encounter rock or porous soils in the foundation, an experienced dam
engineer should be consulted.
77
SMALL DAMS
Clearing and grubbing

Most construction sites support a growth of trees, shrubs, forbs, grasses, and other
vegetative growth. This vegetative growth often deposits large amounts of organic litter
onto the soil surface, and the soil profile will often include large roots from trees, root
wade from shrubs and organic matter from forbs and grasses. Clearing and grubbing
is simply the process of clearing the construction site of vegetation and debris.
Clearing and grubbing should extend 20 to 50 feet beyond toe.
Stripping
After clearing and grubbing is completed, the stripping process is begun. Stripping is
the removal of any unsuitable soils. Generally, this involves the excavation and
removal of topsoil, which commonly contains large amounts of organic matter (≥2%).
Organic rich soils are undesirable in the foundation or embankment – they are weak,
tend to compress, and inhibit proper foundation drainage. Unsuitable soils should be
removed 10 to 20 feet below the toe of the dam. Organic soils should be left in reservoir
area.
Borrow areas
A good borrow area:
• Does not contain organic material
• Drains well so that water do not collect or stand next to the borrow materials.
• Contains suitable material such as well-graded mixes of sand and clay.
• Has minimal large rocks (unless the borrow area is for rip-rap).
Caution: Impervious borrow materials should be closely monitored for moisture
content. Once the impervious material becomes too wet or saturated, it is very difficult,
costly and time-consuming to rehabilitate the material so that it can be used in
embankment construction.
Soils used in embankment dams
There are five different types of earth material used in embankment construction:
• Clay (CL)
• Silt (ML)
• Sand (SW, SC, SM etc.)
• Gravel (GW, GP, GC, GM etc.)
• Cobbles and Boulders
Soil groups
Soils are often classified into two groups: Impermeable and Permeable. A brief
description of each follows
• Impermeable materials are very slow to transmit water, and are generally used
to prevent excessive seepage. Impervious soils used most commonly in
embankments include clays, clayey sands or gravels, and silty clays.
78
SMALL DAMS
• Permeable soils, on the other hand, easily transmit water, and are often used
in filter and drains. Sands and gravels are considered to be pervious. Note that
the addition of only 10% clay or silt can render sand impervious and
dramatically effect performance. Thus, it is very important during construction
to keep pervious and impervious soils separate.
Outlet foundation preparation
• The outlet conduit (pipe) trench should be excavated from the intake location in
the reservoir basin to the downstream toe of embankment, preferably through
the abutments in natural formation.
• Make sure bottoms and sides of trench are firm and well compacted.
• The bottom of the trench should be at least 6 inches below bottom of the pipe,
and there should be a minimum of 6 inches of space between the pipe and
sides of the trench.
• trench sides should be sloped 2:1 (horizontal: vertical) to facilitate compaction
(the trench walls provide lateral containment so that all energy of compaction
is directed to compaction rather than moving the material laterally).
• a hand compactor must be used to compact around outlet pipes. most hand
compactors have shoes that are at least 1 foot wide. the trench must be sized
to accommodate this.
(ii) Filter and drains for seepage control
Soil particles can be transported out of the dam through a concentrated leak. This is
known as piping. Piping proceeds very slowly and can go unnoticed for years. Finally,
at some point, enough material has been moved, and the surrounding soil caves in.
The surface manifestation of such as “cave in” is called a sinkhole. Sinkholes are a
sign that failure of the dam could be imminent.
Piping is one of the leading causes of dam and embankment failures. The key to the
prevention of piping is to install a proper filtering system that prevents the movement
of soil within the embankment and foundation. A dam filter is similar to a coffee filter:
water is allowed through, but soil particles are not.
Seepage can be safely controlled using filters and drains:
• Filters are designed to protect embankment soils from being carried away.
• Drains are designed to carry water away from the embankment, keeping the
soils as dry as possible.
• Both filters and drains must be comprised of very pervious soils (clean sands
and gravels).
• Often it is necessary to use both.
• It is important to make sure that the grain size of the filter material is compatible
with the grain size of the embankment. As the size of the embankment material
decreases, the grain size of the filter should also decrease.
79
SMALL DAMS
• Gravel has very high permeability and works well as a drain material. However,
gravel is generally too large to be placed directly next to clay soils. If a very
coarse-grained soil is placed directly next to a fine-grained soil, piping could
result.
In most cases, filter and drain material will be a processed material purchased from
an aggregate supplier. Pit run borrow is usually too dirty.
Caution: The above material criteria can perform well in many situations. However,
the drain and filter criteria must be satisfied and must be consulted.
The free water surface through a dam is referred to as the phreatic surface. Below the
phreatic surface, the embankment soils are saturated. Above the phreatic surface, the
embankment soils may contain some moisture, but are not fully saturated.
In many cases, water can move safely through the dam and foundation for years.
Seepage becomes a problem when:
• The downstream embankment face becomes excessively saturated.
• Concentrated leaks develop in the embankment or foundation.
Excessive saturation of the embankment can lead to instability and slope failure.
Because soil becomes more prone to failure when saturated, as the phreatic surface
rises, the dam can become less stable.
(iii)Surface protection
Embankment surfaces must be protected from surface erosion. Upstream slope
protection usually consists of rip-rap. Downstream slope protection is typically native
grass cover 9 inch gravel over the surface.
Upstream slope protection
Protects against:
• Wind
• Wave erosion
• Weathering
• Ice damage
• Potential damage from floating debris
Downstream slope protection
Protects against:
• Surface runoff
• Wind erosion
Caution: Excessive upstream face erosion can seriously threaten the dam by
shortening the crest width. A dam with a narrow crest is much more susceptible to
failure from overtopping or slope instability.
80
SMALL DAMS
Recommendations for placing rip-rap

• Watch out for segregation:
o If dumping is done from trucks, dumping should proceed along horizontal
rows and progress up the slope.
o Loads should not be dumped to form vertical rows up the slope.
• Provide a bedding layer.
o Protects the embankment material from eroding by wave action.
o Located between the embankment and rip-rap
o Use proper gradation.
o Many rip-rap failures occur because the bedding material is not large
enough to resist being sucked out through the rip-rap, subsequently
exposing the embankment.
Note:
• Particular attention and special slope protection may be necessary at the groins
of the embankment because surface runoff from abutments will concentrate
there.
• Surface drainage of the crest should be provided by sloping the crest gently
towards the reservoir (-2% slope is good).
4.1.2. Stream Diversion
Requirements for diversion of stream flow during construction and the relative ease
and cost of stream control measures may govern site selection. Since river diversion
is a critical operation in constructing a dam, usually, the contractor is allowed
considerable flexibility in the method of diversion. This adds to the designer's
uncertainty in planning use of materials from structural excavations.
Methods of stream control
The principal factors that determine methods of stream control are the hydrology of
the stream, the topography and geology of the site, and the construction schedule. A
common diversion method is to construct the permanent outlet works and a portion of
the embankment adjacent to an abutment in the initial construction period. During the
next construction period, at a time when flood possibility is low and favorable
embankment placement conditions are likely, a cofferdam is constructed to divert river
flow through the outlet works. A downstream cofferdam may also be required until the
embankment has been completed above tailwater elevation. In the period following
diversion, the closure section is first brought up to a level with the remainder of the
dam, after which the embankment is completed to a given height as rapidly as possible
in preparation for high water. In the final period, the entire dam is constructed up to full
height. Simultaneous closure of upstream and downstream cofferdams may facilitate
a difficult closure. The downstream cofferdam puts a back head on the construction
area and reduces erosion of the downstream slope and adjacent foundation.
81
SMALL DAMS
Cofferdams are often constructed in two stages: first, a small diversion cofferdam is
constructed upstream of the main embankment, and then the main cofferdam is
constructed. It is preferable to make cofferdam a permanent part of the fill.
Cofferdam design
Major cofferdams are those cellular or embankment cofferdams, which, upon failure
would cause major damage downstream and/or considerable damage to the
permanent work. Minor cofferdams are those which would result in only minor flooding
of the construction site. All major cofferdams should be planned, designed, and
constructed to the same level of engineering competency as that for main dams.
Design considerations should include minimum required top elevation, hydrologic
records, hydrographic and topographic information, subsurface exploration, slope
protection, seepage control, stability and settlement analyses, and sources of
construction materials. The rate of construction and fill placement must be such as to
prevent overtopping during initial closure of the cofferdam. Minor cofferdams can be
the responsibility of the contractor. Excavations for permanent structures should be
made so as not to undermine the cofferdam foundation or lead to instability.
Adequate space should be provided between the cofferdam and structural excavation
to accommodate remedial work, such as berms, toe buttresses, and foundation
anchors should they be necessary.
Protection of embankment
Where hydrologic conditions require, emergency outlets should be provided to avoid
possible overtopping of the incomplete embankment by floods that exceed the
capacity of the outlet works. As the dam is raised, the probability of overtopping
gradually decreases as a result of increased discharge capacity and reservoir storage.
Should overtopping occur, however, damage to the partially completed structure and
to downstream property increases with increased embankment heights. It is prudent
to provide emergency outlets by leaving gaps or low areas in the concrete spillway or
gate structure, or in the embankment during winter. Excavation of portions of the
spillway approach and discharge channels, combined with maintaining low concrete
weir sections, may provide protection for the later phases of embankments
construction during which the potential damage is the greatest.
When a portion of the embankment is constructed before diversion of the river,
temporary riprap or other erosion protection may be required for the toe of the
embankment adjacent to the channel. This temporary protection must be removed
before placement of fill for the closure section.
In some cases the cost of providing sufficient flow capacity to avoid overtopping
becomes excessive, and it is more appropriate to provide protection for possible
overflow during high water conditions. In this case, special provisions such as
anchoring into rockfill should be considered.
82
SMALL DAMS
Closure section
Where the valley is wide, it is advisable to leave part of the embankment for flood
diversion. This would need special attention as explained below:
Because closure sections of earth dams are usually short in length and are rapidly
brought to grade, two problems are inherent in their construction. First, the
development of high excess pore-water pressures in the foundation and/or
embankment is accentuated, and second, transverse cracks may develop at the
juncture of the closure section with adjacent already constructed embankment as a
result of differential settlement. When the construction schedule permits, excess pore-
water pressures in the embankment may be minimized by providing inclined drainage
layers adjacent to the impervious core and by placing gently sloping drainage layers
at vertical intervals within semi-impervious random zones. However, acceleration of
foundation consolidation by means of sand blankets and vertical sand drains or
reduction of embankment pore pressure by stage construction is generally
impracticable in a closure section. A more suitable procedure is to use flatter
slopes or stabilizing berms. Cracking because of differential settlement may be
minimized by making the end slopes of previously completed embankment sections
no steeper than 1 vertical on 4 horizontal. The soil on the end slopes of previously
completed embankment sections should be cut back to well-compacted material that
has not been affected by wetting, drying, or frost action. It may be desirable to place
core material at higher water contents than elsewhere to ensure a more plastic
material which can adjust without cracking, but the closure section design must then
consider the effects of increased pore-water pressures within the fill. The stability of
temporary end slopes of embankment sections should be checked.
Control services
i. Intake and outlet structure
For small dams, a gate is almost always the device of choice to control flow through
outlet pipes. Using a valve is generally not recommended. However, current small
dams are fitted with a sluice valve in intake tower to control flow through the conduit
(Figure 4-1).
A valve is a device used to control flow in a conduit and that permanently obstructs
the waterway. Valves are constructed so that the closing member remains in the
passage way for all operating conditions.
83
SMALL DAMS
Figure 4-1 Present practice in small dams construction

Reasons to use a gate instead of a valve
• Access to outlet pipe for inspection: valves can prevent access to the conduit
for inspection or regular maintenance, due to obstruction in the waterway.
• Gates are normally less expensive.
• Valves have potential for increased maintenance.
• Gates are easier to install.
To decide what gate to use, you must know your operating conditions. For small dams
under 25 feet high, light duty canal gates are commonly used.
Gate location
There are four gate configurations used on small dams:
• Gate Vertical on Pipe Inlet
• Gate Inclined on Upstream Face of Dam
• Gate Vertical Inside Drop Inlet Structure
• Gate in Tower on Dam Crest
Caution: It is almost never safe to place the gate on the downstream end of a pipe.
When a gate is placed at the downstream end and is shut, the pipe is under the full
pressure of the reservoir. Even tiny leaks in the pipe or joints can cause serious
erosion damage to the earth fill in the dam. Large leaks can cause the dam to fail.
Placing the gate on the upstream end ensures that the pipe is empty and dry when
the gate is closed.
84
SMALL DAMS
Gate vertical on pipe inlet (Figure 4-2)

• Usually accessed by a walkway
• Least expensive and easiest to install
• Only recommended on very small reservoirs, with gentle upstream slopes
Figure 4-2 Typical installation of vertical slide gate at pipe inlet

Gates inclined on upstream face of dam (Figure 4-3)
• Very common on small dams.
• Easy access to the gate operator.
• The stem must be buried and covered with rip-rap to prevent damage from ice
or floating objects.
• Gate is also more susceptible to blockage, so a trashrack is necessary.
• Gate can easily be dislodged from guides.
• Maintenance costs are high and may require draining the reservoir.
Figure 4-3 Typical installation of inclined slide gate

85
SMALL DAMS
Gate vertical inside drop inlet structure (Figure 4-4)

• Drop inlet tower provides structural support for gate and access walkway
• Reduces the potential for ice damage
• Provides easy access for repair
Figure 4-4 Typical installation of vertical slide gate in drop inlet tower
Gate in tower on dam crest or inside the reservoir (Figure 4-5) [preferable
choice]
• Very reliable configuration, if installed correctly.
• Provides ease of access for operation and repair.
• Is less susceptible to ice damage.
• The “divider” can have slot for stop logs.
• Obtaining adequate compaction of the supporting and surrounding soils is
critical to prevent settlement.
• Tower points must be completely water-tight as well to prevent seepage.
• In many cases, there is no divider and the gate is simply located on the
upstream end of the tower.
Figure 4-5 Typical installation of vertical slide gate in tower with divider
86
SMALL DAMS
Note: Your best resource for assistance in what kind of gate system to use may be
your local pipe and steel company. They stock many different kinds of gates and will
help you find the right equipment for your application. They often also provide
installation instructions as well.
ii. Pipes / conduits
From the tower water is carried through pipe to downstream of the dam. In general,
there are two (2) types of pipes that are used in small dams, corrugated or concrete.
Each is briefly discussed below
Corrugated metal
In low water depths, simple corrugated metal pipe (CMP) with watertight bands may
be sufficient.
Some of the advantages are:
• Low cost.
• Wide variety of available sizes.
• Widespread local availability.
Some of the disadvantages are:
• Improper installation can lead to seepage.
• Subject to corrosion.
o Outside coating is scratched, as often happens during installation.
o Depends on the quality of water that passes through the pipe. High alkaline
water can wreak havoc on any metal within a pipe or conduit system.
o Internal inspection cannot detect extent of corrosion damage (corrodes from
outside-in).
• Subject to abrasion from sand, silt, and rocks.
• Short design life.
• Easy to be damaged during installation.
In some cases, corrugated metal has lasted 50 years, and while in others it has lasted
less than 10. Consideration should be given to adding a protective coating.
Many dams have failed due to water flowing along the outside of a conduit. Recent
example is of Lehri Dam, built by Small dams Organization, that is non-functional, with
the operation stopped due to safety hazard. Adequate compaction around the pipe is
key (refer to
Figure 4-6).
Concrete
Concrete pipes designed and constructed according to (ASTM C361) are used
extensively.
Some of the advantages are:
• Available in a wide variety of sizes.
87
SMALL DAMS
• Often available locally.

• Extremely long design life, when properly installed.
• Local expertise in installation.
Some of the disadvantages are:
• Requires careful installation procedures.
• More expensive.
• Heavy.
• Engineering design and inspection required during installation.
Correct pipe selection
The selected pipe should have a few important characteristics.
• The pipe joints or connections in the pipe must be watertight up to and beyond
the maximum expected depth of water, or pressure head.
o Typically, pressure head is expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or
water–head in ft. RC pipe designed according to ASTM C361, can operate
safe up to 125 ft. head of water and 20 ft. cover.
o Your local pipe supplier or professional engineer can help you determine
the maximum pressure and what type of pipe is necessary to meet the
pressure.
• The pipe must have adequate strength so that it does not collapse or distort
when embankment fill is added.
o For rigid pipes (concrete): dependent on strength of pipe.
o For flexible pipes (CMP): dependent on strength of pipe and compaction of
soil surrounding pipes.
• The pipe must have adequate capacity. A good rule of thumb is that the pipe
must be big enough to draw down half of the reservoir capacity in 7 days.
• To prevent clogging and allow inspection access, the pipe should have a
minimum diameter of 12 inches.
Air vents
All outlet works must have an air vent located just downstream of gate.
• Makes gate operator easier to activate.
• Provides cavitation control.
Eliminates negative pressure (vacuum), which may collapse pipes.
88
SMALL DAMS
Caution–1: (Figure 4-6)

❖ Compaction of backfill material against conduit
❖ Conduits through embankment dams
Figure 4-6 Showing method of compaction around the pipe

and shape of conduit trough embankment
Source: Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2005.
4.1.3. ABAD Mini Dam – Ponds Schemes
Small Dams Organization (SDO) of Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) has
constructed Small Storage Dams and Agency for Brani Area Development (ABAD)
has constructed Mini Storage Dams and Ponds in Pothohar Region of Punjab for
storage of rain water to use for irrigation, livestock, domestic supplies, fish farming etc.
Technical Guidelines of Mini Dam–Ponds are given in Appendix C.
References:
2. Earth and Earth Rock Dams by James L. Sherar
89
SMALL DAMS
5. Dam Safety Inspection, Operation and Maintenance (O&M)

5.1. Dam Safety Plans
General
Existing dams are aging and new ones are being built in hazardous areas. At the same
time, development continues in potential inundation zones downstream. More people
are at risk from dam failure than ever, despite better engineering and construction
methods, continued deaths and property losses from dam failures are to be expected.
i) Hazards, risk, failures
Natural phenomena includes such as floods, earthquakes, and landslides. These
hazards threaten dam structures and their surroundings. Floods that exceed the
capacity of a dam’s spillway and then erode the dam or abutments are particularly
hazardous, as is seismic activity that may cause cracking or seepage. Similarly, debris
from landslides may block a dam’s spillway and cause an overflow wave that erodes
the dam or the abutments and ultimately weakens the structure.
The three major categories of dam failure are overtopping by flood, foundation defects,
and piping (See Figure 5-1). For embankment dams, the major reason for failure has
been piping or seepage. For concrete dams, the major cause for failure has been
associated with foundation. Overtopping has been a significant cause of dam failure,
primarily where a spillway was of inadequate capacity.
Figure 5-1 Damages in embankment and foundation

Source: Narita, Kunitomo. "Design and construction of embankment dams."Dept. of
Civil Eng., Aichi Institute of Technology (2000).
90
SMALL DAMS
ii) Objectives
The objective of a safety program comprise of short and long term-measures, as
explained below:
i) assessing the condition of the dam and its components
ii) conducting preliminary and detailed inspections
iii) identifying repairs and continued maintenance needs
iv) establishing periodic and continuous monitoring over the long-term
v) establishing an emergency action plan to minimize adverse impacts should the
dam fail
vi) establishing operations procedures which recognize dam failure hazards and
risks
vii) documenting the safety program so that the information developed is available
at times of need and can be readily updated
iii) Dam safety plans
Following plans are required:
a) Instrumentation and monitoring plan
b) Operation and maintenance (O&M) plan
c) Emergency preparedness plan (EPP) or emergency action plan (EAP)
Figure 5-2 presents a procedure guidelines for dam safety.
Figure 5-2 Procedural guidelines for a dam safety program

Source: Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 2004.
91
SMALL DAMS
Further detail of (a) through (c) above are discussed in the following sections:
iv) Instrumentation and monitoring
Typical monitoring instrumentation at dams include:
• Weirs, flumes, pipes, and other appurtenances means to measure seepage flow
or leakage, gauges and discharge measurement devices to record reservoir
inflow and outflows.
• Monitoring wells to measure water levels, and piezometers to measure pore
pressures within the embankment and/or foundation,
• Survey monuments to measure horizontal and vertical movements,
• Staff gauges to measure reservoir levels,
• Flumes, weirs, and/or gauges to measure reservoir inflow and/or outflow.
• A raingauge to measure precipitation.
v) Calendar and assignment of responsibilities
• Calendar
Frequency of recording reading of the monitoring instruments, frequency of
inspection and operation & maintenance (O&M) are discussed in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1 Frequency of readings for the monitoring instruments
First
Parameter Construction First year of
reservoir operation
measured period operation
filling
Every 2 6 Months to
Settlements Monthly Weekly
Months Yearly
Uplift Pressure Weekly 3 per week Weekly Fortnightly
Pore Water
Weekly 3 per week Weekly Fortnightly
Pressure
Leakage - Daily 2 per Week Weekly
vi) Inspections
A proper inspection program should involve the following four types of inspections:
i) Routine, informal inspections
ii) Annual safety inspections (Formal inspections)
iii) 5-year Periodic Inspections (Formal inspections)
iv) Special Inspections (Emergency inspections)
Routine inspections
Frequency of inspection are as follows (Table 5-2):
92
SMALL DAMS
Table 5-2 Routine visual inspection for small dams: recommended

frequency
Life safety Period
PHC * H2.V1/2 st
risk 1 Filling 1st Year Operation
Each Two
1 < 20 ~0 Fortnightly Monthly
Days
2 ≥ 20 and < 200 < 10 Daily Weekly Monthly
* PHC – Potential Hazard Classification (See Table 2-1, Part-I)
Annual inspection (formal inspection)
Typical inspection items include: the condition of the dam crest, upstream, and
downstream slopes, condition of the spillway and outlet works, observation and
measurement of seepage, and any other important, project-specific items. During the
annual inspection; all operable valves, control works and other mechanisms should be
test-operated to ensure they are in proper working order. Monitoring information over
the past year should be reviewed for development of any adverse conditions, such as
increased seepage or higher piezometer levels. All information for the annual
inspection should be recorded on an inspection form, similar to the one shown in
Appendix D.
5-Year periodic inspection (formal inspection)
It is recommended that 5-year periodic inspections be performed every 5 to 6 years.
These inspections should be performed by registered professional engineering
specialists who are familiar with the design and construction including a thorough
assessment of structure safety. This type of inspection includes:
i) a visual inspection of all project elements,
ii) detailed engineering analyses of project elements under extreme flood and
earthquake loadings,
iii) A review of project operation and maintenance procedures,
iv) A comprehensive report of findings.
Table 5-3 Formal inspection for small dams frequencies
PHC Life safety Period
H2.V1/2
* risk 1st Filling 1st Year Operation
Each 10
1 < 20 ~0 6–Monthly Yearly
years
2 ≥ 20 and < 200 < 10 3–Monthly 6–Monthly Each 8 years
* PHC – Potential Hazard Classification (See Table 2-1, Part-I).
93
SMALL DAMS
5.2. Operation and Maintenance (O&M)

Table 5-4 Maintenance schedule for small dams
Element Frequency Description
DAM EMBANKMENT
Vegetation control Biannually Cut grass at least twice annually or more
frequently to allow for visual surveillance of
the embankment surfaces. Maximum grass
height should not exceed eight inches.
Remove small trees and brush. DO NOT
REMOVE TREES LARGER THAN SIX
INCHES IN DIAMETER WITHOUT ADVICE
FROM A PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER.
Control of Monthly Repair animal burrows by compacting fill into
burrowing animals the excavated areas. If the burrowing is
extensive, seek the advice of a qualified
engineer.
Eliminate the burrowing animals to alleviate
the problem for the long term.
Maintain crest Annually Asphalt roadways: Seal cracks resulting
roadway from normal wear and aging. Inform
engineer of any new cracks or cracks that
are increasing in size.
Gravel Roadways: Regrade eroded areas.
Add gravel as needed.
Maintain crest Annually Maintain the design elevation of unimproved
design elevation crest surfaces by leveling and grading the
crest to design specifications. Fill any ruts or
minor depressions.
Maintain upstream Annually Repair beaching of riprap by regrading the
slope protection slope to original lines, and replacing the
bedding material and riprap: Repair voids in
the riprap by adding or moving riprap.
Erosion control on Annually Repair erosion gullies by removing loose
downstream face material and replacing it with compacted fill.
Gravel and cobbles or planted grass should
be added as appropriate
CONCRETE SPILLWAY CHANNEL
Maintain concrete Annually Make repairs to concrete surfaces and joints,
features including
• patching spalled areas with a bonding
agent;
• strengthening areas by applying coatings
or by adding reinforcements;
• repairing minor cracks with an adhesive
94
SMALL DAMS

or epoxy injection.
Note: Get assistance from Dam Safety
Section before making· repairs to concrete
surfaces and joints. Concrete problems may
be an indication of a serious dam safety
problem. Also, report any new or changing
(increasing 'or decreasing) cracks to an
engineer.
Keep concrete joints and surfaces free of
vegetation.
Spillway channel Weekly Remove any obstructions or debris from the
spillway channel.
Monthly Keep drains free and clear. Periodically rod
and ream internal drains to keep them
functioning.
Energy dissipator Monthly Remove visible and accessible and visible
(stilling basin) obstructions to outfalls (e.g., large rocks,
debris, vegetation, etc.). Keep plunge pool
cleaned out.
Annually Maintain stilling basin by removing riprap
and other significant rock debris. (It may be
necessary to dewater the stilling basin' to
remove debris.) The stilling basin may need
to be dewatered and cleaned approximately
every five years, depending on the previous
condition of the stilling basin and the amount
of use since it was last dewatered.
Return channel Monthly Remove obstructions within the return
channel.
EARTHEN SPILLWAY CHANEL
Erosion control Annually and Repair erosion gullies by removing loose
after floods materials and replacing them with
compacted fill. Gravel and cobbles or
planted grass should be added as
appropriate to the damaged area to prevent
future erosion.
Maintain spillway Weekly Remove any obstructions or debris from the
channel spillway channel.
Annually Cut grass. Remove small trees and bushes

that would affect flows now or in the future if
let to grow.
95
SMALL DAMS

DROP INLET SPILLWAY
Clean trashrack Weekly Remove all floating logs and debris from
trashrack and spillway opening;
Clear air vent(s) Monthly Clear debris from air vent entrance.
Inspect and Biannually Replace waterlogged or submerged
maintain logboom logboom members. Repair or replace loose
or missing anchors.
Inspect and repair Annually Concrete risers: Make repairs to concrete
CMP or concrete surfaces and joints (Refer to previous
riser section on maintaining concrete features).
CMP Risers: Examine metalwork for
corrosion. Remove rust and apply protective
coating. Check joints for leakage, apply
sealant as needed.
Maintain metal Annually Remove mineral deposits and paint metal
features features, as needed, check to see that the
cathodic protection is performing
adequately, and restore corroded metal to
original condition by welding on new metal.
OUTLET WORKS
Gates and valves Annually Test gates and valves for proper operation
and leakage.
As specified Gates and valves are to be maintained
according to the manufacturers' instructions.
Follow the guidelines specified by the
manufacturer.
Gate and valve As specified Follow guidelines specified by manufacturer.
controls
Intake structure 5 Years Lower reservoir level or hire divers to inspect
intake for low level outlet works. Clear debris
from trashra.ck. Apply protective coating to
metalwork. Repair concrete as needed.
Conduit Annually Visually inspect conduit from downstream
end for corrosion, leakage, or other
significant problems.
5 Years Inspect entire conduit interior either
manually or via remote control camera.
Repair or reline as needed.
• Assignment of responsibilities
The recommendations and strategies may be implemented by policymakers, state and
local dam safety officials and dam owners, with the collaboration of the state and local
emergency agencies. An EAP is essential for small dam owners (i.e. SDO, PID) and
96
SMALL DAMS
first responders in the event of a dam failure resulting from a natural event (such as a
big storm or earthquake), from an accident or from a manmade event (e.g. sabotage).
Table 5-5 presents Assignment of responsibilities and Figure 5-3 presents the
specimen of notification information flow chart. Appendix D includes the specimen
forms for monitoring, recording, inspection forms and inspection checklist.
Table 5-5 Assignment of responsibilities
Type of inspection Responsible person
Informal routine inspection Assist Engineer and an experienced
inspector
Formal inspection
- Annual inspection Dam safety Engineer alongwith SDO*
XEN, Assistant Engineer and Inspector
- 5 years periodic inspection Dam safety specialist / expert alongwith
dam Design Engineer, SDO XEN,
Assistant Engineer and Inspector
Special emergency inspection Dam Safety Expert alongwith his team
and XEN, SDO with his team.
* Small Dam Organization
Emergency action plan (EAP)
(1) General
The EAP is a useful tool intended to minimize the impacts of a dam failure or
malfunction, on the population living downstream.
Initially the EAP was applied to medium and large dams. But nowadays it is also
applied to small dams as a consequence of the large number of such structures.
The dam safety and security of people, property and environment downstream of
dams is the responsibility of the Government, who must legislate and enforce the rules
through administrative agencies, departments and offices.
(2) Methodology for developing EAP
The process of developing an EAP for a small dam generally consisting of following
steps:
• Determine the potential inundated area downstream in case of a dam failure.
Two scenarios are to be considered: inundation at maximum probable flood
through the spillway without dam failure, and inundation with dam failure.
• Prepare inundation maps.
• Determine and identify the situations and events that could initiate an
emergency action and specify the corresponding actions to be taken and by
whom.
• Identify all entities, jurisdictions, agencies and individuals, who will be involved
in the emergency actions. Coordinate the development of the EAP with all
relevant parties.
97
SMALL DAMS
• Identify all primary and auxiliary communication systems for continuously

internal and external communication.
• List and prioritize all persons and entities involved in the notification process
and create the notification flowchart (Figure 5-3, Specimen of Notification
Information Flow Chart).
• Develop a draft of the EAP. The list of the tasks must be complete (nothing
should be omitted) and easy to understand so that it can be readily followed.
• Determine the responsibilities under the plan:
‒ owner responsibility
‒ responsibility for notification
‒ responsibility for evacuation
‒ EAP coordinator responsibility
• The EAP should foresee actions prior to and following the development of
emergency conditions. These actions include:
‒ surveillance
‒ access to the site
‒ response during periods of darkness
‒ response during periods of adverse weather
‒ emergency supplies, resources and transport means
‒ alternative means of communication
‒ coordinating information on flows
Review and discuss the EAP draft with all parties included in the notification list. The
EAP must be clearly understood by everyone. The public (community) should also be
invited to participate in the EAP revision meeting because their involvement helps in
the elaboration of a better EAP and also gives support to the emergency actions.
98
SMALL DAMS
DAM 1
After the following reservoir of
the situation and request that a EMERGENCY Note:
coordinated draft begin for each CONDITION This is only a sample notification Chart.
downstream reservoir to prepare The order of notification on the flowchart
for passing flows. should be prioritized. Alternate means of
communications should be included in
the flowchart as appropriate.
Sub-Engineer
Downstream Dam (3)

SDO
Asstt. Engineer (1)

Call and request that O&M
AC
the upstream reservoir Upstream Dam
reduce its outflow to
minimum level
SDO
(4) (2)
Dam 2 (3) (1)

XEN
XEN
District Flood
Warning Centre
(2)
(1)
D.G Disaster (1)
PD Small Dams
Management DCOs
CE (2)
AC: Assistant Commissioner Development (2) District Disaster
CE: Chief Engineer Irrigation Management
DCO: District Coordination Officer
DG: Director General
PID: Punjab Irrigation Department
PD: Project Director
(3)
SDO: Sub Divisional Officer Secretary PID (3)
XEN: Executive Engineer
ACs
(1) Priority of Call Province (4)

Chief Secretary
Note:
Owners of all small dams, mini dams and other services built and / or planned on a stream (i.e. cascade dam
Owners) must inform SDO so that necessary safety measures are ensured in case of Failure of any dam in
cascade.
Figure 5-3 Specimen of notification information flow chart

99
SMALL DAMS
(3) Evaluation of possible risks

The EAP should be applied to all small dams with a high hazard potential.
(4) Small dam risk management
One of the first tasks is to perform a complete inventory to identify all small dams in
the country, and select those with a high hazard rating.
(5) Dam site access during severe storm
A very important point to be considered in an Emergency Action Plan for a small dam
with a high hazard rating is the access conditions to the dam site during extreme
floods.
(6) Dam break and inundation map
The requirements for an EAP include the information necessary to conduct dam-break
analyses and to prepare inundation maps. The process of developing a workable EAP
must necessarily begin with the knowledge of what areas will be flooded as a result of
a dam failure, so that the jurisdictions and agencies and individuals involved in the
implementation of the EAP can be identified.
The tools for identifying the areas flooded and developing the notification procedures
are usually dam break analyses and inundation mapping for large dams. Considering,
therefore, the great number of small dams, such technology can be applied only for
the small dams with extremely high hazard potential rating.
(7) Permanent file for emergency purposes
A logbook detailing the daily activities and maintenance of the dam must be kept by
the owner and stored in a safe facility. All information related to operation and
maintenance of the dam, monitoring, dam condition, specific incidents, dam
inspections, etc., must be recorded immediately on occurrence in the logbook. All
regularly collected information recorded on prescribed forms shall be stored with this
logbook. It shall be the responsibility of the dam owner to ensure that this logbook is
correctly used, completed and maintained.
(8) Emergency exercising and updating
Emergency incidents at dams and dam failures are not common events. Training
exercises are necessary to maintain operational readiness, timeliness and
responsiveness. This may be accomplished through development and conduct of an
emergency exercise program. It is recommended that detailed guidelines on
developing and implementing Emergency Action Plan will be used in these situations.
Warning and evacuation plans should be considered including living Documents as
required by the appropriate authorities.
1. They will never be completed;
2. They should be reviewed not less than every five years for small dams;
3. Review should include participation of personnel of the dam operating
organization, and local authorities when possible;
100
SMALL DAMS
4. All updates should be made promptly.

Changes that may frequently require revision and update of emergency EPA’s include
changes in personnel of involved organizations and changes in communications
systems. As a minimum, review of office telephone numbers and appropriate
personnel included in notification flowcharts should be conducted.
During the review of warning and evacuating plan, a comprehensive evaluation of the
adequacy of the plan should be made as well consider the following:
Dam Name: ________________________________________________________
Owner’s Name: ___________________________ Phone # ___________________
Alternate Contact: _________________________ Phone # ___________________
Stream Name: ____________________ Reservoir Name: ____________________
Sam Location Latitude: longitude: Map Sheet No.:
ACCES TO DAM: (describe road access to dam from nearest center, attach map to
this Plan, include alternate routes)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________
EMERGENCY ASSESSMENT: (list of local personal / others qualified to make a
emergency dam safety assessment (i.e. trained staff, local Professional Engineering
Consultant etc.))
Name: ___________ Title: _____________ Work & Home Phone# _____________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________
EMERGENCY ACTIONS: (list phone #’s (work & home) of local contractors /
equipment operators, local material suppliers and District Highway Office (access to
equipment etc.).
Contractor’s Name: __________________ Work & Home Phone #: _____________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________
Supplier’s Name: __________________ Work & Home Phone #: _______________
101
SMALL DAMS
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________
DOWNSTREAM NOTIFICATION: (list all downstream people business which may be
affected by potential flood water) i.e. Utilities (oil, gas, etc.) Railway, Hydro,
Municipalities, Regional District.
Name: _________________ Location: ___________________ Phone#: _________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Official Contacts
Local Police / RCMP Office: Phone #:
__________________________ __________
Local Radio Station: Phone #:
_________________________________ __________
Local Highway Office: Phone #:
_______________________________ __________
Local Highway Contractor: Phone #:
___________________________ __________
Regional Dam Safety Officer: Phone #:
_________________________ __________
Home # :
__________
Water Management Branch (alternate): Phone #:
__________________ __________
Home # :
__________
Regional P.E.P. Officer: Phone #:
_____________________________ __________
(Provincial Emergency Program) Home # :
__________
102
SMALL DAMS
Local Authority (Municipality, etc.) Phone #:

__________
P.E.P Emergency Contact: Phone #:
_________________________ (24-hour Emergency __________
Coordination Centre)
5.3. Gauges and Discharge Measurement Devices

Flow measurement methods
Existing method for river flow measurements are mainly the velocity area method and
the use of weirs or flumes.
The stream flows measurement provide information for a wide variety of uses,
including flood prediction, water management and allocation, engineering design,
research, operation of locks and dams, hydropower generation recreational safety,
enjoyment etc.
This section describes briefly how to obtain stream flow information. Stream gauging
generally involves (1) obtaining a continuous record of stage -- the height of the water
surface at a location along a stream or river, (2) obtaining periodic measurements of
discharge (the quantity of water passing a location along a stream), (3) defining the
natural but often changing relation between the stage and discharge, and (4) using the
stage -- discharge relation developed in step 3 to convert the continuously measured
stage into estimates of stream flow or discharge. Each of these four steps is explained
in greater detail below.
Measuring Stage
Most stream gauges measure stage and consist of a structure in which instruments
used to measure, store, and transmit the stream-stage information are housed. Stage,
sometimes called gauge height, can be measured using a variety of methods. One
common approach is with a stilling well in the river bank (see Figure 5-4) or attached
to a bridge pier. Water from the river enters and leaves the stilling well through
underwater pipes allowing the water surface in the stilling well to be at the same
elevation as the water surface in the river. The stage is then measured inside the
stilling well using a float or a pressure, optic, or acoustic sensor. The measured stage
value is stored in an electronic data recorder on a regular interval, usually every 15
minutes.
At some stream gauge sites, a stilling well is not feasible or is not cost effective to
install. As an alternative, stage can be determined by measuring the pressure required
to maintain a small flow of gas through a tube and bubbled out at a fixed location under
water in the stream. The measured pressure is directly related to the height of water
over the tube outlet in the stream. As the depth of water above the tube outlet
increases, more pressure is required to push the gas bubbles through the tube.
103
SMALL DAMS
Figure 5-4 Diagram of a typical stream gauge with stilling well

Source: US Geological Survey Streamgaging, 2007
Stream gages provide stage measurements that are accurate to the nearest 0.01 foot
or 0.2 percent of stage, whichever is greater. Stage at a stream gauge must be
measured with respect to a constant reference elevation, known as a datum Bench
Mark (BM). Sometimes stream gauge structures are damaged by floods or can settle
over time. To maintain accuracy, and to ensure that stage is being measured above a
constant reference elevation, the elevations of stream gauge structures, and the
associated stage measurement, are routinely surveyed, relative to permanent
elevation benchmarks near (BMs) the stream gage.
Although stage is valuable information for some purposes, most users of stream
gauge data are interested in stream flow or discharge i.e. the amount of water flowing
in the stream or river, commonly expressed in cubic feet per second or gallons per
day. However, it is not practical for a stream gauge to continuously measure
discharge.
Fortunately, there is a strong relation between river stage and discharge and, as a
result, a continuous record of river discharge can be determined from the continuous
record of stage. Determining discharge from stage requires defining the stage-
104
SMALL DAMS
discharge relationship by measuring discharge at a wide range of river stages. This

is typically called a rating curve.
i. The discharge measurement
Discharge is the volume of water moving down a stream or river per unit of time,
commonly expressed in cubic feet per second (cusecs) or gallons per day. In general,
river discharge is computed by multiplying the area of water in a stream cross section
by the average velocity of the water in that cross section:
Discharge (Q) = area (A) × velocity (V) = AV (1)
Numerous methods and types of equipment are used to measure velocity and cross-
sectional area, including the following current meter and Acoustic Doppler Current
Profiler (ADCP).
Current meter
The most common method used for measuring discharge is the mechanical current-
meter method. In this method, the stream channel cross section is divided into
numerous vertical segments (subsections), as shown in (see Figure 5-5). In each
subsection, the area is obtained by measuring the width and depth of the subsection,
and the water velocity is determined using a current meter (see Figure 5-5). The
discharge in each subsection is computed by multiplying the subsection area by the
measured velocity. The total discharge is then computed by summing the discharge
of each subsection.
Numerous types of equipment and methods are used to make current-meter
measurements because of the wide range of stream conditions throughout the
country. Segment width is generally measured using a cable, steel tape, or similar
piece of equipment. Segment depth is measured using a wading rod, if conditions
permit, or by suspending a sounding weight from a calibrated cable and reel system
off a bridge, cableway.
105
SMALL DAMS
Subsection
In each subsection:
Width
Velocity
Depth Area = Depth
Discharge x Width
= Area x Velocity
Figure 5-5 Current-meter discharge measurements

The velocity of the stream flow is measured using a current meter. The most common
current meter used is the Price AA current meter (see Figure 5-6). The Price AA
current meter has a wheel of six metal cups that revolve around a vertical axis. An
electronic signal is transmitted by the meter on each revolution allowing the revolutions
to be counted and timed. Because the rate at which the cups revolve is directly related
to the velocity of the water, the timed revolutions are used to determine the water
velocity. The Price AA meter is designed to be attached to a wading rod for measuring
in shallow waters or to be mounted just above a weight suspended from a cable and
reel system for measuring in fast or deep water. In shallow water, the Pygmy Price
current meter may be used. It is a two-fifths scale version of the Price AA meter and
is designed to be attached to a wading rod.
106
SMALL DAMS
Figure 5-6 The current-meter method

(a) the price AA current meter; (b) the price aa current meter
attached to a wading rod; and (c) the price aa meter
suspended above a heavy weight of water velocity and
direction for the majority of a cross section
ii. The stage-discharge relation
Stream gauges continuously measure stage, as stated in the “Measuring Stage” section. This
continuous record of stage is translated to river discharge by applying the stage-discharge
relation (also called rating). Stage-discharge relations are developed for stream gauges by
physically measuring the flow of the river with a mechanical current meter or ADCP at a wide
range of stages; for each measurement of discharge, there is a corresponding measurement
107
SMALL DAMS
of stage. The discharge measurements are made at most stream gauges every 6 to 8 weeks,
ensuring that the range of stage and flows at the stream gauge are measured regularly.
Special effort is made to measure extremely high and low stages and flows because these
measurements occur less frequently. An example of a stage-discharge relation is shown in
(see Figure 5-7).
Figure 5-7 Erosion of part of a channel results

in an increased cross-sectional area in the diagram on the right and
the potential for conveying a larger quantity of water at the same stage
The stage-discharge relation depends upon the shape, size, slope, and roughness of the
stream channel at the stream gauge and is different for every stream gauge.
The development of an accurate stage-discharge relation requires numerous discharge
measurements at all ranges of stage and stream flow. In addition, these relations must be
continually checked against on-going discharge measurements because stream channels
are constantly changing.
Changes in stream channels are often caused by erosion or deposition of streambed
materials, seasonal vegetation growth, debris etc. An example of how erosion in a stream
channel increases a cross-sectional area for the water, allowing the river to have a greater
discharge with no change in stage, is shown in (see Figure 5-8). New discharge
measurements plotted on an existing stage-discharge relation graph would show this, and
the rating could be adjusted to allow the correct discharge to be estimated for the measured
stage.
iii. Converting Stage Information to Stream flow Information
The most stream gages transmit stage data electronically using computer software and
where the stage data are used to estimate stream flow using the developed stage-discharge
relation (rating). The stage information is routinely reviewed and checked to ensure that the
calculated discharge is accurate.
108
SMALL DAMS
Figure 5-8 Example of a typical stage-discharge relation on rating curve

Reference
1. Narita, Kunitomo. "Design and construction of embankment dams." Dept. of Civil
Eng., Aichi Institute of Technology (2000).
3. US Geological Survey Streamgaging, 2007
109
SMALL DAMS
6. IRRIGATION SYSTEM AND AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT

6.1. Irrigation System
The major cause of slow development of command area for small dams already
constructed was due to lack of proper planning. The main reason being incorrect
alignment of channel, defective design of RCC pipes in syphons, non provision of
proper x-drainage works and inadequate protection of channel from sediment
deposition from sides of hill due to rain.
This chapter covers planning, design and construction of irrigation system in small
dams.
6.1.1. Selection of Command Area
After the selection of a dam site, an index plan showing dam site, rough alignment of
the channel and command area should be marked on Pakistan Survey sheet which
are available at scale of 1:50,000 and at 20 meter contour interval.
Fly level are required to be run from bed of stream at the dam site to the command
area to prepare rough, L-Section, indicating x-drainage works and depression where
syphons would be required.
If the distance of command area is beyond 3 km and there are numerous depressions
for syphons crossing and water head at deepest point is more than 40 ft, the project
should get the lowest priority regarding preparing detailed feasibility of the project. For
viable projects, following steps are necessary for the design of an irrigation system.
(i) Topographic survey for the gross command area should be prepared at a scale
of 1 in 2000 and contour interval of 0.5 m.
(ii) Strip survey along selected route of channel with 0.5 m contour interval
indicating existing infrastructure, X-drainage works. The strip survey limits be
extended 15 m on either side of the centre of channel.
(iii) Based on the topographic and agricultural survey, command area of the
project is determined. Computation of crop water requirement for irrigated
crops is fundamental in designing an irrigation system and scheduling of
irrigation in particular project. The crop-water pattern use determines the
capacities of distribution system and storage capacity of the dams. This
information is also needed to determine the volume of water required to meet
monthly and seasonal requirements for fields, farms at the project area as a
whole. The detailed procedure for the calculation of crop water requirement is
covered in Chapter – on Agriculture Development Studies.
(iv) Once water requirement of crops per 1000 acres is calculated, the capacity of
outlets is determined. By adding the capacity of outlets and by taking the
losses in the channel into consideration, the authorized full supply discharged
is calculated. The following statements are prepared:
a. Capacity statement
110
SMALL DAMS
b. Draw off statement

c. Command statement
6.1.2. Layout and Alignment of Channel
In small dams, generally the channels are aligned as contour channel, and irrigate on
one side only. As the line of flow of surface drainage is at right angles to the ground
surface, the channel crosses maximum drainages. Therefore the alignment in the
head reach call for most careful consideration, often a straight alignment is sacrificed
in order to get a good site for cross drainage works.
Following factors are taken into consideration in finalizing the layout of the canal
system
(i) Cover max. C.C.A with minimum length of channels.
(ii) Towns, villages, graveyards and mosque etc. are avoided along the channel
alignment.
(iii) Fall / drop structure is provided at balanced cut and fill section to have better
command.
(iv) The channel / minors should not be aligned in deep cutting to avoid
maintenance problems.
(v) X-drainage works should be properly planned by providing R.C.C aqueduct.
Channel be covered by R.C.C slab in the hilly reaches to check entry of rain
water.
(vi) P.R.C.C, R.C.C or M.S pipes used for siphons to cross the depression in deep
valleys.
6.1.3. Design Criteria for Design of Channel System
(i) Velocity in the lined channel is computed using Manning’s formula:
1 2/3 1/2 1.486 2/3 1/2
𝑣= .𝑅 .𝑆 𝑣= .𝑅 .𝑆
𝑛 𝑛
where where
v = velocity, in m/sec v = velocity, in ft/sec
R = hydraulic radius in m R = hydraulic radius in ft
S = longitudinal slope of channel, S = longitudinal slope of channel,
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
(ii) Concrete lining
Thickness of concrete lining is set at 3.5 cm. The minimum strength for lining be 3000
psi (cube strength). The construction joints to be provided at 3 m whereas contraction
joints at spacing of 15 m.
(iii)Freeboard
Mini freeboard is set at 0.15 m. For freeboard criteria given by USBR (1967) is
followed (Figure 6-1).
111
SMALL DAMS
Figure 6-1 Freeboard diagram

Source: USBR (1967)
112
SMALL DAMS
(iv)Hydraulic gradient
A value of 1V : 6H is adopted for hydraulic gradient. It however depends on the type
of soil. An additional earth cover in the form of pushta should be provided where the
hydraulic gradient line is not contained within the channel embankment.
(v) Planning, design and construction of inverted syphon
Introduction
Syphons or inverted syphons are used to convey water across a natural depression
under a road or under a canal.
Syphons are usually made of circular concrete pipe, PVC or steel pipe.
Syphons may have a straight lateral alignment, or may have changes in direction.
When going across a depression, syphons should be completely buried, usually with
a minimum of about 1 meter cover.
Syphons can be problematic with sediment laden water because sediment may tend
to deposit at the low points.
Sometime gravel and rock can enter the syphon especially in rainy season.
Trashracks / screens should always be provided at the inlet.
Blow off structures
A blow off structure is a valved outlet on top or side of the pipe at a low point in syphon.
These structures are used to help drain the syphon in an emergency for routine
maintenance and to periodically remove sediment from the pipe.
Sluice valves of adequate capacity could be used for blow off structure.
Type of pipes
Precast reinforced cement concrete (RCC) pressure pipes, prestressed reinforced
cement concrete (PRCC) pipes, welded steel pipes and pipes of other materials are
used where required in conveyance system depending upon the site requirements and
flow condition i.e. whether under gravity or under pressure.
RCC pressure pipes
RCC pipes for Hydraulic head up to 125 ft can be used if manufactured as per ASTM
C-361 standards. The diameter, wall thickness, compressive strength of the concrete
and the area of circumferential reinforcement shall be as prescribed for the classes of
combined hydrostatic head and external loading given in Table 1 of ASTM C-361 (copy
of Table 1 upto 42"ϕ pipe are attached as Appendix E). However, this Table may be
used conservatively for Hydraulic heads upto 100 ft.
The ASTM standard lays down standards for Hydrostatic testing of pipes, jointing and
rubber gasket requirements which must be ensured by proper testing and inspection
before installation at site.
113
SMALL DAMS
PRCC pipe
When the hydrostatic head exceeds 100 ft PRCC pipe may be used. The design
requirements along with design example are given below. The manufacturing process
is also explained therein step wise to ensure quality control. The pipes should be
manufactured in a factory suitably equipped with testing arrangement, under strict
quality control and following proper manufacturing process.
Example:
Design requirements
1. Concrete
a) Concrete Strength
Requirements
i) Minimum compressive 5800 Psi
strength (28 days strength
on 6" cubes)
ii) Minimum strength at the 2175 Psi or two times the initial longitudinal
time of release of prestress, which-ever is greater
longitudinal tensioned
wires
iii) Minimum strength at the 3625 Psi
time of circumferential
prestressing
b) Core Thickness Minimum core (wall) thickness of pipes:
Requirements For Pipes upto 1.5' dia = 1.5"
For 2.0' dia pipe = 1.75"
c) Cover Coating Over ➢ Minimum thickness
Circumferential Prestressing i) Mortar coating = 3/4"
Wires ii) Concrete Coating = 1"
➢ Compressive Strength = 5000 Psi
➢ Application = Preferably within
16 hours of
winding
➢ Water Curing = 7 days Minimum
2. Prestressing Steel Wires
a) Ultimate Tensile Strength Generally 235,000 - 250,000 Psi
b) Wire Dia Generally 3 mm ̴ 4 mm
c) Spacing
i) Longitudinal prestressing Not greater than 6" or twice the core
wires thickness, whichever is greater
ii) Circumferential Clear spacing not less than ¼" and not
prestressing wires greater than 2"
114
SMALL DAMS
d) Initial Stress in the Wire Not greater than 65 % of ultimate tensile

strength of wire
e) Loss in Prestress 20 %
Design example
Design of prestressed reinforced cement concrete (PRCC) pipes
Data
Pipe Internal Dia = 42 inches (3.50 ft)
Wall Thickness = 3.0 inches (0.25 ft)
Head of Water = 50 ft
High Tensile Steel Wire:
Wire Dia = 3 mm
X-Section Area of Wire = 7.0686 mm2 or 0.011 in2
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) = 235000 psi
Modulous of Elasticity (Es) = 29 x 106 psi
Maximum Initial Strress (ƒsi) = 65 % of UTS = 152750 psi
Concrete:
28 days cube strength = 5800 psi
Calculations:
Hydraulic Pressure = 50 x 62.4
= 3120 lbs/ft2
Hoop tension / one foot length of pipe
= ½ x 3120 x (3.50 + 0.25)
= 5850 lbs / ft length of pipe
5850 1
Hoop stress = 0.25 x 144
= 162.5 psi
Residual compression under working load after all losses of prestress = 145 psi
(minimum required).
Prestress required before losses = 162.5 + 145 = 307.5 psi
100
Initial prestress required (assuming 20% losses) = (307.5) x 100 −20 = 384 psi (ƒci)
Prestress losses:
i) Elastic deformation of concrete = 3.2 ƒci = 3.2 x 384 = 1229 psi
ii) Relaxation of wire = 0.16 ƒsi = 0.16 x
152750 = 24440 psi
iii) Deformation due to creep = 2.5 ƒci = 2.5 x 384 = 960 psi
iv) Deformation due to shrinkage = 0.0001 Es = 0.0001 x 29 x 106 =
2900 psi
Total Losses = 29529 psi
or 19.33 % of ƒsi
Therefore losses Assumed as 20% of initial wire stress are O.K.
115
SMALL DAMS
Initial prestressing force required / one foot length of pipe = 384 x 3 x 12 = 13824 lbs
13824
Area of prestressing steel required / one foot length of pipe = 152750 = 0.0905 in2
Required Spacing or pitch of 3 mm wire for circumferential prestressing
12 𝑥 0.011
= 0.0905 = 1.4586 in, or 37 mm
Longitudinal Prestress:
It may be conservatively taken as 40% of the initial prestress
Area of prestressing steel required / one foot length along circumference
= 0.0905 x 0.4 = 0.0362 in2
12  0.011
Required spacing along the Circumference = 0.0362 = 3.64 in, or 92 mm
Manufacturing Process of PRCC Pipes
The process of Manufacturing Prestressed Concrete Pipe consists of the following
steps, illustrated diagrammatically in the Figures 6-2 and 6-3.
1. Longitudinal Prestressing
Longitudinal wires of specified diameter and length are placed between two end
rings of the mould assembly, and stretched to the required tension.
2. Batching & Mixing of Concrete
Required quantity of aggregates, cement and water are mixed to produce high
strength concrete.
3. Spinning
Concrete is fed into the mould and is compacted by centrifugal spinning process to
produce a high strength concrete core pipe.
4. Demoulding
The tension in the longitudinal wires is released, making longitudinal pre-
compression to the core pipe and then the core pipe is taken out of the mould.
5. Core
The core pipe is put in sprinkler yard until the concrete in the core pipe has attained
adequate strength to withstand circumferential prestressing load.
6. Winding
The core pipe is wrapped with high tensile wire at pre-determined pitch and tension
to induce the desired pre-compression in the body of the core pipe.
7. Coating
The steel wrapping is covered with a dense cement mortar coat. This coat creates
and maintains a high alkaline environment around the prestressing wire and protects
it from corrosion.
8. Curing
The completed pipe is cured until it attains the desired strength.
116
SMALL DAMS
9. Hydrostatic Testing
Each and every pipe is subjected to hydrostatic pressure test in the factory before
dispatch.
Figure 6-2 Typical section of PRCC pipe

117
SMALL DAMS
Figure 6-3 Manufacturing process of PRCC pipe

118
SMALL DAMS
Mild steel (MS) pipe

Steel pipe may be used if hydrostatic head exceeds 100 ft. The design requirements
along with design example are given below. Specifications for coating are attached at
Appendix F.
Example:-
The wall thickness of steel pipe is affected by a number of factors including the
following:
1. Internal pressure
a. Maximum design pressure
b. Surge or water-hammer pressure
2. External pressure
a. Trench loading pressure
b. Earth-fill pressure
3. Special physical loadings
4. Practical requirements
The thickness selected should be that which satisfies the most severe requirement.
When designing for internal pressure, the minimum thickness of a cylinder should be
selected to limit the circumferential tension stress to a certain level, This stress is
frequently termed hoop stress. The internal pressure used in design should be that to
which the pipe may be subjected during its lifetime. In a transmission pipeline, the
pressure is measured by the distance between the pipe centerline and the hydraulic
grade line. Surge or water-hammer pressure must also be considered.
With pressure determined, the wall thickness is found using the Equation.
𝑝𝑑
𝑡=
2𝑠
Where:
t = minimum specified wall thickness (in.)
p = pressure (psi)
d = outside diameter of pipe (in.) steel cylinder (not including coatings)
s = allowable stress (psi).
Tension Stress and Yield Strength
The allowable working stress for steel is equal to 50 percent of the specified minimum
yield strength which is often accepted for steel water pipe. With the use of given
methods of stress analysis and proper quality control measures, these allowable
design stresses are considered conservative for the usual water-transmission
pipelines.
119
SMALL DAMS
Corrosion Allowance
An allowance of 2 mm should be made in the wall thickness of steel pipes for corrosion
and deformities in pipe manufacture.
Minimum Wall Thickness
Minimum plate or sheet thicknesses for handling are based on two formulas adopted
by many specifying agencies. They are:1
𝐷
𝑡=
(𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 54 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝐼𝐷)
288
𝐷 + 20
𝑡= (𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 54 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝐼𝐷)
400
In no case shall the shell thickness be less than 14 gauge (0.0747 inch.)
As a general rule it is recommended that the minimum wall thickness of steel pipes
should be as under:
Internal Dia ≤ 36", Minimum wall thickness = 6 mm
Internal Dia > 36", Minimum wall thickness = 8 mm
The above thickness will ensure satisfactory performance of pipe in most cases of
external loading (earthfill etc.) except live loads, and provide adequate stiffness to
keep the deflection within acceptable limits and at the same time resist buckling under
the normal range of loads.
Design Example
Data:
Pipe Internal Dia = 42 inches
Ultimate Tensile Strength of Steel = 60, 000 psi
Yield Strength of steel = 35,000 psi
Allowable tensile stress in steel = ½ x 35,000 = 17500 psi
Head of Water = 200 ft
Calculations:
a) Internal Pressure Consideration
200  62.4
Hydraulic Pressure = = 87 psi
144
1
Hoop tension per inch length of pipe = 2  87  42 = 1827 psi
1827
Thickness of steel plate required = 17500 = 0.1044 inch = 2.65 mm
b) Handling Consideration
Minimum thickness required for handling consideration
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑎 42
Thickness required = = 288 = 0.1458 inch = 3.70 mm
288
Thickness required for handling consideration governs
1
PARMAKIAN, J. Minimum Thickness for Handling Pipes, Water Power and Dam Construction. (June 1982.)
120
SMALL DAMS
c) Corrosion Allowance
A 2 mm allowance should be provided for corrosion and deformities in pipe
manufacture.
d) Total thickness (b+c) = 3.70 + 2.0 = 5.70 mm
Adopt 6 mm
RCC Pipes (Gravity Flow)
RCC pipes to be provided as non-pressure flow pipes (gravity flow) conforming to the
requirements of ASTM C 76 are generally used. These pipes must not run full.
Sufficient space has to be allowed at the top to ensure that the water flows under
gravity without any hydrostatic head.
Design requirements for class I to IV pipes showing the diameter, wall thickness,
compressive strength the concrete, and area of circular elliptical / reinforcement
(inner/outer cage) etc. are given in Table 1 to 5 of this standard.
It is however recommended that to be on the conservative side, design of RCC pipes
as per ASTM C 361 mentioned above for RCC pressure flow pipes may be adopted
for RCC non-pressure pipes as well, following design requirements for the lowest
hydrostatic head of 25 ft as per Table 1 of the ASTM C 361.
a. Selection Criteria for PRCC v/s Steel Pipe
PRCC pipe is considered the most economical option provided it is manufactured
as per laid down specification and is manufactured in the pipe factory. As no pipe
factory in Pakistan is manufacturing PRCC pipes, it is better to adopt steel pipe
option for syphons in small dams.
b. Pipe Bedding
The pipe bedding is of vital importance. Field installation procedure for RCC &
PRCC pipes is attached at Appendix G and for MS Pipes is attached at Appendix
H.
Design of Syphons
Syphon are usually designed for full pipe flow.
Syphons are usually designed to minimize head loss.
Velocity at design discharge should be between 3.5 ƒps to 10 ƒps.
In general, lower pipe velocities are fine for small syphons, but in large capacity or
long syphons, it is justifiable to design for high velocities.
• Head Losses
Most of the loss in a syphon is from pipe friction.
Total head loss is the sum of inlet, outlet, bend and pipe friction losses.
121
SMALL DAMS
If the total syphons head exceeds available head (difference in U/S and D/S canal
elevations and water depths), the syphon will operate at a lower discharge and cause
the U/S water level to increase.
Sample hydraulic calculations are given below:-
Head Loss Calculation
Given Parameters:
The Length of syphon = 10993 feet
No. of Bends, N = 14
Inside Dia of Pipe, D = 3 feet (36 inch)
Discharge Q = 12 Cusecs
Manning’s n = 0.015
c = Hazen-Williams roughness constant = 100
Solution
1) Hazen William formula
The Darcy-Welsbach equation with the Moody diagram are considered to be the most
accurate model for estimating frictional head loss in steady pipe flow. Since the
approach requires not so efficient trial and error iteration an alternative empirical head
loss calculation like the Hazen-Williams equation may be preferred:
Hf = 0.2083 (100 / c) 1.852 q1.852 / dh4.8655 (1)
Where
Hf = friction head loss in feet of water per 100 feet of pipe (fth20/100 ft pipe)
c = Hazen-Williams roughness constant
q = volume flow (gal/min)
dh = inside hydraulic diameter (inch)
2) Manning’s Formula
Hf = 2.8775×n2×L×V2/ D1.333 (2)
Hf= Friction Head Loss ft
n = Manning’s coefficient
L = Length of the Siphons ft
v = Mean pipe velocity ft/sec
D = Inside Diameter of Pipe ft
By Using Manning’s Formula
Friction Loss Hf = 2.8775*n2×L×V2/ D1.333 = 2.8775×0.0152×10993×1.72/31.333 = 4.75
feet
By Using Hazen William formula
Friction Loss Hf = (0.2083 (100 / 100) 1.852 44821.852 / 364.865)100 = 3.55 feet
1) Area of X section of Pipe A = π D2/4 = 3.14×32/4 = 7.07 feet2
2) Hydraulic Radius of Pipe R = D/4 = 3/4 = 0.75 feet
122
SMALL DAMS
3) q = volume flow (gal/min) = Q×373.5= 12×373.5 = 4482gal/min

4) Velocity in Pipe (ft/sec) V = Q/A = 12/7.07 = 1.70 feet/sec
5) Velocity Head in Pipe Vh = V2/2g = 1.72/ (32.2×2) = 0.04 feet
6) Inlet Loss Hi = 0.4×Vh = 0.4×0.04 = 0.02 feet
7) Bend Loss Hb = 0.04×V2/ (2×g)×N = 0.04×1.72/ (2×32.2)×14 = 0.03 feet
8) Outlet Loss Ho = V2/ (2×g) = 1.72/ (2×32.2) = 0.04 feet
9) Total Head Loss (Manning’s Formula)
Hl = (hi + hf+ hb+ ho) = 0.02+4.75+0.03+0.04 = 4.84 feet
10) Total Head Loss (Hazen William Formula)
Hl = (hi + hf+ hb+ ho) = 0.02+3.55+0.03+0.04 = 3.41 feet
To be provided = 5.0 ft
• Hydraulic Seal
- Hydraulic seal (Figure 6-4) is the minimum required U/S head, relative to the
upper edge of the syphon pipe at the syphon inlet, to prevent the entrainment
of air at that location.
- The Hydraulic seal recommended by USBR is equal to 1.5 Δhv where Δhv is
the difference in velocity heads in the U/S open channel and in the pipe (when
flowing full).
For a more conservative value of the Hydraulic seal, use 1.5 h pipe where hpipe is the
velocity head in the syphon pipe when flowing full.
Figure 6-4 Hydraulic seal

• Design Steps
- Determine the route that the syphon will follow.
- Determine the required pipe diameter according to the design discharge and
allowable velocity.
123
SMALL DAMS
- Design the syphon layout according to the existing terrain and proposed canal
elevations at the inlet and outlet. Route selected should have minimum
maintenance problem and damage due to rain water.
- Determine pressure requirements of the pipe according to the head (at the
lowest point) during operation.
- Determine the total head loss in the syphon at designed discharge.
- If the head loss is too high, choose a large pipe or different pipe material or
consider adjusting the canal elevation at inlet and outlet.
• Syphons Pressures Rating
- The maximum pressure is equal to the maximum of:-
1. Water surface elevation at the outlet minus the elevation of the lowest point
in the syphons.
2. Water surface elevation at the inlet minus the elevation of lowest point in
syphon minus the friction loss from the entrance to the low point.
- In any case the maximum pressure will be at or very near the location of
minimum elevation in an inverted syphons.
- Due to possible water surging in the pipe, the pressure may be
somewhat higher than calculated above; so consider adding 10% safety
factor.
• Thrust Restraint
Thrust forces are unbalanced forces which occur in pressure pipelines at changes in
direction (such as in bends, wyes, tees, etc.), at changes in cross-sectional area (such
as in reducers), or at pipeline terminations (such as at bulkheads). These forces, if not
adequately restrained, tend to disengage joints. Thrust forces of primary importance
are: (1) hydrostatic thrust due to internal pressure of the pipeline, and (2)
hydrodynamic thrust due to changing momentum of flowing water as explained in
Appendix I. Since most water lines operate at relatively low velocities, the dynamic
force is insignificant and is usually ignored when computing thrust.
• Testing of Pressure Pipe
After the pipe is in place, and before any backfilling, it should be tested for leakage
applying pressure through the use of compressed air. The weak point will be at the
joints. Testing should be carried out at a pressure of 150% of the maximum working
pressure, as used in Australia (Lewis, 2002). No leakage is permitted over a two-hour
test period. Where pipes that are prone to damage are used, such as rubber ring-
jointed PVC pipes, a further test is recommended after 1.0 meter of soil cover has
been placed. Failure at this time can be corrected at a much lower cost than after
completion of the embankment.
124
SMALL DAMS
6.2. Agriculture Development Studies

6.2.1. Approach for Agriculture Development
Prior to the construction of small dam, planning studies regarding different aspects are
undertaken, interalia agriculture development studies. The dams provide irrigation
facilities mainly for agriculture and for drinking, purpose in some cases. The command
area identification, delineation depending upon topography, soil suitability for
cultivation etc. are the initial steps. After marking the command area, present
agriculture conditions such as land utilization, source of irrigation, crops grown, cultural
practices, per acre crop yields and farm input use, land tenure, farm size, crop
production are studied obtaining data from primary and secondary sources, field visits
and farmers interview. Department of irrigation, agriculture, Board of revenue are the
primary and key sources of data.
Future agriculture development is proposed taking into consideration the present
agriculture conditions and additional crop production is envisaged to be achieved
through increased cropped area and per acre yields. The productivity enhancement
results by adopting best management practices, using balanced fertilizers, irrigation
practices, other farm input use etc. Crop water requirements for the proposed
cropping pattern are worked out on 10 daily or monthly basis by adopting any standard
method (Penmann method, Blaney and Criddle, Jensen and Hase, Crop Coefficient
approach) according to the climate data available over the past several years. The
crop water requirements are worked out for root zone, water course head and
ultimately at canal head by taking into consideration the irrigation efficiencies at
various reaches (field, water course and canal) for operation of dam to release
required water quantities.
6.2.2. Agricultural Development Strategy
Infusion of modern management practices in farm sector to boost agriculture
productivity is important to enable farmers to move from subsistence to market-driven
farming that require changes in crop selection, cultivation, harvesting, marketing and
adoption of new technologies. To make agriculture more effective in supporting
sustainable higher economic growth and reducing poverty in Pakistan, a policy
framework needs to be anchored coupled with favorable socio-political climate,
adequate governance and sound macro-economic framework. The prime focus of
government is on high-value agriculture, including horticulture. Major challenges have
been low returns to farmers for their commodities because of higher cost of crops
production. This calls products value addition at the farm level and industrial linkages.
Provision of irrigation supplies for irrigated agriculture is of paramount importance in
arid to sub humid conditions of Pothohar region. To tap the available water resources
in the form of rainfall runoff, construction of small dams is the option. The small dams
are constructed with main objective of providing irrigation supplies to downstream
command area for agriculture.
125
SMALL DAMS
The agriculture activities are carried out in the command area of small dams resulting
in increased cropped area, yield, production and farm incomes ameliorating the
farmers standard of living. The major strategies and actions as follows.
6.2.3. Crop Water Requirements
Computation of crop water requirements for irrigated crops is of fundamental
importance for designing an irrigation system and scheduling of irrigation in a particular
project. The pattern of crop water use determines the capacities of distribution system
and storage capacity of dams. This information is also needed in determining the
volume of water required to meet monthly and seasonal requirements for fields, farms
and the project area as a whole.
The crop water requirements of various crops grown in the project area are calculated
by using Crop Coefficient Approach. According to this approach, crop
evapotranspiration, ETc, is calculated by multiplying the reference crop
evapotranspiration, ETo, by the crop coefficient, Kc.
ETc = KcETo
where
ETc = Crops evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Kc = Crop coefficient (unit less)
ETo = Reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)
According to the FAO, the reference crop evapotranspiration, ET o, is defined as the
rate of evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of 3 to 6 inches tall green grass
cover of uniform height, actually growing, completely shedding the ground and not
short of water. While estimating ETo, most of the effects of various weather conditions
are incorporated into ETo estimate. Therefore ETo represents an index of the climate
demand. Reference evapotranspiration, ET o, and Crop Coefficient, Kc, developed by
Punjab Irrigated-Agriculture Productivity Improvement Project (PIPIP) can be used for
calculating crop water requirements. The rainfall plays important contribution in
meeting water requirements and sometime completely compensate the crop for any
addition of irrigation water application. The rainfall data for nearest metrological station
to the dam command area can be used for calculating effective rainfall using approach
developed by US Bureau of Reclamation. The four basic stages of crop growth (Initial,
Development, Middle and Late stage) as identified by FAO are used for calculating Kc
values. The crop water requirements are calculated for the proposed cropping pattern
and intensity for command area by deducting effective rainfall. These values represent
month-wise crop water requirements at root zone and by applying, efficiencies at
various reaches water requirement at Nakka, water course head and canal head are
worked out. Detail calculations for computing crop water requirements for maize crop
with cropping intensity of 20% for command area of 1,000 acres is shown in Table 6-
1. The duration of growth stages of vegetables crops and correspondence kc values
are given in Table 6-2, whereas summary of crop water requirement for a typical
126
SMALL DAMS
cropping pattern of 120% intensity

(Table 6-3) over a command area of 1,000 acres are given in Table 6-4.
Computation of crop water requirement for maize crop grown in the project
area
Method used is Crop Coefficient Approach
In this method the crop evapotranspiration, ETc is calculated by multiplying the
reference crop evapotranspiration, Eto, by the crop coefficient Kc:
ETc = Kc Eto
Here monthly Crop Water Requirement, CWR for 1,000 acres is calculated and then
added to get annual CWR as follows.
Monthly Day x Kc value of concerned stage x (Eto of concerned location - Effective
Rainfall (ER) of that location).
127
SMALL DAMS
Table 6-1 Calculation of crop water requirement for 1,000 acre of maize crop grown in district
Rawalpindi
128
SMALL DAMS
Table 6-2 Duration of growth stages of various vegetables and crops and their correspondence K c
values
129
SMALL DAMS
130
SMALL DAMS
131
SMALL DAMS
132
SMALL DAMS
133
SMALL DAMS
APPENDICES
134
SMALL DAMS
Appendix A: Selected Bibliography
Appendix A: Selected Bibliography

135
SMALL DAMS
1. French Committee on Dams and Reservoirs (1997) Guidelines for Design,

Construction, and Monitoring. Coordinator Gerard Degoutte. ISBN 2-85362-448.
2. ICOLD (1988) – Inspection of Dams Following Earthquake – Guidelines /
Inspection des Barrages Après Séisme - Recommendations, Bulletin 62.
3. ICOLD (1992) – Improvement of Existing Dam Monitoring, Recommendations
and Case Histories / Amelioration de L’Auscultation des Barrages,
Recommendations et Examples, Bulletin 87.
4. ICOLD (2005) – Risk Assessment in Dam Safety Management / Evaluation du
Risque dans la Gestion de la Sécurité du Barrage, Bulletin 130.
5. ICOLD (2007) – Dam Surveillance / La Surveillance des Barrages, TCDS Draft
Bulletin No 1 (Rev. 0 - Fev 2007).
6. CHINCOLD (1979) – “Dam Construction by The Chinese People”, The Chinese
National Committee on Large Dams;
7. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EM 1110-2-2200, Engineering and Design,
Gravity dam Design (1995);
8. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, EM 1110-2-2300, Engineering and Design,
General Design and Construction Considerations for Earth and Rock-Fill Dams
9. FELL, R. and FRY, J.J. (2007). The state of the art of assessing the likelihood of
internal erosion of embankment dams, water retaining structures and their
foundations. In Internal Erosion of Dams and their Foundations. Editors R.Fell
and J.J Fry. Taylor and Francis, London. 1-24.
10. WORLD BANK GOOD PRACTICES NOTES (2008) - “Safety of Small/Rural
Dams and Barrier Lake Management”, July 2008.
11. ASDSO – “Dam ownership – Responsibility and Liability”, Association of State
Dam Safety Officials, USA
12. SHERARD, J.L., DUNNIGAN, L.P. (1985) – “Filters and Leakage Control in
Embankment Dams”, Proc. Symposium on Seepage and Leakage from Dams,
ASCE.
13. Bureau of Reclamation (1987) – Design of Small Dams, United States
Department of the Interior, A Water Resources Technical Publication;
14. LEWIS, B. (2002) – Farm Dams – Planning, Construction and Maintenance,
National Library of Australia Cataloguing;
15. CEMAGREF (2002) – Small Dams – Guidelines for Design, Construction and
Monitoring, French Committee on Large Dams;
16. DURAND JM, ROYET P, MÉRIAUX P (2002) – Technique des Petits Barrages
en Afrique Sahélienne et Équatoriale, Cemagref Editions.
17. SMEC (2006) – Draft Guidelines for Managing Small Dams, SMEC Australia Pty
Ltd, Guide developed on behalf of The Republic of Uganda.
136
SMALL DAMS
18. JSIDRE (2006) – The Guidelines for Designing of Agricultural Land Improvement
Projects, “Tameike Small Dams”, Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage and
Reclamation Engineering, February 2006.
19. CEDERGREN, H.R. (1973). Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets, 3rd ed. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
20. BUREAU (1975) – Earth Manual – A Water Resources Technical Publication,
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation;
21. USACE CORPS (1995) – Instrumentation of Embankment Dams and Levees,
US Army Corps of Engineers, EM 1110-2-1908, 30 June;
22. FRENCH COMMITTEE ON LARGE DAMS (2002) - Small Dams: Guidelines for
Design, Construction, and Monitoring. Coordinator Gérard Degoutte. ISBN 2-
85362-551-6.
23. MCCOOK, D. (2005). “A Comprehensive Discussion of Piping and Internal
Erosion Failure Mechanisms,” Proc. Assoc. State Dam Safety Officials, Annual
Meeting, Sept 26-30, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
24. Engineering Design Manuals – Hyundai Engineering Company Ltd Korea.
Recommended Reference Books
4. Design of Small Dam, United States Department of the Interior (Bureau of
Reclamation).
5. Design of Concrete Gravity Dam, United States Department of the Interior
(Bureau of Reclamation).
6. Earth and Earth Rock Dams by James L. Sherard (Engineering problems of
Design and construction)
Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipation by A.J. Peterka
137
SMALL DAMS
Appendix B: Photographs of Some Dams

Completed by SDO & ID
Appendix B: Photographs of Some Dams Completed by SDO &

ID
138
SMALL DAMS
PHOTOGRAPHS
Khai Dam
Thatti Saidan Dam

139
SMALL DAMS
Appendix C ABAD Mini Dams – Ponds Schemes
Appendix C ABAD Mini Dams – Ponds Schemes

140
SMALL DAMS
1. ABAD Mini Dam – Ponds Schemes

Small Dams Organization (SDO) of Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) has
constructed Small Storage Dams and Agency for Brani Area Development (ABAD)
has constructed Mini Storage Dams and Ponds in Pothohar Region of Punjab for
storage of rain water to use for irrigation, livestock, domestic supplies, fish farming etc.
They are also planning to construct new interventions as well.
As per available literature Minor Dams / Mini Dams have been constructed in USA and
in many other Countries. The definition of Mini Dams / Minor Dams differs from state
to state with in USA and from country to country. Following table list definitions of Mini
/ Minor Dams in USA states, and Pakistan by ABAD.
Definition of minor / mini dams
Sr.
State Minor
No.
US State
1 Colorado (CO) "Minor Dam" is a jurisdictional size dam that does not
exceed 20 feet in jurisdictional height and/or 100 acre-
feet in capacity.
2 Kansas (KS) “Class Size 1”- Height of less than 25 feet and an
effective storage of less than 50 acre-feet.
3 Massachusetts “Non-jurisdictional Dam”- Storage not in excess of 15
(MA) acft regardless of height; height not in excess of 6 ft,
regardless of storage capacity.
4 New Hampshire “Class A structure” means a dam that is not a menace
(NH) because it is in a location and of a size that failure or
misoperation of the dam would not result in probable
loss of life or loss to property, provided the dam is: (a)
Less than 6 feet in height if it has a storage capacity
greater than 50 acre-feet; or (b) Less than 25 feet in
height if it has a storage capacity of 15 to 50 acre-feet.
5 New Jersey (NJ) A “Class IV” dam is any project which impounds less
than 15 ac-ft of water to the top of the dam, and has less
than 15 feet height of dam (as measured to the top of
the dam) and which has a drainage area above the dam
of 150 acres or less in extent.
6 New York (NY) A “Class A” dam is a “negligible or no hazard” dam also
Potential Hazard Class (PFC) – I of ICOLD.
7 Ohio (OH) A “Class IV dam” will be twenty-five feet or less in height
and have a total storage volume of 50 acre feet or less.
141
SMALL DAMS
Sr.
State Minor
No.
8 South Carolina A “very small dam” will have an impoundment structure
(SC) less than 50 acre-feet and a height less than 25 ft.
9 United States, USDA and NRCS: Mini dam–pond of height (H) < 10.7
Department of m, storage capacity of 50 aft and PHC-I.
Agriculture
(USDA) and
Natural Resources
Conservation
Services (NRCS)
Pakistan
10 Pakistan, ABAD Mini Dam site having a Pondage Capacity of more than
40 Aft and Command Area of at least 20 acres.
Pond site having capacity 20 Aft and Command Area of
at least 15 acres. However, height of existing mini dams
constructed by ABAD ranges from 20 ft to 50 ft.
2. Site selection
- Dam Sites with steep bed slopes (i.e. over 4 ~ 5 percent) are rarely economical as
embankment give limited storage and therefore be given low priority.
- A good dam site should have a catchment area that is not so big that an expensive
spillway may be required but is also not so small that the yield from the reservoir
is too low or erratic to be able to supply an economic area for any irrigation
schemes.
- Where rock bars perpendicular to the stream flow are found at site, it would provide
good spillway site and safe embankment.
- In case of cascade of dams built in the catchment above the selected site, the total
catchment area of the dam under consideration including the catchment area of
dams built above, should be taken while calculating peak flood for design of
spillway. This factor will be the governing factor in selection of site as larger spillway
capacity will be required to safely pass the designed discharge.
- Dams should not be sited on catchments which are so small that they are unlikely
to fill in an average year.
- Estimations of peak flood are required for spillway design, the dimensions and
physical characteristics of which are extremely important. If a suitable spillway of
sufficient size is not available at a particular site, or would prove too expensive, it
is advisable to move on to a better alternative site where spillway conditions can
be met.
142
SMALL DAMS
- Suitable clayey soils for building the dam wall should be available from a borrow
pit in the reservoir and from excavating the spillways.
3. Hydrology
There is a large spatial rainfall variation in the Pothohar region. Annual average varies
from 487 mm in the sub-humid south western to 1766 mm at Murree in the
northeastern area as shown in Figure below:
Mean annual rainfall in the pothohar region
The runoffs generated by1 Km2 of catchment area for various regions of Pothohar are
shown in table given belwo. This information could be used for estimating by the run-
off from the catchment area of the RHS under consideration.
Runoff (AFT) by 1 Km2 catchment area in the various regions of the Pothohar
Sr. No Region Zone Runoff (AFT)

1 Rawalpindi A 100
2 Fateh Jhang B 80
3 Talagang C 50
I) Sediment yield
Preliminary estimates of sediment from the catchment of RHS could be made from the
table given below.
Sediment yield for various catchments in the pothohar region
143
SMALL DAMS
Mean
Mean
Catchment Data annual
area
annual
Sr. record sediment
River Station runoff
No. yield
(ac-ft/sq- (ac-ft/sq-
(sq-mile) Years
mile) mile)
Siran
1 Phulra 408 36 1218.1 3.9
RIver
Haro
2 Garlia 1180 37 583.9 2.7
River
Haro
3 Khanpur 300 32 733.3 3.1
River
Soan Dhok
4 2500 42 444 5.17
River Pathan
II) Design flood
As per standard practice around the world, RHSs are normally designed on 10 to 50
year return period. After studying the climatic conditions, topography and risk
associated with these structures, below mentioned criteria is suggested:
a. Earthern dams
Spillways will be designed on 25 year return period flood, whereas freeboard will
be determined on 50 year return period flood.
b. Concrete dams
Spillway will be designed on 25 year return period flood.
Design flood for each rainwater harvesting scheme will be determined using Unit
Hydrograph Method or by empirical formula. One day annual maximum rainfall data
of Gujjar Khan, Mianwali, Islamabad, Talagang, Rawalpindi and Fateh Jhang will be
adopted for respective catchments.
4. Irrigation requirements
I) Crop water requirement
After taking into account the evaporation and seepage losses of rainwater harvesting
structure, the remaining water amount will be available for irrigation. The crop water
requirements for proposed cropping pattern and intensities will be worked out and
CCA will be adjusted according to the available water. Based on the proposed
cropping pattern and intensities and CCA, agriculture benefits will be worked out for
economic analysis.
For computing crop water requirement, Crop Coefficient Approach will be used.
According to this approach crop evapotranspiration (ETc) is calculated by multiplying
the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) by the crop coefficient (Kc) as under:
144
SMALL DAMS
ETc = Kc ETo (mm/day)

ETo and Kc as developed by Punjab Irrigated–Agriculture Productivity Improvement
Project (PIPIP) for various districts of Pothohar can be used for calculating ET o at root
zone by subtracting the effective rainfall. The net crop water requirements at various
reaches of system can be calculated by taking into account the field / conveyance
efficiency (water losses).
In case, the RHS is to be used for agriculture as well as fish farming (multipurpose),
competing use of water for both is to be considered and optimum level of water in
reservoir for fish farming is to be maintained.
II) Proximity of command area
Only those sites shall be selected where command area is available in the immediate
vicinity of the site.
III) Willingness to share the cost
Only those sites shall be selected where the beneficiaries are ready to share the cost.
5. Estimates of storage required
For estimation of seepage, evaporation and dead storage, following assumptions will
be made.
i) Seepage losses are always difficult to estimate before the dam is built and to
calculate after the dam has been constructed. As all dams will seep, it is best
to estimate that a well constructed embankment will lose about 5 – 10 percent
of its water to seepage in any one year.
ii) Evaporation losses can be calculated from local records noting that shallow
large surface area reservoirs will have higher evaporation rates than narrow
deep reservoirs. Wind is also an important factor in dry areas. For calculating
water uses (i.e. for irrigation), where actual figures are not known, dry season
losses can be taken as 20 percent maximum.
iii) Dead storage is the amount of water retained in the dam that cannot be
accessed. The dead storage will vary according to design, pumping suction
heads and positions of any outlets in the embankment. It will also be more,
proportionally, for a small dam than a larger dam and will offer an area in all
dams for sediment to accumulate. For design purposes, a figure of 5 percent
maximum of the total water stored can be used to estimate dead storage.
Once the above has been estimated the remaining amount shall be available for
irrigation and other purposes.
6. Design parameters
i) First approximations for freeboard requirements
As a first estimate, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR, 1992) uses the empirical
guidelines summarized in table below for preliminary studies. The values shown in
145
SMALL DAMS
table below were based on wind velocities of 160 km/hour (100 miles/hour) for
estimating normal freeboard and 80 km/hour (50 miles/hour) for minimum freeboard.
Freeboard requirements for preliminary studies of small dams for rock faced slope (USBR, 1987, 1992)
Minimum Freeboard –
Longest fetch (km) Normal Freeboard (m)
MFL (*) (m)
< 1.6 1.2 0.9
1.6 1.5 1.2
4.0 1.8 1.5
(*) MFL = Maximum Flood Level.
A large number of water retaining structures (earthfill) have failed due to overtopping
and consequently greater attention must be paid to this feature. Freeboard should not
be less than 1.0 m, even for small RHS.
ii) Crest width
Table below presents the crest width criteria as per USBR.
Crest width criteria
Sr. No. Empirical formula for crest width (CW) Source

1 𝐻
𝐶𝑊 = + 10
5
USBR
CW = crest width in ft
H = Dam Height in ft
Always adopt the widest crest width possible (and flatter slopes) where foundation or
construction materials are suspect. To reduce erosion, all crests should be given 2%
cross fall to drain rain water to reservoir via the U/S slopes of the embankment. For
RHS, use crest width of 15 ft. minimum.
iii) Embankment slopes
The upstream and downstream slopes should be 3:1 and 2:1 respectively.
iv) Earthen RHS
Depending upon availability of material in the reservoir and in the vicinity following
embankment types will be adopted.
a. Homogenous embankment
When one type of material is available with at least 15 – 20 % of clayey material,
homogeneous section be adopted with toe filter, as shown in Figure below.
146
SMALL DAMS
6" SPAWL
Homogeneous embankment
b. Zoned embankment
When material available contains high percentage of gravel and sand with no fine
particles, impervious core be placed in the centre of the fill with horizontal filter, as
shown in
Figure below.
Zoned embankment
v) Filter and drains

The following limits are recommended to satisfy filter stability criteria and to provide
ample increase in permeability between base and filter. These criteria are satisfactory
for use with filters of either natural sand and gravel or crushed rock and for filter
gradations which are either "uniform" or "graded":
(5) 𝐷 = 5 𝑡𝑜 40, Provided that the filter does not contain more than
5 percent of material finer than 0.074 mm. (no. 200 sieve)
(6) 𝐷 = 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
(7) 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚85𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒
(8) The grain size curve of the filter should be roughly parallel to that of the base
material.
147
SMALL DAMS
If more than one filter layer is required, the same criteria are followed; the finer filter is
considered as the ''base material'' for selection of the gradation of the coarser filter.
Although normally specified, the following guides are given for filter construction:
(7) The subgrade before filter placement should be firm and, if necessary, be lightly
tamped or rolled.
(8) Clean filter material should have sufficient water content (3 to 10 percent) during
placement, and the placement method should be such that segregation is
prevented.
(9) Thin filters are usually firmly compacted with light flat rollers, or are tamped to a
firm condition. Unless otherwise specified, thick filters are compacted to 70 percent
relative density in a manner similar to free-draining sand-gravel backfill to prevent
settlement.
(10) The filter layers for coarse filter material (3-inch maximum size) are usually not
less than 8 inches in thickness, and layers of finer filter material are often 6-inch
minimum thickness. However, for severe field conditions such as high head,
variations in base material, or filter gradations which are near the extreme coarse
limit, the minimum thickness of 8 inches may be specified. For zoned filters these
minimum thicknesses may be specified and are maintained for each layer.
vi) Upstream protection
The upstream slope should be protected by 1' thick rip-rap laid over 6" thick spawl
filling, at least in the upper 2/3rd of the slope.
7. Spillway types
• Only those sites should be selected where spillway cost is not prohibitive.
• In case of rock on abutments, open channel spillway be provided without lining,
close to the main dam or at a natural depression in the banks.
• In case soil on spillway site is erosive, chute spillway and stilling basin with proper
protective cover of concrete should be adopted for energy dissipation.
8. Construction of RHSs
Important things to remember (Earthfill RHSs):
• Construction should begin with a cutoff trench;
• The embankment should be properly keyed into the banks.
• Construct in nearly horizontal lifts that extend abutment to abutment;
• Borrow materials should be hauled onto lift (or layer) placement areas and NOT
PUSHED IN PLACE.
• Once dumped, soils should be spread by dozing equipment so that their
thickness is no greater than 9 inches (or as directed by the Engineer);
148
SMALL DAMS
• After fill has been spread and moisture properly adjusted, the soil should be
compacted by either rubber tired equipment (front end loader with bucket filled)
or equipment specifically designed for soil compaction (i.e. suitable rollers).
• The embankment should be built up fairly uniformly over the entire width and
length of each section as it is constructed.
• Caution: Bonding between lifts is important to prevent problems. Prior to
placing the next lift (or layer), the prior lift should be scarified a maximum of 2
inches deep. Do not leave lift surfaces to become too dry. Organic content of
soil, and other deleterious matter should be removed.
a. Foundation cutoff:
Sometime it is necessary to provide a cutoff trench. The cutoff trench is constructed
of impervious material and is generally located near the centerline of the dam. Ideally
the cutoff should extend to an impervious layer in the foundation, either soil or rock.
Cutoff trenches prevent excessive seepage from moving under the dam, by
lengthening the seepage path.
b. Fill placement - compaction:
Two variables that greatly influence the embankment fill density are the compactive
effort (i.e., degree of compaction, DC) and the moisture content (Optimum Moisture
Content, OMC).
How to determine adequate compaction:
4. Field and laboratory testing
• Samples of earthfill materials are tested in the on-site laboratory to determine
OMC and maximum dry density relationship of each earthfill materials, using
ASTM D698.
• Field density tests are performed on compacted layer using ASTM D1556 or
other ASTM D standard methods suitable to site conditions.
• Compute Degree of Compaction (DC) and moisture content. DC ≥ 95% and
Moisture Content should be ± 1 to 2% OMC of ASTM D698.
5. Keeping track of passes
• Generally 8 to 10 passes are necessary to get adequate compaction.
(iv)Foundation preparation and treatments
Before beginning to construct embankment, attention must be given to the
foundations. A properly prepared foundation is critical to the safety and long life of the
embankment.
Caution: Clean gravels and sands make a poor embankment foundation. Gravels are
highly permeable and could allow excessive seepage, which could in turn lead to dam
failure or inability to hold water. Do not build dam on open gravels foundation.
149
SMALL DAMS
Stripping:
Stripping is the removal of any unsuitable soils. Generally, this involves the excavation
and removal of top soil (about one ft), which commonly contains large amounts of
organic matter.
(v) Surface protection
Embankment surfaces must be protected from surface erosion. Upstream slope
protection shall usually consist of rip-rap over 6" spawl filling.
Borrow area investigation and lab testing
The availability of suitable material for building RHS is a determining factor in selecting
a pond site. Enough suitable material should be located close to the site so that
placement costs are not excessive.
Materials selected must have enough strength for the dam to remain stable and be
water tight enough, when properly compacted, to prevent excessive or harmful
percolation of water through the dam. Soils described as acceptable for foundation
material generally are acceptable for fill material. The exceptions are organic silts and
clays and dispersive clays.
The best material for an earthfill contains particles ranging from small gravel or coarse
sand to fine sand and clay in the desired proportions (i.e. well graded). This material
should contain about 15 to 20 percent, by weight, clay particles.
Soils containing a high percentage of gravel or coarse sand with no fines are pervious
and can allow rapid seepage through the dam. When using these soils, place a core
of clay material in the center of the fill and flatten the side slopes to keep the line of
seepage from emerging on the downstream slope.
Soils used in embankment dams:
There are five different types of earth material used in embankment construction. For
simple identification of fine grained soils follow the flow chart shown in Figure below.
Simple Test for Identification of Fine Grained Soils
If you add a bit of Silt

water, can you roll No. it
Breaks
into a thin thread apart
between hands?
Fin Sand Does the dry soil
Yes feel smooth like
or
Silt flour or gritty?
Take a dry Clump of
the soil in question. Gritty
Does it easily crumble Easily
under finger pressure, Crumble
Fine Sand
or is it a hard cohesive
mass?
Hard
Cohesive
Massy
Clay
y
Flow chart for identification of fine grained soils
150
SMALL DAMS
Appendix D: Inspection Forms
Appendix D: Inspection Forms

151
SMALL DAMS
MONITORING RECORDING FORMS

DATA FORM FOR SEEPAGE
Dam Name: ________________________________________________________
Owner Name: _______________________________________________________
Clarity
Weir staff Flow Reservoir
(clear,
Date Location gauge rate elevation Observer
cloudy, or
reading (ft) (gpm) (ft)
muddy)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
152
SMALL DAMS
OBSERVATION WELL DATA FORM

Dam Name: _________________________________________________________
Owner Name: ________________________________________________________
Equivalent Reservoir
Elevation Depth Change
water Previous elevation
top of to in
Date Location surface elevation (ft)
casing water elevation
elev. (2 – (ft)
(ft) * (ft) (4 – 5)
3)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
* Dry, write “DRY”. If frozen, write “FROZEN”.

153
SMALL DAMS
SETTLEMENT / MOVEMENT MONITORING DATA

Dam Name: _________________________________________________________
Owner Name: ________________________________________________________
Lateral
Amount Total
Date Elevation (ft) displacement
Number settlement
and direction
0 1 2 3 4
154
SMALL DAMS
INSPECTION CHECKLIST FOR SMALL DAMS
DATA FORM FOR SEEPAGE

DAM NAME: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TYPE: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FOUNDATION (Geology): -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
LOCALIZATION: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DATE: ----------------------------------------- Water Level --------------------------------------------
Weather Conditions: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
INSPECTED BY: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. CREST
✓ Settlements, depressions, sinkholes
✓ Misalignment
✓ Longitudinal/transversal cracking
✓ Animal burrows
✓ Adverse vegetation
✓ Erosion
2. UPSTREAM SLOPE
✓ Loss of rip rap material
✓ Stone weathering/deterioration
✓ Inadequate ground cover
✓ Settlement, depressions, slides, sinkholes
✓ Longitudinal/transversal cracking
✓ Animal burrows
✓ Vegetation (large shrubs, trees)
3. DOWNSTREAM SLOPE
✓ Erosion
✓ Inadequate ground cover
✓ Longitudinal/Transverse cracking
✓ Settlement, slides, depressions, bulges, sinkholes
✓ Superficial drainage clogged
✓ Soft spots or boggy areas
✓ Movement near the toe
✓ Animal burrows
✓ Vegetation (large shrubs, trees)
4. DRAINAGE-SEEPAGE CONTROL
✓ Internal drains flowing
✓ Boils near the toe
✓ Seepage near the toe
155
SMALL DAMS
✓ There are sediments at the drainage boxes

✓ The water is not clear
5. ABUTMENTS AND CONTACTS WITH ABUTMENT
✓ Erosion
✓ Differential movement
✓ Cracks
✓ Settlement, slides, depressions, bulges, sinkholes
✓ Leakage water (seepage)
✓ Animal burrows
✓ Vegetation at the dam toe (large shrubs, trees)
6. APPROACHING CHANNEL
✓ Instability of the side channel
✓ Tilting of sidewalls
✓ Erosion or back cutting
✓ Sloughing
✓ Restriction by vegetation
✓ Obstruction with debris
✓ Log boom, condition or need
✓ Concrete lining deterioration, cracking or settlement
7. OUTLET WORKS – SPILLWAY, SPILLWAY’S CHUTE, STILLING
BASING/POOL
✓ Concrete surfaces show:
• Spalling or scaling
• Cracking
• Erosion
• Exposed reinforcement
✓ Energy dissipators show:
• Sign of deterioration
• Covered with debris
• Sign of inadequacy
• Obstruction
✓ Slab movement, heaving, settlement
✓ Wall movement, settlement, tilting
✓ Undermining foundation from plunge poll by erosion
✓ Poor hydraulic performance, hydraulic jump in bucket
✓ Excessive vibration
8. OUTLET WORKS – INLET STRUCTURES/CONDUIT
✓ Seepage into structure
✓ Debris or obstruction
✓ Displaced floor slabs
156
SMALL DAMS
✓ Poor hydraulic conditions, turbulence or vortices

✓ Vibrations, interference with flow
✓ Concrete surfaces show:
• Spalling or scaling
• Cracking
• Erosion
• Exposed reinforcement
✓ The conduit joints show:
• Displacement or offset
• Loss of joint material
• Leakage
✓ Are the trash racks:
• Broken or bent
• Corroded or rusted
• Obstructed
Each of these deterioration possibilities need to be addressed in terms of:
( ) Not applicable
( ) No
( ) Yes
( ) Need to be monitored
( ) Need to be investigated
( ) Need to be repaired
( ) Need to be registered
Observation: All important deteriorations need to be registered with one or more
photographs taken during the inspection.
157
SMALL DAMS
ANNUAL INSPECTION FORM
General
Dam Name: _________________________________________________________
Date of Inspection: ____________________________________________________
Owner’s Name: ______________________________________________________
Address: ____________________________________________________________
Telephone: __________________________________________________________
Inspected by: ________________________________________________________
Weather: ___________________________________________________________
Reservoir Data
Reservoir Level at Time of Inspection: _________________________ (feet below
dam crest)
Reservoir Inflow at Time of Inspection: _________________________________ (cfs
or gpm)
Reservoir Outflow at Time of Inspection: ________________________________ (cfs
or gpm)
Condition of Dam
Crest: _____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(Check for: surface cracking, animal burrows, low areas, horizontal alignment, ruts,
trees, brush)
Upstream Face: _____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(Check for: slumps, slides, scarps, sinkholes, animal burrows, slope protection, wave
erosion, trees, brush)
Downstream Face: __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(Check for: wet areas [no flow], seepage [note location], slides, slumps, scarps,
change in slope, animal burrows, erosion, unusual movements, trees, brush, water
loving vegetation)
158
SMALL DAMS
Spillway(s):
− Earthen Channel; __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(Check for: slide, slump, scarp, erosion protection, vegetation, debris)
− Concrete Lined Channel; ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(Examine: sidewalls, channel floor, approach area, weir, discharge area. Check for:
alignment, movement, cracking, spalling, undermining, etc.)
− Drop Inlet; _______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(Examine: intake structure, trashrack, conduit, stilling basin)
Outlet Works: (visible elements) _________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
(Examine: intake structure, trashrack, stilling basin, control mechanism, outlet pipe.
Check for: seepage, undermining, erosion, corrosion)
Maintenance Deficiencies: ____________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Additional Comments:
_______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Sketch of Dam and Reservoir Site
159
SMALL DAMS
Appendix E: Design Requirements of RCC Pipes

– ASTM C 361-03a∈1
Appendix E: Design Requirements of RCC Pipes – ASTM C

361-03a∈1
160
SMALL DAMS
Design Requirements of RCC Pipes – ASTM C 361–03a∈1

161
SMALL DAMS
162
SMALL DAMS
163
SMALL DAMS
Appendix F: Specification for Coating of MS Pipe
Appendix F: Specification for Coating of MS Pipe

164
SMALL DAMS
Protective Coating and Lining

Coatings for corrosion control are extremely effective when properly used. They are
considered to be the primary line of defense against corrosion of steel pipeline
systems. Coating costs are only a fraction of pipeline costs, yet coating is the major
means of ensuring long-term operation by preventing pipeline deterioration and
corrosion leaks.
Requirements of Good Pipeline Coatings and Linings
The requirements of a coating vary with the type of construction, the aggressiveness
of the environment in which it will serve, and the system operating conditions. The
effectiveness of a good protective pipeline coating depends on its permanence and
the degree to which it possesses physical resistance to hazards of transportation,
installation, temperature change, soil stress, and pressure; resistance to water
penetration or absorption; effective electrical insulative properties; and chemical
inertness to soil, air, water, organic acids, alkalies, and bacterial action. Coating
effectiveness also depends on such general characteristics as ease of application,
high adhesion, compatibility of use with cathodic protection, and reasonable cost.2
The requirements of a lining also vary with the system and the environment. In addition
to the factors considered for coatings, linings must be judged on their smoothness (low
flow resistance), and they must meet toxicological requirements for potable water.
Selection of the Proper Coating and Lining
Selection and recommendation of the lining and coating materials for use on
underground and underwater steel pipelines is one of the most important activities of
the engineer. Selection for a given use is a matter of assessing the magnitude of the
corrosion, installation, and service hazards. Requirements for external coating and
internal lining are different, so each should be considered separately with respect to
the anticipated corrosion severity.
Coating Selection
Coating performance depends on putting the pipeline into service with the least
amount of coating damage. The coating system selected must not only meet the
corrosion control needs, but must also allow economical transportation, handling,
storage, and pipeline construction with minimal coating damage or repair. To ensure
precise control of coating application and quality, many types of coatings are applied
in a plant or shop.
Lining Selection
The function of an internal lining is to prevent internal corrosion and to produce and
maintain a smooth surface to enhance flow capacity. Cement-mortar linings and
coatings for steel waterlines are durable and have provided many years of excellent
service. Cement-mortar linings provide low hydraulic frictional resistance, and any
leached products from mortar lining carrying soft water are nontoxic and anticorrosive.
2
Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems. NACE Standard RP-0 l-69. NACE, Houston, Texas (1983 revision).
165
SMALL DAMS
Coal-tar enamel, coal-tar epoxy, and fusion-bonded epoxy exhibit excellent corrosion-
resistance properties and provide the required smoothness to maintain flow capacity.
When reinforced, the coatings provide additional resistance to physical damage.
Regardless of the lining material selected, consideration should be given to the effects
of cavitation and silts on the lining.
Recommended Coatings and Linings
Current AWWA standards list coatings and linings for steel water pipe that are believed
to be the most reliable, as proved in practice. The AWWA Steel Pipe Committee is
alert, however, to the possibilities of new developments, and additions to and
modifications of existing standards will be made as deemed advisable. The current list
of AWWA coating and lining standards for pipe protection is as follows:
AWWA C203, Standard for Coal-Tar Protective Coatings and Linings for Steel
Water Pipelines—Enamel and Tape—Hot-Applied. AWWA C2033 describes the
material and application requirements for shop-applied coal-tar protective coatings
and linings for steel water pipelines intended for use under normal conditions when
the temperature of the water in the pipe will not exceed 90ºF (32°C). The standard
covers coal-tar enamel applied to the interior and exterior of pipe, special sections,
connections, and fittings; it also covers hot-applied coal-tar tape applied to the exterior
of special sections, connections, and fittings.
Coal-tar enamel is applied over a coal-tar or synthetic primer. External coal-tar enamel
coatings use bonded asbestos-felt and fibrous-glass mat to reinforce and shield the
coal-tar enamel. The applied external coating is usually finished with either a coat of
whitewash or a single wrap of kraft paper.
Internally, the coal-tar enamel is used without reinforcement or shielding. The hot
enamel is spun into the pipe and provides a smooth internal lining having low hydraulic
frictional resistance.
The standard provides a rigid yet reasonable manufacturer’s guide for the production
of the coating, calls for tests of material and its behavior to ensure the purchaser that
the product has the desired qualities, and furnishes directions for the effective
application of the coating.
AWWA C205, Standard for Cement-Mortar Protective Lining and Coating for
Steel Water Pipe—4 In. and Larger—Shop Applied. AWWA C2054 describes the
material and application requirements to provide protective linings and coatings for
steel water pipe by shop application of cement mortar.
Cement mortar is composed of Portland cement, sand, and water, well mixed and of
the proper consistency to obtain a dense, homogeneous lining or coating. Internally,
the cement mortar is centrifugally compacted to remove excess water and produce a
smooth, uniform surface. Externally, the coating is a reinforced cement mortar,
pneumatically or mechanically applied to the pipe surface. Reinforcement consists of
3
Coal-Tar Protective Coatings and Linings for Steel Water Pipelines—Enamel and Tape—Hot Applied. AWWA Standard C203-78. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1978).
4
Cement-Mortar Protective Lining and Coating for Steel Water Pipe—4 in. and Larger—Shop Applied. AWWA Standard C205-80. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1980).
166
SMALL DAMS
spiral wire, wire fabric, or ribbon mesh. The standard provides a complete guide for
application and curing of the mortar lining and mortar coating.
AWWA C209, Standard for Cold-Applied Tape Coatings for the Exterior of
Special Sections, Connections, and Fittings for Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA
C2095 covers the use of a cold primer and cold-applied tape on the exterior of special
sections, connections, and fittings for steel water pipelines installed underground in
any soil under normal or average conditions. Tapes with both polyvinyl chloride and
polyethylene backing are listed. The thicknesses of the tapes vary; however, all tapes
may be sufficiently overlapped to meet changing performance requirements. Cold-
applied tapes provide ease of application without the use of special equipment and
can be applied over a broad application temperature range. If severe construction or
soil conditions exist where mechanical damage may occur, a suitable overwrap of an
extra thickness of tape or other wrapping may be required.
AWWA C210, Standard for Liquid Epoxy Coating Systems for the Interior and
Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA C2106 describes a liquid epoxy coating
system, suitable for potable water service, which will provide corrosion protection to
the interior and exterior of steel water pipe, fittings, and special sections installed
underground or underwater. The coating system consists of one coat of a two-part
chemically cured inhibitive epoxy primer, and one or more coats of a two-part
chemically cured epoxy finish coat. The finish coat may be a coal-tar epoxy coating,
or it may be an epoxy coating containing no coal tar. The coating system may
alternately consist of two or more coats of the same epoxy coating without the use of
a separate primer, provided the coating system meets the performance requirements
of AWWA C210.
These coatings are suitable when used for corrosion prevention in water service
systems at temperatures up to 140°F (60°C). The products are applied by spray
application, preferably airless.
The liquid epoxy system described in the standard differs from the customary product
commercially available in that it has a very high flexibility, elongation, and impact
resistance. Any liquid epoxy offered for water utility purposes must meet the
requirements of AWWA C210.
AWWA C213, Standard for Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating for the Interior and
Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA C2137 describes the material and
application requirements for fusion-bonded epoxy protective coatings for the interior
and exterior of steel water pipe, special sections, welded joints, connections, and
fittings of steel water pipelines installed underground or underwater under normal
construction conditions. The epoxy coatings are suited for corrosion prevention in
potable water systems operating at temperatures up to 140ºF (60ºC).
5
Cold-Applied Tape Coatings for the Exterior of Special Sections, Connections, and Fittings for Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA Standard C209-84. AWWA, Denver, Colo.
(1984).
6
Liquid Epoxy Coating Systems for the Interior and Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA Standard C210-84. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1984).
7
Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating for the Interior and Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA Standard C213-79. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1979).
167
SMALL DAMS
Fusion-bonded epoxy coatings are heat activated, chemically cured coating systems.
The epoxy coatings are furnished in powder form. Except for welded field joints, they
are plant- or shop-applied to preheated pipe, special sections, connections, and fittings
using fluid bed, air, or electrostatic spray.
AWWA C214, Standard for Tape Coating Systems for the Exterior of Steel Water
Pipelines. AWWA C2148 covers the materials, the systems, and the application
requirements for prefabricated cold-applied tapes for the exterior of all diameters of
steel water pipe placed by mechanical means. For normal construction conditions,
prefabricated cold-applied tapes are applied as a three-layer system consisting of (1)
primer, (2) corrosion preventive tape (inner layer), and (3) mechanical protective tape
(outer layer). The primer is supplied in the form of a liquid consisting of solid
ingredients carried in a solvent. The corrosion preventive tape and the mechanical
protective tape are supplied in suitable thicknesses and in roll form. The standard
covers application at coating plants.
AWWA C602, Standard for Cement-Mortar Lining of Water Pipelines—4 In. (100
mm) and Larger—In Place. AWWA C6029 describes the materials and application
processes for the cement-mortar lining of pipelines in place, covering both newly
installed pipes and older pipelines. Detailed procedures are included for surface
preparation and application, surface finishing, and curing of the cement mortar.
Coating Application
This manual does not furnish details on methods of coating and paint application, but
the importance of obtaining proper application cannot be overemphasized. Effective
results cannot be secured with any coating material unless adequate care is taken in
preparing the surfaces for coating, in applying the coating, and in handling the pipe
after coating.
8
Tape Coating Systems for the Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA Standard C214-83. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1983).
9
Cement-Mortar Lining of Water Pipelines–4 in. (100 mm) and Larger–in Place. AWWA Standard C602-83. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1983).
168
SMALL DAMS
Appendix G: Field Installation Procedures (RCC

and PRCC Pipes
Appendix G: Field Installation Procedures (RCC and PRCC Pipes

169
SMALL DAMS
Field Installation Procedures (RCC and PRCC Pipes)

The class of pipe given in Table 1 for combined external load and hydrostatic head is
based on a field installation procedure at least comparable to that described below.
Where the designer does not expect to attain such an installation, a detailed design
analysis of the pipe should be made taking into consideration the anticipated external
loading, hydrostatic head, and installation procedure. Failure to comply with the
requirements herein may result in excessive pipe cracking.
The trench shall be excavated of sufficient width to achieve the specified haunch
backfill compaction, and to a depth of either 4 inch or 6 inch below the bottom of the
pipe, to provide for granular cushion material as shown in Figure below. The trench
shall be backfilled to the bottom of the pipe with uncompacted granular cushion
material meeting the physical requirements of para (a) After the pipe is placed in the
trench to the correct grade and alignment, additional haunch support backfill material
shall be compacted in accordance with para (a) or (b), depending on the type of soil
used as pipe backfill material. An additional depth of 6 inch or more shall be removed
if the native material in the trench is soft, low density, or unsuitable for a pipeline
foundation. The additional 6 inch or more shall be compacted to the requirements of
the design engineer.
(a) Cohesive Soil or Granular Soil Containing More Than 5 % Fines–If the haunch
support backfill material is a cohesive soil or is a granular soil containing more
than 5 % material passing the number 200 sieve, the material shall be placed
170
SMALL DAMS
in layers not exceeding 6 inch in thickness and compacted by appropriate

surface methods such as tamping, rolling, vibration, or a combination thereof.
The material shall be placed from the bottom of the pipe to a height of 0.37
times the outside diameter of the pipe, shall be placed and compacted in such
a manner as to completely fill the space under the haunches of the pipe, and
shall be compacted throughout to a minimum of 95 % of laboratory maximum
density as determined in accordance with Test Method ASTM
D 698.
(b) Granular Soil Containing 5 % Fines or Less—If the haunch support backfill
material is a cohesionless, free-draining soil (containing no more than 5 %
material passing the number 200 sieve) it shall be placed a minimum depth of
0.37 times the outside diameter of the pipe and shall be compacted by
saturation and internal vibration in such a manner as to completely fill the
spaces under the haunches of the pipe and shall be compacted throughout to
a minimum of 70 % relative density as determined in accordance with Test
Methods ASTM D 4253 and D 4254. In order to achieve specified density, it
may be necessary to provide means for draining the water utilized during
vibration whenever the trench sides and subgrade are incapable or readily
absorbing the excess.
The pipe backfill material in para (a) and para (b) shall have a maximum particle size
not exceeding ¾ inch and shall be graded to preclude migration of soil particles. The
backfill material placed above the 0.37 outside diameter level shall be compacted or
uncompacted to the requirements of the design engineer.
171
SMALL DAMS
Appendix H: Field Installation Procedures

(For MS Pipes)
Appendix H: Field Installation Procedures (For MS Pipes)

172
SMALL DAMS
Field Installation Procedure (For MS Pipe)

1. TRENCHING
Depth
Trenching should be dug to grade as shown in the profile. The minimum cover should
be generally selected to protect the pipe safely from transient loads.
Width
Where the sides of the trench will afford reasonable side support, the trench width that
must be maintained at the top of the pipe, regardless of the depth of excavation, is the
narrowest practical width that will allow proper densification of pipe-zone bedding and
backfill materials. If the sides of the trench remain vertical after excavation, and if
bedding and backfill are to be consolidated by hydraulic methods, then the minimum
trench width at the top of the pipe should be pipe OD plus 20 in. If the pipe-zone
bedding and backfill require densification by compaction, the width of the trench at the
bottom of the pipe should be determined by the space required for the proper and
effective use of tamping equipment, but it should never be less than pipe OD plus 20
in.
Over-excavation and Special Subgrade Densification
When required by the specification, the trench should be excavated to a depth of at
least 6 in. below the bottom of the pipe where the trench bottom is unstable, or where
it includes organic materials, or where the subgrade is composed of rock or other hard
and unyielding materials. The over-excavation should be replaced with well-densified
material to a depth of approximately 2 in. below the bottom of the pipe, and the
remaining subgrade should be completed with loose material, as shown in figures
below. Voids formed by the removal of boulders and other large interfering objects
extending below normal excavation limits should be refilled with material as described
above.
Densified Pipe Zone Bedding and Backfill

173
SMALL DAMS
Special Subgrade Densification

Notes to Figures
1. Soil densities are expressed as a percentage of maximum dry soil density as
determined by AASHTO T99 (Standard Proctor) or ASTM 0698.
2. Class C1, C2, and C3 backfills require that the contractor prepare a firm but yielding
subgrade.
3. Well-densified material shall conform to the following relative dry densities as a
percentage of the laboratory standard maximum dry soil density as determined by
AASHTO T99 for compacted, cohesive soils:
Specified Bedding Class Dry Density
C1 95%
C2 90%
C3 85%
For free-draining soils, the relative density shall be at least 70 percent as
determined by ASTEM 02049-69 (withdrawn, replaced by ASTM 04253-83 and
ASTM 4254-83).
4. Pipe zone backfill height over top of pipe (Ht) shall be 12 in. minimum for pipe
diameter larger than 24 in. and 6 in. minimum for pipe diameter 24 in. or less.
5. Side slopes shall be a minimum of ¾:1 or as specified, or as required by the Soils
Engineer.
6. Figures above represents Class C bedding as per ASCE Manual.
While handling and placing pipe in the trench, fabric slings should be used. The pipe
should not be dragged along the bottom of the trench or bumped. It should be
174
SMALL DAMS
supported by the sling while preparing to make the joint. The coating on the underside
of the pipe should be inspected while it is suspended from the sling, and any visible
damage to the coating should be repaired before lowering the pipe into the trench.
Pipe should be laid to lines and grades shown on the contract drawings and
specifications. All fittings and appurtenances should be at the required locations.
The pipe trench should be kept free from water that could impair the integrity of
bedding and joining operations. On grades exceeding 10 percent, the pipe should
be laid uphill or otherwise held in place by methods approved by the Engineer.
2. INSTALLATION OF PIPE
Handling and Laying
Care similar to that exercised during loading, transporting, unloading, and stringing
should be observed during installation of the pipe in the trench. Dielectrically coated
pipe may require additional special care when handled at temperatures below that
recommended by the manufacturer, or when the coating temperature is above that
recommended by the manufacturer.
Coated pipe should not be strung on rough ground when stored at the trench site, nor
should it be rolled on such a surface. Rolling of coated pipe should be permitted only
when joint ends are bare and rails are provided on which to roll the exposed steel.
175
SMALL DAMS
Appendix I: Thrust Restraint
Appendix I: Thrust Restraint

176
SMALL DAMS
Thrust Restraint
Thrust Forces
Thrust forces are unbalanced forces which occur in pressure pipelines at changes in
direction (such as in bends, wyes, tees, etc.), at changes in cross-sectional area (such
as in reducers), or at pipeline terminations (such as at bulkheads). These forces, if not
adequately restrained, tend to disengage joints. Thrust forces of primary importance
are: (1) hydrostatic thrust due to internal pressure of the pipeline, and (2)
hydrodynamic thrust due to changing momentum of flowing water. Since most water
lines operate at relatively low velocities, the dynamic force is insignificant and is
usually ignored when computing thrust.
A. Hydrostatic Thrust
Typical examples of hydrostatic thrust are shown in Figure below. The thrust in dead
ends, outlets, laterals, and reducers is a function of internal pressure, P, and cross-
sectional area, A, at the pipe joint. The resultant thrust at a bend is also a function of
the deflection angle, D, and is given by:
𝑇 = 2𝑃 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 (∆⁄2)
where: T = hydrostatic thrust, lbs.
P = internal pressure, psi
Δ = deflection angle of bend, deg.
A = (𝜋/4)𝐷2 = cross-sectional area of pipe O.D., sq. in.
Figure: Hydrostatic Thrust, T, for Typical Fittings

177
SMALL DAMS
B. Thrust Resistance
For buried pipelines, thrust resulting from angular deflections at standard and beveled
pipe with rubber gasket joints is resisted by dead weight or frictional drag of the pipe,
and additional restraint is usually not needed. Other fittings subjected to unbalanced
horizontal thrust have two inherent sources of resistance: (1) frictional drag from dead
weight of the fitting, earth cover, and contained water, and (2) passive resistance of
soil against the back of the fitting. If this type of resistance is not adequate to resist the
thrust involved, then it must be supplemented either by increasing frictional drag of the
line by “tying” adjacent pipe to the fitting or by increasing the supporting area on the
bearing side of the fitting with a thrust block. Unbalanced uplift thrust at a vertical
deflection is resisted by the dead weight of the fitting, earth, cover, and contained
water. If this type of resistance is not adequate to resist the thrust involved, then it
must be supplemented either by increasing the dead weight of the line by “tying”
adjacent pipe to the fitting or by increasing the dead weight with a gravity type thrust
block.
C. Thrust Blocks
Thrust blocks increase the ability of fittings to resist movement by increasing the
bearing area.
Thrust block size can be calculated based on the bearing capacity of the soil:
Area of Block = Lb x Hb = (T/)
where: L b x Hb = area of bearing surface of thrust block, sq. ft.
T = thrust force, lbs.
 = safe bearing value for soil, psf
Determining the safe bearing value, s, is the key to “sizing” a thrust block. Values can
vary from less than 1000 pounds per square foot for very soft soils to several tons per
square foot for solid rock. Knowledge of local soil conditions is necessary for proper
sizing of thrust blocks. Design of the block for a bottom bend is the same as for a
horizontal bend, but the block for a top bend must be sized to adequately resist the
vertical component of thrust with dead weight of the block, bend, water in the bend,
and overburden.
Uplift thrust restraint provided by gravity type thrust blocks for the top bend may also
be provided by the alternate method of increasing the dead weight of the line by tying
adjacent pipe to the vertical bend.
Most thrust block failures can be attributed to improper construction. Even a correctly
sized block can fail if it is not properly constructed. A block must be placed against
undisturbed soil and the face of the block must be perpendicular to the direction of and
centered on the line of action of the thrust.
D. Anchors and Thrust Blocks on Slopes
178
SMALL DAMS
Pipelines laid on slopes, particularly above ground, always have a tendency to creep
downhill. It is necessary to provide anchor blocks placed against undisturbed earth at
sufficiently frequent intervals on a long, steep slope to reduce the weight of pipe
supported at each anchorage to a figure. Where pipe is located in a position where
disturbance of the trench is unlikely, concrete thrust blocks may be used to resist the
lateral thrust. Vertical angles with resultant thrust in a downward direction require no
special treatment if the pipe is laid on a firm and carefully trimmed trench bottom, but
vertical angles with a resultant thrust upward should be properly anchored.
i
RIVER TRAINING AND FLOOD MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 179
2. CLASSIFICATION OF RIVERS ................................................................................. 179
2.1. Based on Flow........................................................................................................ 179
2.1.1. Perennial Rivers ................................................................................................. 179
2.1.2. Non-Perennial Rivers .......................................................................................... 179
2.1.3. Flashy Rivers or Hill Torrents .............................................................................. 179
2.1.4. Dry Rivers ........................................................................................................... 179
2.2. Classification Based on Topography and Ground Relief ......................................... 180
2.2.1. Mountainous Rivers ............................................................................................ 180
2.2.2. Sub-Mountainous Rivers ..................................................................................... 180
2.2.3. Alluvial Rivers ..................................................................................................... 181
2.2.3.1. Classification of Alluvial Rivers ........................................................................ 181
2.2.3.2. Classification Based on Channel Section and Plan ......................................... 181
2.2.3.3. Aggrading Type ............................................................................................... 182
2.2.3.4. Degrading Type ............................................................................................... 182
2.2.3.5. Straight Reach Rivers...................................................................................... 183
2.2.3.6. Tidal or Delta Rivers ........................................................................................ 183
2.2.3.7. Behavior of Alluvial Rivers ............................................................................... 183
2.2.3.8. Bends of Meanders in Alluvial Rivers .............................................................. 184
3. FLOOD PROTECTION, CONTAINING BUNDS / LEVEES ........................................ 185
3.1. Protection Levees ................................................................................................... 185
4. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FLOOD BUNDS / LEVEES .............................. 185
4.1. General .................................................................................................................. 185
4.2. Present Practice ..................................................................................................... 185
4.2.1. FFC Guidelines ................................................................................................... 185
4.3. Proposed Practice .................................................................................................. 186
4.3.1. Planning and Design of Flood Bunds .................................................................. 186
4.3.1.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 186
4.3.1.2. Planning .......................................................................................................... 186
4.3.1.3. Types of Flood Bunds...................................................................................... 187
4.3.1.3.1. Marginal Bunds ............................................................................................ 187
4.3.1.3.2. Bunds Protecting Strategic Locations .......................................................... 188
ii
4.3.1.3.3. Bunds along Open Rivers ............................................................................ 188

5. FAILURE OF FLOOD EMBANKMENTS .................................................................... 189
5.1. Overtopping ............................................................................................................ 189
5.2. Breaching ............................................................................................................... 190
5.3. Erosion ................................................................................................................... 190
5.4. Seepage through the embankment body ................................................................ 190
5.5. Foundation Failure ................................................................................................. 191
5.6. Seismic Events and Other Natural Elements .......................................................... 191
6. SEEPAGE CONTROL ............................................................................................... 191
6.1. Foundation Underseepage ..................................................................................... 191
6.1.1. General ............................................................................................................... 191
6.1.2. Cut offs ............................................................................................................... 192
6.1.3. Riverside Blankets .............................................................................................. 192
6.1.4. Land side Seepage Berms .................................................................................. 192
6.1.5. Types of seepage berms..................................................................................... 193
6.1.6. Pervious Toe Trench........................................................................................... 193
6.1.7. Pressure Relief Wells.......................................................................................... 194
6.1.8. Seepage through Embankments ......................................................................... 195
6.1.9. Pervious Toe Drain ............................................................................................. 195
6.1.10. Horizontal Drainage Layers ............................................................................. 196
6.1.11. Inclined Drainage Layers ................................................................................. 197
6.1.12. Design of Drainage Layers .............................................................................. 198
6.1.13. Compaction of Drainage Layers ...................................................................... 198
6.2. Design Process / Criteria ........................................................................................ 198
6.2.1. Freeboard ........................................................................................................... 198
6.2.2. Slope Stability ..................................................................................................... 200
6.2.3. Foundation Stability ............................................................................................ 204
6.2.4. Hydraulic Gradient .............................................................................................. 205
6.2.5. Protection of Upstream Slope ............................................................................. 208
6.2.6. Temporary (Limited Duration) Measures ............................................................. 208
6.2.6.1. Khaji Mats ....................................................................................................... 208
6.2.6.2. Fascine Covering ............................................................................................ 211
6.2.6.3. Pilchi Rolls ....................................................................................................... 211
6.2.6.4. Longitudinal Stakes and Bushing Protection.................................................... 211
6.2.6.5. Pilchi Pitching (Revetment) ............................................................................. 211
iii
6.2.7. Permanent Measures.......................................................................................... 212

6.2.7.1. Brick Pitching .................................................................................................. 212
6.2.7.2. Dumped Stone Rip–Rap.................................................................................. 212
6.2.7.3. Recommended Riprap Design Criteria ............................................................ 213
6.2.7.4. Hand placed Rip-Rap (Stone Pitching) ............................................................ 214
6.2.7.5. Soil Cement Cover .......................................................................................... 214
6.2.7.6. Cement Concrete Paving ................................................................................ 214
6.2.7.7. Asphaltic Concrete .......................................................................................... 214
6.2.7.8. Porous Concrete Slab ..................................................................................... 214
6.2.7.9. Protection Digest ............................................................................................. 215
6.3. Wetting Channels ................................................................................................... 215
7. BREACHING SECTIONS .......................................................................................... 217
7.1. Activation of Breaching Sections ............................................................................ 217
7.2. Critical Gauges ....................................................................................................... 218
8. BREACHES IN RIVER BUNDS AND HOW TO CLOSE THEM.................................. 219
8.1. Provinces Common Practice .................................................................................. 219
8.1.1. Causes of Breaches............................................................................................ 219
8.1.2. Immediate Action in the Event of a Breach ......................................................... 219
8.1.3. Preliminary Measures Necessary for Successful Closing of Breaches ................ 220
8.1.4. Improvement in Communications Required......................................................... 221
8.1.5. Earth Required.................................................................................................... 221
8.1.6. Definite Plan of Action Essential ......................................................................... 221
8.1.7. Closing process for a Large River Breach ........................................................... 222
8.1.8. International Practice .......................................................................................... 229
9. RIVER TRAINING WORKS........................................................................................ 229
10. RIVER DIVERSION AND DIVERSION BUNDS...................................................... 229
11. NATURAL AVULSION AND ASSISTED CUT-OFF ................................................ 231
11.1. Assisted Cut-off .................................................................................................. 231
11.2. Effects of Cut-off ................................................................................................. 231
12. FLOOD PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT ............................................................. 232
12.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 232
12.2. Occurrence of Floods.......................................................................................... 232
12.3. Formation of River Channel ................................................................................ 233
12.4. Watershed Characteristics .................................................................................. 234
12.5. Watershed Size .................................................................................................. 234
iv
12.6. Velley Storage and Dispersion ............................................................................ 234

12.7. Surface Runoff Volume ....................................................................................... 235
12.8. Streamflow Hydrograph ...................................................................................... 235
12.8.1. Complex Hydrographs ..................................................................................... 236
12.8.2. Effective Rainfall Hydrograph .......................................................................... 236
12.8.3. Unit Hydrograph .............................................................................................. 237
12.8.4. Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) .............................................................. 237
12.8.5. Application of Unit Hydrograph for Flood Management.................................... 237
12.8.6. Limitations of Unit Hydrograph Application ...................................................... 238
13. FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 238
13.1. CONCEPT OF PROBABILITY, P ........................................................................ 238
13.2. RETURN PERIOD, T .......................................................................................... 239
13.3. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION ........................................................................... 240
13.4. PEAK FLOOD ESTIMATION .............................................................................. 240
13.4.1. Rational Methods ............................................................................................ 240
13.5. ESTIMATION OF DESIGN DISCHARGE ........................................................... 241
13.6. FLOOD ROUTING .............................................................................................. 242
13.6.1. Methods of Flood Routing ............................................................................... 243
13.6.2. Flood Routing Through Reservoirs .................................................................. 243
13.6.3. Flood Routing Through River Channel and Flood Plains ................................. 245
13.6.4. Flood Routing Through Watershed Management ............................................ 245
14. WATER RESOURSES OF PUNJAB RIVERS ........................................................ 246
14.1. Indus Water Treaty ............................................................................................. 246
14.2. Control Points on Punjab Rivers ......................................................................... 246
14.2.1. River Indus ...................................................................................................... 246
14.2.1.1. Jinnah Barrage ................................................................................................ 246
14.2.1.2. Chashma Barrage ........................................................................................... 249
14.2.1.3. Taunsa Barrage............................................................................................... 250
14.2.2. River Jhelum ................................................................................................... 250
14.2.2.1. Mangla Dam .................................................................................................... 250
14.2.2.2. Rasul Barrage ................................................................................................. 251
14.2.3. River Chenab .................................................................................................. 252
14.2.3.1. Marala Barrage................................................................................................ 252
14.2.3.2. Khanki Barrage................................................................................................ 252
14.2.3.3. Qadirabad Barrage .......................................................................................... 252
v
14.2.3.4. Trimmu Barrage .............................................................................................. 253

14.2.3.5. Panjnad Barrage ............................................................................................. 253
14.2.4. River Ravi........................................................................................................ 253
14.2.4.1. Balloki Headworks ........................................................................................... 254
14.2.4.2. Sidhnai Barrage............................................................................................... 254
14.2.5. River Sutlej ...................................................................................................... 254
14.2.5.1. Sulemanki Headworks ..................................................................................... 254
14.2.5.2. Islam Headworks ............................................................................................. 255
15. FLOOD MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................ 255
15.1. Salient Features of Flood Management .............................................................. 255
15.2. Strategy of Flood Plain Development .................................................................. 255
15.3. Institutional Arrangement of Flood Management ................................................. 256
15.3.1. Soft Engineering/ Non- Structural Solution ...................................................... 256
15.3.1.1. Flood Forecasting............................................................................................ 256
15.3.1.2. Flood Routing and Prediction .......................................................................... 256
15.3.1.3. Mass Communication ...................................................................................... 256
15.3.1.4. Flood Relief ..................................................................................................... 257
15.3.1.5. Flood Risk Assessment ................................................................................... 257
15.3.2. Hard Engineering /Structural Solution.............................................................. 257
15.3.2.1. Short Term Solutions ....................................................................................... 257
15.3.2.2. Long Term Solutions ....................................................................................... 257
15.4. FLOOD CONTROL OPTIONS ............................................................................ 258
15.5. FLOOD PROTECTION AND CONTROL INFRASTRUCTURES ......................... 258
15.5.1. Flood Control by Flood Retaining Embankments and Reservoirs .................... 258
15.5.2. Alignment of Flood Retaining Embankment ..................................................... 259
15.5.3. Height of Flood Retaining Embankments......................................................... 259
15.5.4. Attenuation of Flood Height along Flood Retaining Embankment .................... 259
15.5.5. Spurs............................................................................................................... 260
15.5.6. The Negative side of Flood Embankments and spurs ...................................... 260
15.5.7. Flood Control by Storage of Flood Water......................................................... 260
15.5.8. Flood Control by Diversion and Dispersion of Flood Water .............................. 261
15.5.9. Flood Control by Increasing Discharging Capacity of River Reach .................. 262
15.5.10. Flood Management Role of Irrigation Department ........................................... 262
16. OUTLINE OF FLOOD FIGHTING PLAN................................................................. 262
16.1. Salient Feature of The Concerned Division ......................................................... 263
vi
16.2. Flood Protection and River Training Works ......................................................... 263

16.3. Brief History of Past Flood Events....................................................................... 263
16.4. Design Data ........................................................................................................ 263
16.5. Flood Fighting Strategy ....................................................................................... 263
16.6. Flood Fighting Arrangements .............................................................................. 263
16.7. Detail of Encroachments ..................................................................................... 264
16.8. Duty Roster/Flood Fighting Program ................................................................... 264
16.9. Training to Watching Establishment .................................................................... 264
16.10. Important Telephone Numbers ........................................................................... 264
16.11. Operation of Breaching Sections......................................................................... 264
16.12. Vulnerable Sites on Flood Bunds/Structures ....................................................... 265
16.13. Flood Preparedness............................................................................................ 265
16.14. Major Flood Management Challenges................................................................. 265
17. TIME LINE FOR FLOOD PREPAREDNESS .......................................................... 265
17.1. Flood Fighting Plan ............................................................................................. 266
17.2. Inspection of Flood Protection Works .................................................................. 266
17.3. Removal of Encroachments ................................................................................ 266
17.4. Replacement of Reserve Stock ........................................................................... 266
17.5. MISCELLANEOUS WORKS ............................................................................... 266
18. SAFETY EVALUATION AND EXPERT INSPECTIONS ......................................... 266
List of Tables
TABLE 1: VALUES OF RUNOFF COEFFICIENT ‘C’ ............................................................................ 241
TABLE 2: JINNAH BARRAGE’S DATA ........................................................................................................ 248
TABLE 3: CHASHMA BARRAGE’S DATA .................................................................................................... 249
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: SUB-MOUNTAINOUS RIVER ..................................................................................................... 180
FIGURE 2: AREAL CHANGE OF RIVER CHANNEL TYPES .............................................................................. 181
FIGURE 3:AGGRADING RIVER .............................................................................................................. 182
FIGURE 4: MEANDERS IN DELTA RIVER .................................................................................................... 183
FIGURE 5: PERMANENT BANKS ............................................................................................................... 184
FIGURE 6: EMBANKMENT WITH THROUGH SEEPAGE ................................................................................. 192
FIGURE 7: TYPICAL RELIEF WELL (AFTER EM-1110-2-1913).................................................................... 194
FIGURE 8: CUT-OFF WALL ...................................................................................................................... 195
FIGURE 9: PERVIOUS TOE DRAIN ............................................................................................................ 196
FIGURE 10: HORIZONTAL DRAINAGE LAYER ............................................................................................. 196
FIGURE 11A&B: INCLINED DRAINAGE LAYER ........................................................................................... 197
FIGURE 12: BUND WITH BACK BERM (PUSHTA) ........................................................................................ 206
FIGURE 13: SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES (TEMPORARY) ...................................................................... 209
vii
FIGURE 14: SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES (PERMANENT) ...................................................................... 210

FIGURE 15: PILCHI PITCHING .................................................................................................................. 211
FIGURE 16: W ETTING CHANNEL .............................................................................................................. 216
FIGURE 17: SINGLE/DOUBLE MUHARI...................................................................................................... 223
FIGURE 18: TYPICAL LAYOUT OF DIVERSION BUNDS AND CUNNETTE ......................................................... 230
FIGURE 19: STREAMFLOW HYDROGRAPH ............................................................................................... 236
FIGURE 20: TARBELA DAM ..................................................................................................................... 247
FIGURE 21: JINNAH BARRAGE ................................................................................................................ 247
FIGURE 22: MANGLA DAM ...................................................................................................................... 251
viii
179
1. INTRODUCTION
Rivers have played an important role in development of civilizations and their evolution
from early times till today. Most of the ancient civilizations had flourished along banks
of river Nile, Indus, Euphrates, Yangtze and many others. Besides serving as source
for food and water, these rivers have been providing important facilities for navigation,
fisheries and Irrigation. With ushering-in of industrial era, their importance increased
manifold. These are also vital for hydropower and recreation. Besides the tremendous
advantages, the rivers also have potential problems of floodings when these spill out
of their banks in to the flood plains and result in damages to infrastructures and
sometime loss of life and property. The floods also have long term beneficial effects
such as deposition of fertile soils in agriculture fields and recharge of ground water
reservoir. The floods are a resource of huge volume of water, if managed and
controlled can enhance quality of life and economic health.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF RIVERS
Rivers can be generally classified on the basis of flow and on the basis of topography
as described below:
2.1. Based on Flow
2.1.1. Perennial Rivers
These rivers flow the year round with seasonal fluctuations. The inflow to these rivers
is mainly derived from snow, glacier melt and rainfall in the catchment areas. In winter
season the river discharge decrease while high discharges are recorded in summer
season due to heavy rainfall. Punjab Rivers are of this type with high discharges due
to monsoon rains and a modest base flow of snowmelt and winter rains, in the
catchment. The Indus River and its tributaries are the main source of surface water in
Pakistan.
2.1.2. Non-Perennial Rivers
These rivers flow for a part of the year and are dry in the remaining part of the year.
These may or may not be snow fed but get their flow mostly from precipitations spread
over a part of the season. Rivers can be categorized as non- perennial type because
they are fed by Monsoon Rains during July to October.
2.1.3. Flashy Rivers or Hill Torrents
These Rivers usually originate from Rocky Mountains which get occasional heavy
rains bringing flash floods in torrents for a small period of time which can play havoc
while flooding. The Nullahs emanating from Hindu Kush Suleman, Salt and Kirther
range this category. The arid or semi-arid land at foot of the hills, gets its moisture
supply for crops of one season.
2.1.4. Dry Rivers
In Arid Regions and Deserts some low flow rivers may run completely dry due to
evaporation, and deep percolation. The flow just ceases to exist. Hakra River in
180
Cholistan Desert is one such example in Punjab. It used to carry the water of the Sutlej
in ancient times but is now dry.
2.2. Classification Based on Topography and Ground Relief
All the rivers in Punjab originate in mountainous regions of Karakorum Range and the
Himaliyas. In mountainous regions the rivers flow in gorges with much more depth
compared to width. As these rivers emerge in the plains, depth starts decreasing and
rivers become wider. The rivers can be classified in various reaches depending upon
topography and ground relief.
2.2.1. Mountainous Rivers
Rivers in mountainous reaches have deep cut channels with steep bed slopes and
very high velocity. The bed is rocky and is littered with boulders to granular pebbles
conglomerated in coarse aggregates. The river slope and bed is continuously in a
process of abrasion and grinding and boulders of assorted sizes are transported
downstream along with material eroded from watershed. The depth is typically greater
than width and is non uniform.
2.2.2. Sub-Mountainous Rivers
As the water moves further downstream, it enters into sections which are still steep
but have relatively gentle slope. The river slope and bed is made of smaller rocks,
pebbles, gravels, shingles and very coarse sand generally known as river run material.
Now the river has well• defined cross-section and a meandering trend with an incised
channel. The depth is still greater than width, but gradually adjusting in conformity with
available slope and sediment load as the stream is slowly transformed into a plain
alluvial river.
Figure 1: Sub-mountainous river

181
Figure 2: Areal change of river channel types

2.2.3. Alluvial Rivers
After sub-mountainous stage rivers enter into plains carrying coarse to medium sand
in upper reaches and medium to fine sand in lower reaches and are termed "Alluvial
Rivers". In Punjab most of the rivers are of this category. These rivers carry the eroded
soils, generally known as 'Alluvium'. The bank, bed and slopes of the 'Alluvial Rivers'
are made of the same material as transported by them i-e 'Alluvium'. The width is now
continuously getting larger than the depth. The river tends to split and join into two or
more channels. The cross-section of the river is dictated by discharge and sediment
load. Such rivers meander into sinusoidal loops forming bends and shoals. The rivers
have been changing their courses continuously since ancient times and all the flood
plains and lands are made by the rivers with eroded material brought by them. It is
true to say that all the fertile agriculture lands of Punjab along the rivers have been
created by made from spreading of the 'Alluvium' by the rivers. During High Floods
large areas of land around alluvial rivers are inundated and fertilized but erosion of the
banks and bed of the river is a consequential natural occurrence of fluvial
morphological process. The spreading floods are now contained by the construction
of flood protection embankments.
2.2.3.1. Classification of Alluvial Rivers
Alluvial rivers can therefore be classified as follows:
2.2.3.2. Classification Based on Channel Section and Plan
1. Incised Rivers
2. Braided Rivers
3. Spilling Rivers Covered in Chapter # 5 of
4. Meandering Rivers Volume-1 Section 5.16.10.1
5. Anna-branching or Anastomosed Rivers
182
2.2.3.3. Aggrading Type

Where the river is carrying excessive sediments and due to any of the following reason
it has to drop its load, the riverbed will be raised to a new slope:
• Sudden diminution of slope on plain
• A barrage or dam across it or any other obstructions which cause back water
affect and flattens the slope
• An advancing of delta at river outfall into sea
• Sudden addition of sediments from a tributary
Figure 3: Aggrading River

An aggrading river generally forms straight and wide channel with shoals within the
channel width, thereby dividing the flow which often results in a braided and intricately
woven system of channels.
2.2.3.4. Degrading Type
Where the river flows are such that the sediment charge is less than its load carrying
capacity, the water tends to pick up sediments by erosion of banks and degradation
of the river bed. The principal causes are:
• Sudden diminution of sediment load as it happens downstream of barrage or
dam
• Increase in flow gradient as a result of sudden lowering of water levels due to
development of a cut-off in a downstream meandering loop.
A stable river may develop into a degrading river temporarily where the river training
or bank protection is carried out to such an extent that bank erosion is virtually stopped.
Consequently, reduction in sediment load is made good by degradation. The
degrading type rivers tend to be shallow and braided if bank material is highly erodible
and tends to be deep and uniform if the bank material is resistant to erosion.
183
Of the three types mentioned above, meandering type is the final stage of river
development whereas the other two types are of interim nature. The meandering
patterns are not permanent to a river regime. However, there is definite regime of each
river reach due to the magnitude and variation of its discharge and sediment load and
composition of alluvial materials.
2.2.3.5. Straight Reach Rivers
In the straight reach of the river, the river channel is straight; usually this form is
situated in upper reaches of the alluvial river in a short length. The section of the
channel is in shape of a trough and maximum velocity of flow is in the middle of the
section. There could also be straight river reaches in between the meanders. In low
flows, sand bars can be seen located alternatively along the banks. The reach of Ravi
river in Sidhnai Barrage area is probably the only example in Punjab.
2.2.3.6. Tidal or Delta Rivers
Before discharging into the sea or lake, the rivers become highly braided. This activity
allows building up of deltas in between the branches. Near the river outfall, periodic
changes in water levels can occur due to tides, while the river continues to spread its
sediments load to convert swamps into delta. This lower part of the system is called a
Tidal River.
Figure 4: Meanders in delta river

2.2.3.7. Behavior of Alluvial Rivers
Most of the Punjab rivers are alluvial meandering rivers, the behavior of, which are
affected by the characteristics of the sediment-laden water that flows in the river
channel. The river tends to gain stability in available set of conditions till the time
manmade structures and/or natural causes disturb the equilibrium. The river then tries
its best to attain new equilibrium by scouring or deposition along bends.
184
Figure 5: Permanent banks

2.2.3.8. Bends of Meanders in Alluvial Rivers
Alluvial rivers in pursuit of stability have the tendency of moving in a sinusoidal pattern.
They divide into main channels and side channels tend to develop bends which are
characterized by scouring at concave (outer) side and deposition at convex side
(inner) Because flow takes place in curvilinear path; upper layers of water move to
outer (concave) side and lower layers move towards inner (convex) side of the curve
due to centrifugal forces caused by transverse slope due to super elevation.
As a result, bottom layers having heavier bed material move from concave bank to the
convex bank deposit towards convex bank. Conversely, the upper layers with less
sediments dive in to induce scour at concave bank.
185
3. FLOOD PROTECTION, CONTAINING BUNDS / LEVEES

Flood bunds are man-made structures, usually earthen embankments designed and
constructed to contain, or control the flow of water so as to provide protection from
inundation and are considered to act as a barrier between flood water and protected
area. Flood bunds provide only a reduction in risk of flooding and cannot be expected
to afford total protection with zero flood risk. It can therefore be said that bunds provide
protection with some risk, the extent of risk varying with prevailing site conditions, in
respect of levee health (flood worthiness) and flow conditions.
3.1. Protection Levees
Given the fact that no bund/levee can provide full 100% protection, the level of
anticipated protection is decided keeping the availability of resources and flood
magnitude in view:
Presently the flood bunds in vulnerable reaches are designed for a return period of 50
years, while the guide and marginal bunds of barrages are designed to provide
protection against floods of 100 years return period.
• In the recent past the design of flood bunds on natural streams corresponded
to a return period of 40 years.
• On hill torrents with flash flows a return period of 25 years was used.
• Due to socio-economic environmental scenarios and improvement in design
methods now the flood protection bunds are being designed for a 50 year flood.
• This level of protection may further be increased to design against 100 and 200
year flood due to further developments and industrialization and climate change
effects in the vicinity of flood bunds.However, the present practice of providing
a freeboard of 6 ft. above the highest recorded flood levels adequately covers
this return period for open reaches.
4. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF FLOOD BUNDS / LEVEES
4.1. General
The design and construction of flood bunds have to be regulated to create real flood
worthy structures. The methodologies followed in Pakistan are introduced in the
following:
4.2. Present Practice
The Federal Flood Commission generally regulates the design of flood bunds in the
country. Punjab, KPK and Balochistan provinces follow the FFC guidelines while Sindh
supplement with the guidelines of its own Indus River Commission laid down in the
Sindh Bund Manual.
4.2.1. FFC Guidelines
The FFC after necessary deliberations have prescribed that the flood bunds design
should follow the parameters as given below.
The flood bunds have been categorized as:
186
(A) Bund without wetting channels should satisfy

Top width = 25 ft
Side shops = River side – 3:1
Land side – 2:1
Freeboard – 6.0 ft over the highest recorded flood levels.
(B) Bund with wetting channels
Top width = 20 ft
Side slopes = River side – 3:1
Land side – 2:1
Freeboard – 6.0 ft above the highest recorded flood levels.
Top width of wetting channel bank = 3.0 ft
Freeboard – 3.0 ft above highest recorded flood levels.
Side slopes – 3:1 both side
4.3. Proposed Practice
4.3.1. Planning and Design of Flood Bunds
4.3.1.1. Introduction
Flood protection by means of Bunds is the common and the oldest practice followed
in Pakistan. Historically, it may be said that in the olden days, the population grew
along the banks of rivers and for their livelihood they used the flood plains for growing
food crops. This led to the growth of cities and towns in the flood plains. In order to
protect their land and dwelling, people started construction of bunds locally. The
development of the concept of `state` and the growth of civilization gave further
impetus to the construction of bunds for providing protection in longer stretches along
the banks but for a considerable time these levees were constructed by private
agencies aided by the local people. It was only 200 years back that the construction
of such bunds was taken over by the Government and now the construction is carried
out in a proper and planned manner. Flood bunds popularly known as `flood protection
bunds in Pakistan, have been constructed at vulnerable places along the banks of
rivers in the Punjab province, and all along both the banks of Indus river from the
provincial border to its outfall into sea, in the province of Sindh.
4.3.1.2. Planning
I. Topographic Surveys
Topographic survey in the area proposed for construction of the bund should
be carried to facilitate identification of bund alignment.
II. Alignment
The alignment of a flood bund should optimally address the following:
1) Follow the ridge (high contour line) to the possible extent.
2) Avoid as far as possible weak foundation areas.
187
3) Keep the bund at an optimal distance from the active river channels. In
addition to technical conditions, the socio – economic political conditions
have to be negotiated with.
4) Both anchor points should be at a safe elevation.
5) Ensure protection of the important salient intended to provide protection.
6) Avoid tortuous routes and sharp curves / bends.
7) Neighbourhood of villages should be avoided, if possible as their
proximity generally entails heavy trespass.
III. Investigations
A) Geotechnical investigations to identify the formation soil characteristics
and soil category available along the bund alignment should be carried
out comprising:
a. Grain size analysis
b. Atterberg limits
c. Permeability
d. Soil classification
e. Bulk density
f. Compressive strength
g. Shear strength
B) Geophysical investigations
a. Electrical resistivity profiling will reveal soil stratification.
b. Ground penetrating radar can be used to determine cavities, weak
soil strata and buried objects.
4.3.1.3. Types of Flood Bunds
1. Marginal Bunds
2. Bunds Protecting Strategic locations
3. Bunds along open reaches of the rivers
4.3.1.3.1. Marginal Bunds
Marginal Bunds (or afflux embankments) are provided to contain river spill generated
by raising of water levels at the barrage, bridge or syphon. Due to backwater effect the
marginal bunds could extend up to 12 – 13 miles upstream of a structure depending
upon channel slope and afflux imposed.
The basic design parameters currently prescribed for Marginal Bunds in the Punjab by
FFC are as under:
• Crest width = 25 ft
• Riverside slope earthen = 3:1
• Riverside slope protected = 2:1
188
• Land side slope = 2:1

• Free board above HFL = 6.0 ft above HFL
The cross-section will be designed to satisfy hydraulic gradient of 6:1 for common
material at the designed HFL. The hydraulic gradient line should remain a minimum of
2.0 ft below NSL at land side toe of the embankment in original soil or 4 ft in made up
soil.
A 6" thick compacted gravel and sand surfacing will be placed on crest for protection
against flood water spray, rain runoff and traffic wear and tear.
The design parameters of Marginal Bunds were prescribed by FFC about 40 years
ago and have not been revised ever since. The parameters were based empirical
thoughts on empirical relationship (Rule of the Thumb). The following parameters are
recommended to be adopted.
• Crest Width = 30 ft
• Riverside slope (earthen) = 4:1
• Riverside slope (protected) = 3:1
• Freeboard = (7.0 ft or as determined by analytical analysis
whichever is greater)
4.3.1.3.2. Bunds Protecting Strategic Locations
Exiting Parameters
• Crest width = 25.0 ft
• Freeboard = 6.0 above HFL
Design parameters as recommended for Marginal Bunds are recommended to be
adopted for such bunds.
4.3.1.3.3. Bunds along Open Rivers
The existing parameters as prescribed by FFC for bunds along open rivers are:
• Freeboard = 6.0 above HFL
The following design parameters are recommended to be adopted for such type of
bunds.
189

• Freeboard = (6.0 ft or as determined by analytical
analysis)
5. FAILURE OF FLOOD EMBANKMENTS
Flood protection embankments fail in the following ways;
a) Overtopping
b) Erosion due to current attack and wave lash
c) Seepage through the body
d) Foundation failure
e) Unforeseen events / accidents like earthquakes / seismic events, hurricanes
and sabotage etc
5.1. Overtopping
Overtopping is the phenomenon where in the flood waters flow over the crest / top of
the embankment damaging first the downstream slope and then the main body.
The overtopping phenomenon is the result of an inadequate design. This type occurs
mostly on coastal embankments, like the New Orleans coastal protection levees in
Louisiana State of USA, coastal protections in Netherlands and Tori Bund in Sindh
province during floods of 2010.
Overtopping is one of the major causes of failure of an embankment. It occurs when
the embankment is overtopped due to higher than design discharge or higher flood
levels. The embankment works like a drop and the high velocity thus generated erode
the downstream slope resulting in accelerated failure of the embankment. Only a very
serious in time flood fighting effort can save the breach. It happens owing to the
following:
• Inadequacy of design parameters
• Flood of higher magnitude than design flood is experienced
• Flood heights are increased due to change in river morphology
• Wind generated waves heighten the flood levels
• The embankment subsides due to foundation failure
• The embankment subsides due to prolonged saturation.
• Seismic effects and liquefaction of soil.
• Local obstruction in the vicinity of embankment
• Poor maintenance
There are two remedial options:
• Lower the flood levels
190
• Provide adequate freeboard to mitigate the rise in flood levels and wave ride
The first option is in fact impossible and goes out of reckoning, leaving only the second
option of providing adequate effective freeboard which is recommended.
5.2. Breaching
The breaching is the most common cause for failure of embankments. A breach occurs
when a bund/embankment gives way to water at a certain location and flood water
gushes out towards the protected flood plain through the opening caused by the
breach which widens to a greater width depending upon head across and vulnerability
of soil against erosion. Breaches generally occur gradually and develop into a full
breach with time. Nevertheless breaches can develop suddenly due to poor soil
conditions, porosity, intensity of rodent activities and poorer maintenance.
Following are major causes of breaching:
• All possibilities of overtopping listed above
• Inadequate downstream slopes not covering hydraulic gradient line
• Piping action through foundation
• Movement of fine materials through boils
• Solutioning of soluble materials under saturated embankment conditions
• Erosion by river action and scour
• Erosion by wind generated waves and hydraulic pressures
• Ground shaking due to seismic activities resulting in slicing and slumping
• Runnels and runners caused by rodents like porcupines, rats, ants, jackals, etc.
• Long rooted trees and old tree roots can give rise to runnels, when they die and
rot
• Tresspassing or vandalism
• Sloughing and ravines caused by heavy rains
• Encroachments of downstream slopes
• Cracking of poor quality of soil due to freezing and thawing/. temperature
change affect
5.3. Erosion
Erosion of embankment body can be caused by direct attack of river currents or waves
generated in medium depth ponds / water bodies enclosed by levees. This is a
common mode of damage to flood bunds in most of the national and international
locations.
Mitigation measures are:
i. Robust design and construction
ii. Strengthening the weak / inadequately strong reaches
iii. Providing erosion protection interventions like stone pitching, mattresses,
studs, spurs etc.
5.4. Seepage through the embankment body
191
There are several causes for this phenomenon, but the major ones are;
i. Exposure of phreatic line
ii. Cavities due to solutioning / subsidence of plastic strata
iii. Cavities caused by rodents through burrow holes
iv. Runnels caused through decay of dead roots of trees and other growth
v. Deep ravines formed by torrential rains
There are several remedies for each type, details of which appear in the following
paragraphs.
5.5. Foundation Failure
Foundation failure occurs at high flood depths in locations where the flood bund body
rests on highly permeable alluvium like coarse sand / quick sand / plastic strata.
The remedial measures comprise, replacement of foundation soil, reworking of
foundation soil, or providing an impermeable curtain in the embankment to cover
foundation weakness.
5.6. Seismic Events and Other Natural Elements
Seismic events and other natural elements like storms and hurricanes occur without
warning and solutions are good design and operational efforts. Such events occur all
over the World.
6. SEEPAGE CONTROL
6.1. Foundation Underseepage
6.1.1. General
Without control the underseepage in pervious foundations beneath bunds may result
in:
a) Excessive pressure beneath an impervious top stratum on the land side
b) Sand boils
c) Piping beneath the bund
Underseepage problems are most acute where a pervious substratum underlies a
bund and extend both riverside and landside of the bund. Principal seepage control
measures for foundation underseepage are:
i) Cut off trenches
ii) River side impervious blankets
iii) Land side seepage berms
iv) Pervious toe trenches
v) Pressure relief wells.
192
Figure 6: Embankment with through seepage

6.1.2. Cut offs
A cut off beneath a bund to block seepage through pervious foundation strata is the
most positive means of eliminating seepage problems. Positive cut offs may consist
of excavated trenches back filled with compacted earth usually located near the
riverside toe. Since the cut off to be effective must penetrate 95% or more of thickness
of pervious strata; it is not economically feasible to construct cut offs where pervious
strata are of considerable thickness.
6.1.3. Riverside Blankets
Bunds are frequently seated on foundations having natural covers of relatively fine
grained impervious to semi impervious soils overlying pervious sands or gravels. The
surface strata constitutes impervious or semi impervious blankets when considered in
connection with seepage control. If these blankets are continuous and extend inward
for a considerable distance they can effectively reduce seepage flow and seepage
pressure on the land side of the bund.
6.1.4. Land side Seepage Berms
If uplift pressure in pervious deposits underlying an impervious top stratum landward
of a bund becomes greater that the effective weight of top stratum heaving and
rupturing of top stratum may occur resulting in sand boils. The construction of land
side berms can eliminate this hazard by providing:
193
a) the additional weight needed to counteract these upward seepage forces and
b) the additional length required to reduce the uplift pressure at the toe of the berm
to tolerable values
Seepage berms may reinforce an existing impervious or semi impervious top stratum
or if none exists be placed directly on pervious deposits.
6.1.5. Types of seepage berms
Four types of seepage berms have been used, with selection based on available fill
materials, space available landside of the levee proper and relative costs.
1. Impervious berms. A berm constructed of impervious soils restricts the
pressure relief that would otherwise occur from seepage flow through the
top stratum, and consequently increases uplift pressures beneath the top
stratum. However, the berm can be constructed to the thickness necessary
to provide an adequate factor of safety against uplift.
2. Semi-impervious berms. Semi-impervious material used in constructing this
type of berm should have an in-place permeability equal to or greater than
that of the top stratum. In this type of berm, some seepage will pass through
the berm and emerge on its surface. However, since the presence of this
berm creates additional resistance to flow, subsurface pressures at the
levee toe will be increased.
3. Sand berms. While a sand berm will offer less resistance to flow than a
semi-impervious berm, it may also cause an increase in substratum
pressures at the levee toe if it does not have the capacity to conduct
seepage flow landward without excessive internal head losses. Material
used in a sand berm should be as pervious as possible, with a minimum
permeability of 100 x 10-4 cm per sec. Sand berms require less material
and occupy less space than impervious or semi-impervious berms providing
the same degree of protection.
4. Free-draining berms. A free-draining berm is one composed of random fill
overlying horizontal sand and gravel drainage layers (with a terminal
perforated collector pipe system), designed by the same methods used for
drainage layers in dams. Although the free-draining berm can afford
protection against under seepage pressures with less length and thickness
than the other types of seepage berms, its cost is generally much greater
than the other types, and thus it is rarely specified.
6.1.6. Pervious Toe Trench
Where a levee is situated on deposits of pervious material overlain by little or no
impervious material, a partially penetrating toe trench, can improve seepage
conditions at or near the levee toe. Where the pervious stratum is thick, a drainage
trench of any practicable depth would attract only a small portion of the seepage flow
and detrimental under seepage would bypass the trench. Consequently, the main use
194
of a pervious toe trench is to control shallow underseepage and protect the area in the
vicinity of the levee toe.
6.1.7. Pressure Relief Wells
Pressure relief wells may be installed along the land side of bunds to reduce uplift
pressure which may otherwise cause sand boils and piping of foundation material.
Wells accomplish this by intercepting and providing controlled outlets for seepage that
would otherwise emerge uncontrolled land side of the bund. Pressure relief wells are
used where pervious strata under a bund are too deep or too thick to be penetrated
by cut off or toe drains.
Figure 7: Typical relief well (after EM-1110-2-1913)

195
6.1.8. Seepage through Embankments

Should through seepage in an embankment emerge on the landside slope, it can
soften fine grained fill in the vicinity of the landside toe, cause sloughing of the slope,
or even lead to piping (internal erosion) of fine sand or silt materials. Seepage exiting
on the landside slope would also result in high seepage forces, decreasing the stability
of the slope. In many cases, high water stages do not act against the levee long
enough for this to happen, but the possibility of a combination of high water and a
period of heavy precipitation may bring this about. If landside stability berms or berms
to control under seepage are required because of foundation conditions, they may be
all that is necessary to prevent seepage emergence on the slope. On the other hand,
if no berms are needed, landside slopes are steep, and flood stage durations and other
pertinent considerations indicate a potential problem of seepage emergence on the
slope, provisions should be incorporated in the levee section such as an impervious
cut-off of concrete or masonry horizontal (also called a diaphragm well) and/or inclined
drainage layers or toe drains to prevent seepage from emerging on the landside slope.
(Figure 8)
Figure 8: Cut-off wall

6.1.9. Pervious Toe Drain
A pervious drain will provide a ready exit for seepage through the bund and can lower
the phreatic surface sufficiently so that no seepage will emerge on the land side slope.
A pervious toe can also be combined with partially penetrating toe trenches. (Figure 9).
196
Figure 9: Pervious toe drain

6.1.10. Horizontal Drainage Layers
Horizontal drainage layers serve the same purpose as a pervious toe but are
advantageous in that they can extend further under the bund requiring a relatively
small amount of additional material. They can also serve to protect the base of the
bund against uplift pressures where shallow foundation under seepage is occurring.
(Figure 10)
Figure 10: Horizontal drainage layer

197
6.1.11. Inclined Drainage Layers

An inclined drainage layer is one of the most positive means of controlling internal
seepage and is used extensively in earth dams. It is rarely used in bund construction
because of added cost but might be justified for short bund reaches in important
locations where land side slopes may be steep and other control measures are not
considered adequate and bund will have high water against it for prolonged periods.
(Figure 11A&B)
Figure 11A&B: Inclined drainage layer

198
6.1.12. Design of Drainage Layers

The design of pervious toe drains and horizontal and inclined drainage layers must
ensure that such drains have adequate thickness and permeability to transmit
seepage without any appreciable head loss while at the same time preventing
migration of finer soil particles.
6.1.13. Compaction of Drainage Layers
Placement and compaction of drainage layers must ensure that adequate density is
attained, but should not allow segregation and contamination to occur. Vibratory
rollers are probably the best type of equipment for compaction of cohesionless
material although crawler tractors and rubber-tired rollers have also been used
successfully. Saturation or flooding of material as the roller passes over it will aid in
the compaction process and in some cases has been the only way specified densities
could be attained. Care must always be taken to not over compact to prevent
breakdown of material or lowering of expected permeabilities.
6.2. Design Process / Criteria
6.2.1. Freeboard
In the design of water containing structures the crest of the embankment is to be kept
higher than the level of water to be contained. This margin is necessary for safety
against overtopping due to rise in water levels on account of disturbances in water
from breaking waves and wind set-up in river ponds. At river curves the river set (or
super elevation) also needs consideration. Where river bed accretion is regular due to
sediment deposition (like in the lower reaches of Indus River) the design flood level is
established by adding two feet to the recorded high flood level. For other cases some
small freeboard margin is also necessary for contigent requirement as factor of safety.
Zaidi has recommended the following formulae for calculating the wave run-up, wind
set-up and river set:
a) Wave Run-Up (or Ride)
The run-up (or ride) of a breaking wave in shallow water measured vertically above
the mean water surface level can be estimated by Hunt formula:
R K tan α
=
H (8 / T )(H / 2 g )1 / 2
Where:
R = wave run-up (or ride) (ft.)
H = wave height (ft.)
K = surface roughness coefficient for the embankment slope (ft.)
= 2.3 ft. for smooth surface
= 1.8 ft. for earthen surface
T = wave period (s)
α = embankment slope angle with horizontal (degree)
g = acceleration of gravity (ft./s2)
199
b) Wind Set-Up
An appreciable rise in water level may be caused on one slope of reservoir or pond
by wind action, particularly in shallow water. The wind set-up can be estimated by Zui-
Der-Zee formula:
U 2F
S= Cosθ
1400 D
Where:
S = set-up above still pond level (ft.)
U = wind velocity (mile/hour)
F = fetch (mile)
D = average water depth (ft.)
θ = angle of fetch and wind (degree)
For combined effect of wind set-up and storm wave the total rise in water level is equal
to wind set-up plus two third of wave run-up.
c) River Set
At curves the deepest point of the river cross-section is near the concave (or outer)
bank and the water surface there is higher than at the convex (or inner) bank. The
“river set” may cause a super elevation of the water surface at the concave (or outer)
bank and this can be estimated by Schoklitsch formula:
V2 R2
h = 2.3 . log
g R1
Where:
h = river set (ft.)
V = average velocity at the upstream straight reach (ft/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (ft./s²)
R1 = radius of curvature of convex (or inner) bank (ft.)
R2 = radius of curvature of concave (or outer) bank (ft.)
The “Government of Sind Bund Manual” (Ref: 3.6) indicates that “river set” may cause
a rise of the water surface at the concave (or outer) bank as much as 2.0 feet (0.6 m).
d) Recommended Freeboard
Sufficient freeboard should be provided above the design flood level for safety against
overtopping. For arriving at appropriate freeboard, the design flood level, the wave
run-up, wind set-up and river set be calculated. These figures should be added
accordingly and one foot additional freeboard be provided for contingent requirement
as factor of safety.
200
The ultimate foundation and fill settlement will be neglected against one foot
contingent provision.
By keeping in view the current local practices on freeboard for the typical flood
protection structures, influenced by different hydraulic conditions and design wind
velocity over land (U land ) assumed as minimum 50 miles/hour (80 km/hour), the
recommended minimum freeboard provisions for various types of flood protection
bunds are listed in the following table:
Recommended
Flood Protection
Hydraulic/ Wind Conditions Minimum Freeboard
Structure
(ft.)*
CONTAINING
STRUCTURES
Flood Bunds in open Current flow, sediment 6.0 (1.8 m)

reaches deposition, wave run-up and
wind set-up
Retired Bunds
Current flow
5.0 (1.5 m)
Marginal bunds (at
barrages, bridges and Current flow, sediment
syphons) 7.0 (2.0 m)
deposition, wave run-up and
wind set-up
(*) The recommended minimum freeboard values include one foot additional freeboard
for contingent requirement as factor of safety.
Sample calculations for determination of freeboard and design of stone protection on
or embankment are placed at Annexure-B.
6.2.2. Slope Stability
The slopes of the embankment must be stable under all conditions of construction,
design flood discharge, rapid flood draw-down, low flow level and earthquake forces.
The stability depends on the strength of the fill soil and foundation characteristics.
Similarly, the river banks needing protection will be designed for stable slopes.
Slope stability analysis requires a comparison between the state of stress in the soil
and soil shear strength along an assumed failure plane. The detailed slope stability
201
analysis will be carried out according to Method of Slices, by using Simplified Bishop
Method with computer package. The needed information will include the:
• Geometry of embankment
• Soil properties
• Design flood level and low water level of the river
• Phreatic line and pore water pressure
• Surcharge on the embankment
• Earthquake loads
a) Geometry of Embankment
The calculations will be carried out according to the typical cross-section of the
embankment for two different scanrios.
• The river-bed stone apron is intact and taken into account
• The scour of the river bed is modelled with assumed fully launched stone apron
b) Soil Properties
The following soil parameters will be derived from laboratory tests:
• Bulk density.
• Saturated density.
• Cohesion “c”
• Angle of internal friction “”
• Unconfined shear strength
• Permeability “k”
c) River Flow Levels
The design flood level and low flow level of the river will be established for the
particular embankment site to determine the phreatic line (high flood condition) and
subsequent draw-down (low flow condition).
d) Phreatic Line and Pore Water Pressure
i. Phreatic Line
In homogenous (isotropic) soils, the phreatic line is independent of fill material
properties and depends solely upon the geometry of and differential head across the
embankment. However, in case of more permeable fill material it will take less time to
develop as compared to materials having less permeability. The position of emergence
of phreatic line on landside slope is not influenced by the permeability of the
homogeneous fill material. The less pervious material will take longer to attain the
steady state position, but the ultimate position of the phreatic line in all cases will be
the same. Location of the phreatic line (or hydraulic gradient ) in the embankment will
be determined for the relevant seepage condition at the design flood level, by using
Casagrande’s Solution. The two Casagrande equations are:
202
S = h2 + d 2
a = d 2 + h 2 − d 2 − h 2 cot 2 α
Where:
S = length of parabolic line of seepage ( or phreatic line ) from riverside water
entrance point to the toe of landside slope (ft)
h = design flood depth on riverside slope (ft)
d = horizontal distance from riverside water entrance
point to the toe of landside slope (ft)
α = landside slope angle with horizontal (degree )
a = length of surface of seepage upward from the toe landside slope (ft)
The phreatic line will be taken as boundary between the below saturated and above
dry embankment soil properties for use in the stability analysis of side slopes.
ii. Pore Water Pressure
Pore pressure ratio (ru),which is defined as the ratio of pore water pressure to vertical
load at the base of each slice, will be used for the slip circles analysis for all given
conditions except for riverside slope at flood draw-down condition. For this condition
only pore water pressure will be used. The pore water pressure equation is:
u = r u .γ.h
Where:
u = pore water pressure
ru = pore pressure ratio
γ = total unit weight of soil (dry weight above phreatic line and saturated
weight below phreatic line)
h = depth of soil from top surface
The Simplified Bishop Method computer package will facilitate the pore pressure ratio.
For draw-down condition analysis the pore water pressure will be determined by the
above equation and utilized for determining the pore water pressure conditions. For
common soils the value of “ru” ranges between 0.3 and 0.1
e) Surcharge
A surcharge of 200 lbs. per ft2 (975 kg/m2) on the top surface of embankment will be
applied for stability analysis.
f) Earthquake Load
The acceleration due to earthquake will be adopted on the basis of fifty percent (50%)
reduction for the horizontal and vertical components for the pseudostatic method
calculations. For example the effect of a maximum ground acceleration (in central
Punjab area) due to an Open Basis Earthquake (OBE) of 0.12g (pseudostatic) in the
free field will be taken for the stability analysis. Thus on the basis of 0.12g OBE and
fifty percent (50%) reduction in accelerations the earthquake loads adopted in analysis
will be:
203
Horizontal acceleration = 0.06g

Vertical acceleration = 0.03g
These earthquake forces will act at the center of gravity of the slice.
For OBE values no major damages may be expected for the hydraulic structures in
general. The OBE values for particular scheme will be adopted on the basis of specific
related earthquake zone criterion.
g) Critical Conditions for Stability Analysis
The stability analysis of the embankment will be carried out by using laboratory test
values and characteristics of selected materials for determining the “Safety Factors”
under critical conditions relating to the various parameters under design requirements.
The recommended minimum safety factors against shear failures are given in the table
below:
Minimum Safety Factor
Condition Without With
Earthquake Earthquake
During and end of construction 1.4 1.2
Rapid river draw-down 1.3 1.1
River low flow level 1.2 1.0
Design flood 1.5 1.2
For overall stability of the embankment, during construction stage and under different
river flood levels, the proposed slopes of the embankment will be analysed for the
stability under the following three loading conditions:
• Gravity
• Seepage (or pore water pressure)
• Earthquake
The potential failure surfaces will be analysed for the following four critical conditions
against the pore water pressure by considering gravitational loading with and without
earthquake:
• End of construction
• Design flood level with steady seepage
• Flood draw-down
• Assuming fully launched stone apron
The assumptions for the development of pore water pressures for the four conditions
are:
i. End of Construction
For the end construction condition, full pore water pressure will be considered for the
embankment fill.
204
ii. Design Flood Level with Steady Seepage

The critical condition for the landside slope will occur from the water seepage through
the embankment when high river discharges have continued for a sufficient period.
The pore water pressure development will be calculated with respect to phreatic line
within the embankment at design flood level (DFL) and with nil water level on the
landside. For this condition the stability at the landside slope will be checked for steady
seepage.
iii. Flood Draw-down
The critical condition for the riverside slope will occur as the DFL is down to the low
flow level during the flood season having high saturation level at the embankment (i.e.
close to DFL)
iv. Assuming Fully Launched Stone Apron
The applied condition will be same as item ( c ) above.
The complete slope stability analysis of embankment will cover the different cases
using various combinations of data input.
6.2.3. Foundation Stability
The stable side slopes of embankment depends upon the strength of the fill material
and foundation characteristics. The foundation soil determines the rate of under
seepage, formation of boils on the landside natural surface, the settlement of the
embankment and stability of side slopes. Detailed subsurface investigations will be
needed for proper foundation evaluation. If required, the particular foundation will be
treated for its strengthening / protection by developing specific design to suit the site
conditions. These specific designs may include:
• Reworking of the foundation soil
• Grouting of the armoured river bed to the required extent
• Inverted filter or geo-textile layer at the foundation of revetment / gabion
hydraulic structure
• Where required, provision of a suitable cut-off
Distribution of foundation pressures will also be checked against the bearing
resistance of formation soils.
The foundation investigations will be planned to provide information about the type
and nature of the materials in the river bed, the depth and extent of possible
openwork/surface armoured layers in the formations and rock level below the alluvium.
These investigations will include possible drilling, excavation of test pits, trenches and
field and laboratory testing.
As a general rule the extent and depth of investigation depends upon the importance
and height of embankment above the river bed level. It will be desired that a subsoil
depth equal to about the proposed height of embankment should be investigated
through test pits and boreholes. Investigations in the river bed will be confined to
205
periods of low river flows when the drilling and other auxiliary equipment could be
mobilized and deployed in the river bed. The investigation will essentially provide the
following information:
• Material type and zoning
• Permeability of river bed material
• In-situ density
• Hardness of cobles and boulders
• Bearing pressure capacity
6.2.4. Hydraulic Gradient
When water flows along flood embankment, the water seeps into the embankment soil
from river side towards the country side. It is a line which demarcates the saturated
soil zone with the dry zone of the embankment. The profile of this saturation line is
called Hydraulic Grade line (HGL) or Phreatic Line. This line is a flat parabola in nature.
but for practical purposes it is taken as straight line. The slope of hydraulic grade line
depends on the type of soil of the embankment. The cohesive soils offer more
resistance to flow, hence the line is steeper while in the non-cohesive soils, it is flatter.
Usually a gradient of 1V:6 H is taken in well graded loamy soil. The HGL can however
be measured by installation of small stand-pipes of say 2 inches (5 cm) diameter
installed at different locations across the embankment. The water levels thus observed
will plot the HGL. Typical values of hydraulic gradients for different soils are listed in
the following table:
Type of Soil HGL Slope Hydraulic
Gradient (H:V)
Clay 4:1
Clayey Loam 6:1
Sandy Loam 5:1
Silty Loam 6:1
Fine Sand 8:1
Coarse Sand 10:1
For safety of embankments HGL should have enough cover of soil over it so that it is
not exposed in any conditions of rain cut and soil erosion or poor maintenance. The
bad, erodible alkaline, and sodic soils should have bigger factor of safety. The Exit
Gradient along the base of the embankment shall also be covered by increasing base
width or providing a foundation cutoff/key.
After the size of flood embankment has been established with a given top width and
side slope, the existing practice is to test the cross-section against hydraulic gradient
and if found necessary, back berm (or pushta) is provided to keep the hydraulic
gradient within the cross-section. The hydraulic gradient is an assumed line of
saturation in the embankment body. Normally, for common soils (natural deposits) it
206
is assumed as 6:1 and it should lie at least 2 ft below NSL at the toe of the bund. A
minimum cover of 4 ft is provided above hydraulic grade line if it exits on the landside
in made up soils (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Bund with back berm (Pushta)

The present practice of providing pushta on landside, however, does not adequately
solve the problem of seepage flow through embankments placed on pervious
foundation. Such provisions are only advisable where the duration of steady flood level
against the embankment is not more than the period of saturation required for the
cross-section with respect to the permeability of the fill material. Cases where duration
of flood water standing against an embankment is more than the required period of
saturation the provision of pushta will simply increase the period to a limited extent
and does not ensure safety of the structure against piping. The position becomes more
grave when the foundation of embankment is impervious. In such cases adequate
provision for drainage is necessary for the safety of embankment. For embankments
that remain in contact with flood water for a prolonged period, the phreatic line will be
established for designing of the embankment to the phreatic line concept.
Based on the above discussion the embankments will be divided in the following two
categories:
• Embankments which come in contact with the flood water for short duration.
• Embankments which remain in contact with the flood water for long periods.
207
For the first category, it is recommended to design the embankments on the basis of
hydraulic gradient line as per current practices. The second category of embankments
will be designed by ensuring stability of slopes and preventing their failure through
piping.
When fill material of the embankment is not sufficiently homogeneous the flood water
may reach the landside slope with a sufficient hydraulic head to cause instability or
piping of the fill material. This may result in complete breaching of the embankment.
In such cases a horizontal drainage layer will be designed to deliver the seepage water
safely to the landside toe of the embankment. A rock toe may be provided at the
landside slope.
The introduction of landside filter will establish a definite exit for the seepage water.
Landside toe of the embankment will not become wet and pushta will no longer be
needed. Also, the piping and internal erosion of the embankment will be controlled and
chances of embankment breaches due to these factors will be minimized.
The drainage layer shall be selected to be free draining as well as maintaining filter
compatibility with the embankment fill. In general for filteration:
d15 filter
≤5
d 85 base
For drainage, where the base can be embankment fill or the foundation material under
the filter.
d15 filter
>5
d15 base
In some cases, the drainage layer may consist of a coarse granular material enveloped
by a filter material.
a) Landside Toe Filter/Toe Drain
When fill material of the embankment is not sufficiently homogeneous the flood water
may reach the landside slope with a sufficient hydraulic head to cause piping of the fill
material. This may result in complete breaching of the embankment. In such cases a
sloping filter connected with a horizontal filter will be designed to deliver the seepage
water from sloping filter to the landside toe of the embankment. The sloping filter will
be covered with compacted protective material. For protecting and keeping the filters
in place a rock toe will be provided at the landside slope.
The introduction of landside filter will establish a definite exit for the seepage water.
Landside toe of the embankment will not become wet and pushta will no longer be
needed. Also, the piping and internal erosion of the embankment will be controlled and
chances of embankment breaches due to these factors will be minimized.
Normally, filter material shall comprise hard and durable gravel or crushed rock
conforming to the following gradation limits:
208
Material Size Percent Finer by Weight

6 inch 64 – 95
3 inch 40 – 82
1½ inch 19 – 64
¾ inch Not greater than 44
3/8 inch Not greater than 23
6.2.5. Protection of Upstream Slope
One of the major causes of failure of earthen Bunds is the damage caused by wave
action, during floods when the embankments hold substantial depth of spill water.
Protection of the Up Stream slope, therefore, becomes necessary for safety of the
embankment. The methods employed for protection of Up Stream slope are
introduced in the following paragraphs:-
6.2.6. Temporary (Limited Duration) Measures
6.2.6.1. Khaji Mats
Khaji Mats are stitched together with 6 inches over laps and the large mat so prepared
is laid on the bank slope and anchored in place with small stakes (Figure 13 & 14).
This method is used mainly during emergency and un-expected storms as delaying
measure only and can at best simply reduce the damages. Sometimes gunny bags
filled with earth are also used in extreme emergency.
209
Figure 13: Slope protection measures (temporary)

210
Figure 14: Slope protection measures (permanent)

211
6.2.6.2. Fascine Covering

Pilchi, Sarkanda or brush wood is woven in the form of a mat and this mat is then laid
on the bank slope and anchored with rope and stakes (Figure 13). This is quite a cheap
protection but can only reduce the damages. Its life is also limited and it losses its
usefulness just after one or two storms.
6.2.6.3. Pilchi Rolls
Pilchi, Sarkanda or Brush wood is tied into around bundles with diameter varying
between 1 ft to 2½ ft, and these rolls are placed on the slope at water level parallel to
the embankment and anchored with timber stakes (Figure 15). This type is more useful
than only for a few storms of moderate wind velocities. The author has seen such rolls
broken and churned up into pulp due to pounding action of waves during high velocity
storms.
Figure 15: Pilchi pitching

6.2.6.4. Longitudinal Stakes and Bushing Protection
This consists of one or two rows of stakes with brush wood or pilchi rolls of 6 inch dia
whittled in between (Figure 13). In Sind province this type is termed as MUHARI.
6.2.6.5. Pilchi Pitching (Revetment)
This is a semi permanent type of protection and is widely used. However, the extent
of protection afforded to the embankment slope sometimes does not justify the cost.
It also gets damaged, (most of the time irreparably) under intense action and usually
losses its usefulness in about 2 years time.
212
6.2.7. Permanent Measures

6.2.7.1. Brick Pitching
Brick pitching with brick laid on end over a flat course has been tried at some places.
It deteriorates with time and lets the water seep through to earth backing. This creates
hydrostatic pressure behind the brick pitching which results in buldging and finally
spawling off and specially so when the spill depth reduces rapidly (Quick Draw Down
Case).
A similar protection was provided to 2nd defence bund along right bank of D.G. Khan
Canal at Taunsa Barrage, but it collapsed in the very first season, it had to face the
full fury of wave action during monsoon of 1967, and was later replaced with Stone
pitching.
The Brick pitching also has a disadvantage that the wave ride increases due to
smoothness of the pitched surface.
6.2.7.2. Dumped Stone Rip–Rap
It is one of the best methods for protection of water face slopes. It consists of angular
Stone dumped randomly over a properly placed graded filter consisting of rock
material ranging between ¼ inch to 3 inch ring (Figure 14). The efficacy of this type
depends on:-
1. Quality of Stone
2. Weight, size and shape of individual Stones. Angular but not flaky, pieces are
better than rounded boulders.
3. Thickness of the protect ion and the slope on which laid.
4. Behaviour of the filter behind the dumped Stone.
The individual stones must be of sufficient weight to resist displacement by wave
action which is not necessarily a function of the height of the embankment. It is wrong
to suppose that large size stones are needed only on higher structures, while smaller
size considering the wind velocity, direction, depth and the fetch causing wave action.
The required weight of the individual pieces can be determined theoretically by
methods given in 13 which provide that the force exerted on Rip-Rap Stone cannot be
greater the, that of a current flowing at velocity equal to that of the particles in the
wave. The stone sizes so calculated compare favourably with experience on
prototypes studied by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. The gradation limits of Rip–Rap
Stone on 3:1 slope is given in the following table used by USBR:-
213
THICKNESS & GRADATION LIMITS OF RIPRAP ON 3:1 SLOPE

Gradation, Percentage of Stones of
Various Weight (Pounds)
Reservoir Normal
Maximum 40 to 50 50 to 60 0 : –10
Fetch Thickness
Size
(Miles) (Inches) Percent
Percent Percent
greater
from - to less than
than
2.5 & Less
30 2,250 1,250 75-1250 75
more than
2.5 36 4,500 2,250 100-2250 100
Note:- 1) sand and rock shall be less than 5 percent by weight of the total riprap
material.
2) The percentage of this size material shall not exceed an amount which will fill
the voids in larger rock.
Sherad et al in their publication Earth and rock dams recommend the following data
for rip-rap and filter beneath.
6.2.7.3. Recommended Riprap Design Criteria
Maximum Wave Height Minimum average Rock Size Layer Thickness
(feet) (D50) (Inches) (Inches)
0-2 10 12
2-4 12 18
4-6 15 24
6-8 18 30
8-10 21 36
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF SINGLE LAYER FILTER UNDER RIPRAP BLANKETS
Computed Wave Height Minimum Filter Thickness
(feet) (Inches)
0-4 6
4-8 9
8-10 12
Dumped rip-rap is, however, very costly and should be provided where absolutely
necessary.
214
6.2.7.4. Hand placed Rip-Rap (Stone Pitching)

Stone pitching consists of Stone Laid by hand and packed properly over a graded filter
similar to the one required for dumped rip–rap. The usual thickness adopted varies
between 1.5 ft to 3 ft, 2 ft is the usual average adopted. The usual thickness of filter is
0.7 ft: and the balance 1.3 ft is occupied by top Layer of large stones. This is quite
effective in protecting the earthen slope but calls for a larger free board due to
increased wave run- up on account of smoother surface.
6.2.7.5. Soil Cement Cover
Of late, soil Cement is proving to be an economical facing material for embankments
where the cost of Stone protection is too high. A reasonable firm foundation is required
so that deformation after placement is insignificant. It is generally placed and
compacted in horizontal step–like layers of 8 ft: width. Each succeeding layer is
stepped back by a distance equal to the product of the compacted layer thickness
(Usually six inches) and the embankment slope (Figure 14). Soil containing 10 to 25%
material passing No. 200 sieve (ASTM) can be safely used by adding one bag of
cement per Cyd. of compacted layer.
6.2.7.6. Cement Concrete Paving
Concrete paving can be used successfully where the Sub Grade is suitable and
settlement in the body or foundation of the embankment can be taken as negligible.
Figures Monolithic pavement behaves better than that laid in the form of panels, with
expansion joints in between. The water finds its way through the joints to the back of
the pavement and damages it through hydrostatic pressure. Settlement in the Sub
Grade also results in cracks and similar failure. Usually a six inches layer suffices if
the Sub Grade is firm. In case of panelled construction, all joints have to be sealed
and panels reinforced. In such cases adequate provision for back drainage must also
be made (Figure 14).
6.2.7.7. Asphaltic Concrete
Asphaltic concrete being comparatively flexible than cement concrete is a better
substitute, but in this case also provision for back drainage is a must to eliminate up
lift in case of rapid draw down. The usual thickness of asphaltic concrete is taken as
9 to 12 inches (Figure 14).
6.2.7.8. Porous Concrete Slab
Porous concrete has also been in use for quite sometime. When properly made it is
comparatively strong and almost equally pervious as crushed stone protection. It
consists of coarse aggregate 3/4 inch to ¼ inch with one barrel of cement per Cd. This
is best suited for mild climates and where stone riprap is excessively expensive
(Figure 14).
215
6.2.7.9. Protection Digest

The following are recommended:-
1) The existing criteria for river face slopes of earthen embankments need
revision. We may either construct the Water face slopes in conformity with
stable beach slope or the existing slopes may be provided with groper
protection.
The slope protection measures may be executed in two stages:
i) Trees with good foliage and medium height, or other plants like Gulabasi
may be grown in a thick belt in front of the embankments at a distance of 10
ft from the toe, but Gulabasi if grown or other bushes may not be allowed to
spread on to the slopes.
ii) Permanent protection on Up Stream slope in the form of stone pitching with
proper filter or a layer of cement concrete (1 : 3 : 6) 6" thick may be provided
but in case of concrete the free board will have to be increased by 0.5 ft
specially on account of reduction in friction co-efficient of slope protection
and consequent increase in wave run up.
The existing criterion for free board may also have to be revised. The
following standards are recommended:-
a. On River Indus = 7.5 feet
b. Oil River Chenab and Ravi = 7.0 feet
c. On River Jhelum & Sutlej = 6.0 feet
It is hoped that the above recommendations will go a long way in ensuring
the safety of earthen embankments against wave action.
6.3. Wetting Channels
a) In arid or semi-arid zones the flood bunds remain dry and exposed to all natural
and living elements for most of the year.
b) The bunds wither and develop infirmities due to dryness and rodent burrow
holes in the bund body.
c) Such burrow holes are sources of potential threat to safety of bunds during
floods.
d) To identify such cavities and leaking strata the wetting channel concept was
developed in Sindh.
e) A wetting channel is in-fact a contraption for soaking or preparing a flood bund
in advance of the arrival of flood spills for effective containment of flood water
and provide protection to salients on the land side. The wetting channel is
created by constructing a smaller bund on the river / water side of the main
embankment with d/s toe touching the u/s toe of the main bund. The crest level
of the wetting channel bank is generally kept 3’ below the top of the main
embankment. The space between the two embankments is the wetting channel.
216
It is kept filled with water throughout the flood seasons to soak / saturate the
bund body thoroughly and expose any routes of leakage enabling the operators
take remedial action in time.
Wetting channel concept was introduced in Punjab in 1965 with the construction
of the first wetting channel along right marginal bund of Panjnad Barrage, which
was quite successful. The concept thus gained popularity and now a sizeable
number of flood embankments have the support of wetting channels.
f) Normally on all barrages the Wetting Channels have become deshaped and
filling of the wetting channels by pumping from tubewells operated on diesel oil
is very expensive and Electric tubewells cannot be relied upon due to load
shedding.
g) Unfortunately the wetting channels and soaking operations are receiving casual
attention with adverse results i.e. bunds even with wetting channels still leak;
as was experienced during the floods of 2014.
A typical cross-section for wetting channel is placed as Figure 16.
Figure 16: Wetting channel

217
7. BREACHING SECTIONS
Breaching sections are safety valves / fuse plugs provided on the Right Marginal
Bunds of the barrages and some bridges. The concept of breaching sections was
introduced after super floods of 1973. General land slope in Pakistan is roughly from
North East to South West in direction, and thus water escaping from a breach in LMB
does not return to the same river but travels to next river inundating area enroute and
spreading misery in its wake, while the water escaping through a breach in RMB flows
back to the same river after some distance with low or moderate losses.
This fact was the basis for specifying / identifying the locations for breaching sections
on Right Marginal Bunds in 1977. The size of breaching sections was intended to allow
an escapage of about 100,000 cs.
The activation of breaching section was made subject to approval by a standing
committee and the pre-requisite site conditions were.
a) The rate of inflow to the structure is most likely to be more than the discharging
capacity of the structures.
b) The critical / emergency gauge at a fixed location on left marginal bund or
elsewhere has exceeded the limiting value and the river discharge still rising.
Taunsa barrage was not expected to essentially need a breaching section and so none
was provided. However it was laid down that in case of a rare emergency the link bund
and shank of spur / may be cut. But there has been no need to activate this section
uptill now. With the remodeling of Taunsa barrage, this section is likely to remain
redundant. In the past, the breaching sections at Alexandra Railway Bridge, Chiniot
Railway Bridge, Riwaz Railway Bridge, Sher Shah Railway Bridge, Jinnah Barrage,
Khanki Headworks, Sulemanki Barrage, Balloki Barrage, Trimmu Barrage, Panjnad
Barrage and Sidhnai Barrage have been activated in various years.
The present conditions demand a detailed review of this phenomenon for future
guidance.
7.1. Activation of Breaching Sections
The breaching section can be activated through,
• Mechanical means
• Blowing up the body of the bund through use of explosives
The first option of machinery usage involves;
• Planning the activation sufficiently ahead of the activation time deadline. This
will require careful study of flows and possible hydrograph to reach a realistic
and clear positive decision.
• Keeping the required machinery units at the breaching site ready for action well
before the designated activation time.
• Providing lighting arrangements for night working if so needed.
218
• This method however gives more surety of timely activation of breaching

section.
This option though takes slightly longer time, it is cheaper and sure with proper
planning.
The second option of using explosive has to;
a) Be carried out necessarily by Army Engineers
b) Since the explosives are stored in army premises far away from the breaching
site, their transport to the breaching site takes substantial time
c) Liner charging operation takes about 4 hours
d) Site experience till today shows over 50% uncertainty in successful breaching
activity. The failure of blasting operation at Khanki, Trimmu and Riwaz bridge
in floods 2014 is a convincing indicator
e) This option is more expensive. Its adoption was motivated mainly by the
assumed surety and high speed operation
The above analysis provides an edge to mechanical breaching which is
recommended.
It has been experienced that this method of activating the breaching section by
explosives has failed in more than 50% cases, due to one reason on the other and
resort had to be made to mechanical means for breaching the bunds at Khanki, Rivaz
Bridge and Trimmu Barrage. Breaching by explosives is extremely expensive and
replacement of explosives after some time whether used or not is prohibitive in cost
and is an unnecessary drain on the budget besides being undependable. It is high
time that instead of following the beaten track we should think loudly in some other
direction and do away with concept of blasting the bunds by explosives which has not
proved 100% reliable. The breaching of bunds by mechanical means should by
adopted in future which is reliable and extremely cheap also.
7.2. Critical Gauges
As explained in the case of “Breaching Sections” the concept of critical gauges was
introduced after super floods of 1973. Critical gauges were installed at prescribed
locations on LMB of all barrages and bridges and critical value of gauges was fixed by
Punjab Flood Commission after due deliberations. Critical gauges values have been
tabulated elsewhere in the report.
Breaching sections are operated when HFL U/S of Barrage on LMB reaches
prescribed value and still rising. Critical gauges at all barrages need revision due to
changes in the morphology of the rivers over last 41 years. Trimmu is a case in point
where the critical gauge in 2014 floods exceeded the prescribed value at a discharge
much less than the designed discharge indicating substantial accretion of levels. No
gauges are available along the open lengths of rivers between control points which
should be again fixed preferably on permanent structures.
219
8. BREACHES IN RIVER BUNDS AND HOW TO CLOSE THEM

8.1. Provinces Common Practice
8.1.1. Causes of Breaches
The causes leading to failures of bunds and development of breaches can be:
a) Erosion of the bund by the river.
b) Failure of masonry works, such as sluices and regulators;
c) An uncontrolled leak developing into a breach, due to:-
i. carelessness in patrolling
ii. insufficient quantity of materials available at site for controlling leaks,
wavewash action or erosion;
iii. abrupt rise of water against unwetted bunds;
iv. inadequate cover over saturation line with consequent heavy seepage
and sloughting;
v. no provision of devices (e.g., sand cores, diaphragms or wetting
channels) to resist the development of leaks in bunds made of unsuitable
soil; and
d) overtopping or severe scour of the bund, due to:-
i. unprecedented river levels;
ii. wave-wash action.
The most frequent cause of a breach is, however, the development of a leak, and if
the establishment is sufficient and vigilant and resourceful in (i) detecting the leaks, (ii)
locating the direction of leakage, and (iii) closing of leaks, breaches will be successfully
avoided.
8.1.2. Immediate Action in the Event of a Breach
If a breach occurs or is threatened, the sectional overseer should immediately
communicate to Sub-Divisional Officer and Executive Engineer, giving the position of
the bund and later send in a report in the following form:
1. Name of bund.
2. Location
3. Time of occurrence.
4. Time at which report reached the overseer.
5. Time at which overseer reached the spot.
6. Causes of breach.
7. Width of breach at the time of report.
8. Depth of water at site of breach.
9. Nature of soil.
10. Strength of labour and materials at site.
11. Comments of Sub-Divisional Officer on preceding entries.
12. Remarks and orders of Executive Engineer.
220
It is necessary to be decisive and specify the exact number of resources required. The
urgency should also be impressed. The probable route, the floods will take, should be
reported, after making local enquiry and verifying it on a contour map and topo sheet
and flood flow diverted along the valley line or where they would do the least damage.
Immediate intimation of any breach should be given to the Railway, Highway, Gas
Transmission authorities by the Sub-Divisional Officer, and the Executive Engineer, if
any of them likely to be affected.
The Executive Engineer should also immediately inform the Superintending Engineer
(and in very serious cases also the Chief Engineer directly), the Collector, other
Executive Engineers and the Divisional Forest Officer. Later, the Executive Engineer
should make a detailed report to the Superintending Engineer, indicating the measures
taken and the steps proposed to be taken for protecting the ends, closing the breach,
and diverting the water where it would do the least damage.
Immediately a breach occurs, the first step to be taken is to prevent the breach
widening. Very often velocity at the ends will be found very high and simple protection
of ends is not likely to prove successful. In such cases, attempt should be made to
divert the side current away from the breached ends of the bund. For doing this, the
following procedure is suggested:
• A cross groyne about 20 to 25 feet in length and at right angles to the bund line
should be constructed as near the breached end of the bund as possible where
people can stand and work even with some difficulty.
• If the depth of water is 6 feet and under, single groyne will suffice. For greater
depths double groyne will be necessary. The construction of this groyne will
reduce the velocity on the downstream side of it, in some portion.
• Similar groynes should then be constructed, as far apart from the first groyne,
as will permit people to stand and work, till the breached end of the bund is
reached and the current diverted away from the bund.
• Sometimes it will so happen that the water while coming out of the breached
section will hug the rear side of the bund and start eroding it The only course to
be adopted in such cases is to construct groynes at right angles to the bund as
stated above till the velocity against the bund is reduced and no erosion is likely.
• Once the current is diverted there will be no need to protect the ends as there
will be no velocity of water against the ends and no erosion will occur.
8.1.3. Preliminary Measures Necessary for Successful Closing of
Breaches
The closing of a large or difficult river breach is always a very serious business,
involving large expenditure, not likely to be undertaken before studying the river
conditions and the practicability of closing the breach and the proper time and manner
of doing so. A fully considered plan has to be immediately formulated to close the
221
breach successfully at the first attempt. The sooner the closing of a breach is
undertaken the less difficult the close operations will be and lesser damage will result.
The following preliminary investigations are essential to the successful closing of a
large or difficult breach and should be taken in hand as soon as possible.
i. An estimate of the establishment required.
ii. A detailed survey of the site to determine the best location for an armoured ring
bund enclosing the breached ends;
iii. A true appraisement of the river course upstream and downstream of the
breach and a fairly accurate forecasting of the river conditions in respect of
gauge and discharge ;
iv. A liberal estimate of the materials required and the organization necessary for
getting them ;
v. A liberal estimate of different kinds of labour required and the steps necessary
to obtain the required strength in due time;
vi. An appreciation of the improvements in communication necessary for transport
of materials, labour, etc.
8.1.4. Improvement in Communications Required
The first step is to improve the communications to enable speedy transport of materials
and carriage of labour from, the most suitable railway or road station. Similarly
adequate housing and sanitation arrangements for the labour and arrangements for
provision of food steep should be made in advance of the labour being brought on the
site. The Sub-Divisional Officer, overseers, and sectional mistries should be provided
thatched huts at site of work.
Ramps, pathways, turning platforms for vehicles, and all such necessary
arrangements to facilitate quick transport to each site of work without delay and
hindrance should be made, as this saves time and waste of energy in the long run.
8.1.5. Earth Required
The quantity of dry earth and sand that will be required should be carefully estimated
and then the place from where the most suitable earth can be obtained with the least
effort and at minimum lead should be carefully decided in advance.
8.1.6. Definite Plan of Action Essential
The final details of the plan for closing the breach would have to be filled in on the
results of the preliminary investigations mentioned above.
A definite plan of action must, however, be made as soon as possible having due
regard to all the circumstances of the case, and once a plan has been made it should
be rigidly adhered to, in all essentials. There is always a tendency, on such occasions,
particularly at the first sign of difficulties, for every-body, from the individual diver
upwards to shower ill digested gratuitous suggestions, particularly suggestions
222
following the line of least resistance. It is best not to be diverted from the determined
pursuit of a reasoned plan of action, as hesitation does not inspire confidence in the
minds of the establishment or labour and confidence essential to the success of the
plan.
8.1.7. Closing process for a Large River Breach
The details of closing a breach must be adapted to the circumstances of each case.
The method consists, in essence, of connecting the two ends of the breach with an
armoured ring bund. The ring has vertical side slopes and is, therefore, protected on
either side by a strong crib-work fencing (longitudinal killa bushing to be also called
'muhari') (Figure-17) consisting of a double row of vertical posts and intermediates,
tied longitudinally and transversely, and propped with stays. The 'muharis' are lined
with mats and filled with brushwood or sand-bags, to break the force of the current
and to minimize the earth in the ring bund being carried away by the flowing water.
1. In order to decide where to align the ring bund, detailed under water soundings
are taken on the river and land side in a regular grid.
The soundings should be 50 feet apart and more detailed soundings may be
required near the proposed line of muhari. The grid has to be accurate and
should be taken for big breaches by direction and pivot flags in the same way
as the position of a boat observing discharges is fixed from the shores. The grid
will extend beyond the scour-hole and until reasonable soundings (not more
than 15 to 18 feet depending on the available maximum length of vertical
stakes) are encountered. At the same time soil samples should be obtained,
especially from the proposed alignment in order to avoid taking it through or just
upstream of a sandy bed.
Other things being equal, an upstream ring bund is always to be preferred, on
account of (a) the additional strength obtained due to arch action, (b) the lesser
lead of earth as foreshores begin to be deposited on the sides as the ring is
built on the upstream, (c) a downstream ring is subject to the full earth and
water pressure after it is closed, without any support due to arch action, (d)
upstream 'muharis' themselves are excellent protection against widening of the
ends of the breach and (e) in the event of a sudden flood, before the ring is
joined, the ends of an upstream ring will act as diversion groynes, tending to
deflect the current to the main river.
2. The site of the killa busing cannot be too carefully selected. In fixing the
alignment, the main considerations are low depths and good, inerodible bed
soil. A long line in shallow water, or in good hard clay soil resistant to erosion,
is far easier to construct, and far more likely to be successful than a short line
in deep water or in sand. The length of the available vertical posts governs the
limit of depth upto which the work is possible. For example, if the maximum
length of vetical is 22 feet and looking to the nature of the soil a 6 feet
penetration is desirable, with a required freebord of 4 feet, the work can only be
223
Figure 17: Single/double Muhari

224
done upto soundings of 12 feet, as between suitable depths or suitable soil the
more important consideration is suitability of soil.
3. The ring bund, is so aligned as to leave sufficient space on the up-stream side
of it for the new bund. It is not desirable to take the ring bund itself on the final
alignment for the embankment, since the fencing and brush-wood will be
perpetual sources of trouble.
4. Having decided the alignment of the 'muhari' the time schedule would be made
out so as to close the breach during the most favourable river conditions
possible. Accordingly, the closing of the final gap should be timed to coincide
with the maximum fall in the river, or, at any rate, the final closing should not
coincide with a rise in the river.
5. Materials and labour required are carefully estimated and arranged for. The
estimate should be liberal, allowing at least 25 percent extra for contingencies,
as it is fatal to run short of materials during the critical stages of the work.
Arrangements should be made in advance to see that materials and labour are
sufficient at all stages to continue unhindered, even if the first attempt fails.
6. It is necessary to decide from the start where the gap for final closing should
be. In fact, on the proper selection of the closing gap, depends the success or
failure of the closing operations. The more difficult portions, that is those where
the depths are large and the current rapid, should be tackled, if not first, early
in the proceedings, and the final gap should be, comparatively, less difficult in
construction. Even though it may be necessary to do substantially more than
half, say even three-fourths the works, from the more difficult end, where
materials are more scarce and other conditions more severe, in the interest of
having the best site for the final gap, this has to be done. The labour is
organised, accordingly, so that the earthwork in the more difficult portions is
completed well ahead of the attempt to close the ends.
7. The closing gap is selected with great care and forethought and after detailed
examination of the site, with particular regard to the following factors:-
a. It is sited where the bed is made up of soil which is more resistant to
scour and erosion, hard inerodible clay being the best and coarse sand
the worst;
b. It is on a ridge so that the depths and velocities of flow are comparatively
low ; the ridge should extend for some distance, particularly on the
downstream side of the gap, to avoid the depths and velocities
increasing due to cutting back by retrogression when the flow through
the gap increases ;
c. It should not be in the direct line of the main current but as far away from
the main current as possible so that the flow would only spill over the
gap.
225
8. Having decided where the final closing of the two ends is going to be, the flow
through the breaches can be regulated, if and as necessary, by 'chhabbing' /
whittling the muharis'.
Subject to this, however, it is desirable to do the killa bushing framework only
short while in advance of the earthwork, in order to avoid the framework being
scoured away. In the deep 'ghara' portions particularly, the earthwork should
immediately follow the framework.
9. Having selected the position where the ring bund should be on the plan
prepared from the observation of soundings, the exact location should be laid
out on the ground with stakes, pegged in the ground, at roughly 10 to 20 feet
apart. The muhari work is then commenced simultaneously from both ends.
The progress of the work should be so arranged that the muharis from both
ends duly strengthened by earth work should reach the proposed ends of the
gap simultaneously. If it is decided to have an upstream ring bund, it may be
necessary to have diversion groynes to enable the ring bund to proceed as
otherwise the current may hug one of the ends of the ring bund and make
further progress difficult.
10. The fencing ('muhari') consists of double groynes, 4 feet wide, the main
verticals ('munas') in each row being 4 feet apart, with 4 feet to 6 feet
penetration below bed, and having at least 4 feet free board above the
anticipated maximum level for the rest of the season. Longitudinal horizontals
('waras') 10 feet to 12 feet long, connect the tops of three vertical posts, with 1
foot overlap at either end by means of holes drilled at 4 feet to 5 feet centres,
which fit chamfered or tapered ends of the vertical posts ('munas').
Intermediate verticals ('panjars') 1 foot apart with less penetration below bed,
say 3 feet to 4 feet, have their top ends tied by strings to the longitudinals. The
function of the intermediaries is to act as stiffeners and prevent displacement
of the packing and the mats.
Cross distance pieces ('patties'), 6 feet long, with holes drilled at 4 feet centres,
tie together transversely the two ends of vertical posts at the proper distance
apart, as well as distribute the load evenly between the two rows. In places,
bracings of wire or strong rope are also provided, if the strain appears, or is
likely to be, too great and tending to displace the verticals.
Such double groyne muharis lined with mats and filled with brushwood packing,
are provided both on the upstream and on the downstream side of the earth
ring bund, which is 8 feet to 12 feet wide. If the earth ring bund is made 10 feet
wide, the inner rows of the double groynes will be 10 feet apart. The earth ring
bund is with advantage kept 12 feet wide to permit free work by donkeys, unless
there is shortage of earth.
Transverse pieces ('makris') connecting the two groynes together, are
temporarily provided at every alternate vertical; they are 12 feet long with holes
at 10 feet centres for a ring bund 10 feet wide, and may be removed when
226
earthwork reaches them, if found to hinder the progress of the earthwork. After
the earthwork is completed, they are preferably, replaced to serve as additional
bracings.
Inclined diagonal struts or stays ('thunies' or mals') are provided on both sides
at every alternate vertical, unless the height of the ring bunds is large, when it
should be provided at every vertical on the land side and at every alternate
vertical, on the river side. It is better to have natural Y-shape forks for fixing to
the vertical posts; but where natural forks are not available in sufficient number
and size, they may be got prepared with suitable joints. They have a taper at
the lower end, and are embedded at least to the same level as the main vertical
posts. It is best to fix the Y of the struts about two-thirds the distance up a
vertical.
11. Boats are very useful for constructing the muhari, as the verticals (munas) as
can be driven from the boat conveniently where the water is more than 3 feet
deep. Where the velocity is high, the boat can be anchored and tied with guy
ropes from the banks, thereby fixing its position.
12. In the 'ghara' (i.e., where the 'muhari.' crosses a deep water channel), one or
both sides of the double 'muhari 1 may need to be filled with sand bags instead
of brushwood, if the current is so swift that ilait packing will not prevent undue
wastage of earth filling. In case sand bags are used, it is necessary to see that
the rows are laid consecutively in headers and stretchers to minimize leakage
through the joints. A little initial care in laying the bags saves a lot of trouble
later. Throughout the width of the deep water channel an apron of gunny bags,
50 feet wide x2 feet thick, is provided on the downstream (land) side of the
muhari to prevent scouring of the channel with the disturbance caused by the
flow through the muhari. In this channel, at the ends and in all low or dangerous
portions, the downstream line of verticals and the props are supported and
protected by sand bags placed round their feet.
13. Immediately following the framework, comes the lining with mats and next the
packing of the two compartments, on each side of the space left for earthwork,
with brushwood, the upstream packing being intended to deaden the flow and
the downstream packing to prevent the intermediate earth from being washed
away. Where the velocity is high, it will be advantageous to inter-twine lai brush-
wood to the stakes as it would then prevent the inner brush-wood filling from
being carried away by the current. The 'lai' brush-wood due to greater depth
may also float and it may be necessary to weight the brush-wood down with
empty cement bags, filled with sand or earth.
The inner lines of the two outer compartments are lined with mats to support
earthwork vertically and to minimize the wastage of earth. The most suitable
position for the mats is along upstream face of the second row and along the
downstream face of the third row of vertical stakes, counting from the upstream
side. The fixing of the mats precedes the filling with brushwood.
227
For the deep water channel and the final gap, where the current is swift, a close-
weave mat, or two or three thicknesses stitched together, are used. The mats
are prepared outside in advance, stitched in long lengths, and are laid in situ
with sufficient over-lap, so that they do not shift or buckle out of position, leaving
voids interfering with the earthwork.
Following the packing, comes the earthwork in the central compartment. Before
the earthwork commences; it is seen that the framework is as strong as
possible, since the earth has to be held vertically constraining it from assuming
its natural angle of repose.
14. Earthwork done by means of donkeys, carrying earth from the two ends, may
with advantage be supplemented by earth from tip-wagons, motor lorries and/or
barges towed by tugs or launches. If there is dry earth available nearby,
anywhere in the vicinity, basketeers may be employed to supplement the work
by donkeys. Work has to be organised to see that the main work which is done
by donkeys, is not interfered with, but helped by other arrangements. Space
being limited, the outturn and progress of works will depend greatly on proper
organization.
15. In the deep 'ghara' portions earth should be not thrown but carefully deposited,
so as to minimize avoidable wastage. As earth, particularly sand, takes a very
flat slope under water, in order to accelerate the progress of work, in addition
to the double thickness of mats along the inner rows of verticals, screens of
mats are also temporarily constructed across muhari, every 20 feet apart,
pegged down by bamboo 'panjar'. The panjar and mats are removed carefully
as earthwork reaches them.
16. A critical stage is reached when the earthwork ends have to be joined and the
gap closed. Owing to the constructed waterway and the consequent high
velocity, earth is then liable to be carried away as fast as it is deposited. For the
junction, sufficient earth is collected at the two ends approximately to cover a
gap of three times the volume, after filling the compartments on either side with
sand bags, earth is dumped into the narrow gap as quickly as possible.
If there is any difficulty in joining the two ends, a third row of 'muhari', of similar
design, is constructed on the downstream side, some 30 to 40 feet below the
lower groyne in the form of a ring 'muhari'. This acts as cushion or stilling
chamber and is a further check to the flow, facilitating the joining of the ends
and minimising wastage of earth.
Divers are made to stand in line, shoulder to shoulder, with mats abreast of
them, while the earth is being fast dumped in from the two ends. They puddle
the earth with their hands and feet, till the ends are successfully joined.
Where possible, arrangement should be made to supplement the earthwork
from the two ends by earth from a barge placed along side the closing gap.
228
17. As soon as the ends are joined, care is taken to see that the framework does
not collapse due to the excessive earth pressure by providing more props or
stays and gunny bag supports, behind the rear line and also in front of the
upstream line if there is no water against it. The cross-pieces joining the
upstream and downstream muharis are restored and bracings of wire and
strong rope are also provided, tying the two groynes together.
The earth ring bund, too, has to be immediately strengthened by providing front
and rear slopes of pucca earth, particularly in the width of the deep water
channel, removing the brushwood packing if necessary.
All earthwork is done in layers 6 inches deep, freely watered and clods broken.
The earthwork is throughout kept at a safe level against the increasing river
levels.
Work cannot be considered completed till the ring bund is raised 4 feet above
the highest likely levels during the rest of the season and until adequate front
and rear slopes have been provided.
18. The method suggested in sub-paragraph 16 supra for closing final gap always
gives anxious time as the quick rush of water through a narrow gap scours out
the muharis and makes the closing of gap very difficult. It is therefore suggested
that as soon as it is noticed that the velocity through the site selected for closing
the breach is increasing and that if there be the slightest doubt that soil
underneath may be scoured out, the entire length of the gap selected which
may be anything from 50 ft. to 100 ft. long, should be paved with a layer or two
of gunny bags to prevent the soil from scouring. The gap can then be easily
filled by placing gunny bags layer by layer, one layer being put in the entire
length before the second layer is started. By this way the scour in the central
gap will not occur and breach will be easily controlled. As soon as the layers of
bags have come to within 2 feet below the water level the ends should be raised
above and the central gap diminished and earthwork commenced in front of the
gunny bags to prevent any leakage through the bags thereby washing away the
earth from the bags. As soon as the central gap is reduced to 10 feet, the bags
should then be laid layer by layer throughout this length and the flow of water
through that narrow portion also stopped. Earthwork should then be pushed
through and the entire gap in earth filled up. When this method is adopted,
enough bags filled with earth, should be kept ready. A boat or two may also be
required to deposit the bags and they too should be kept handy.
19. If after closing a breach, there is a 'blow-out' i. e., a serious leak in the ring bund
threatening into a breach, the following method of tracking it has been found
successful. If it is impossible to trace the upstream face of the leak, a small ring
bund of gunny bags, protected with juckwork, say 8 to 10 feet diameter is
therefore constructed around the downstream end of the leak and water is
allowed to pond up in the cistern so formed. As soon as the level in the
compartment cistern becomes nearly the same as the upstream water level,
the leak ceases to flow. The cistern is then wholly filled in with good soil and
229
consolidated and thereafter, the original 'ring bund' is opened up and the leak
traced right upto its upstream end and plugged in its full course.
The methodology and resources deployed for closing breaches in flood bunds in
Punjab have in the past been those explained above. However with passage of time
and changed circumstances machinery use has largely replaced manual effort.
8.1.8. International Practice
International Practice in general almost exclusively utilises the deployment of required
machinery due to more expensive and rather non availability of required human
resource but generally the procedures are similar to those employed in Pakistan and
India.
However for small breaches and flood proofing requirements some innovations have
been devised, which are prohibitively expensive to be adopted in Pakistan e.g. Aqua
fencing, rubber dam and sheet piling etc.
The best practical option for Pakistan is to follow our own practices with improvements
necessitated by unique conditions prevailing in our country.
9. RIVER TRAINING WORKS
Shifting channels of the river, have sometimes to be trained to flow within a certain
Khadir width and course. The structures constructed to achieve this end are generally
termed as River Training Works. These are permanent structures normally
constructed with earth and in some cases with stone armour. These can be groynes
spurs and studs of various types and design, diversion bunds and cunnettes
(temporary diversion measures) and guide walls etc.
For details of design etc., the readers are advised to refer to Chapter 5 in Volume-1.
10. RIVER DIVERSION AND DIVERSION BUNDS
River diversion is essentially required when
• A bridge or barrage is constructed outside the active river channels but within
flood way. After completion of the structure, the is diverted into the structure by
closing the active river creeks by diversion bunds also called Ganda Bunds,
water is thus raised to flow into a cunnette leading to the structure. The river is
forced to flow in the new course by construction of guide banks, spurs and
embankments. It is usually a site specific scenario in which various options are
critically reviewed based on past experience, knowledge of river engineering
and hydraulic model studies. Diversions of Indus river through Ghazi Ghat
Bridge and Taunsa Barrage during its original construction are good examples.
A study of those diversions from research publications imparts good knowledge
of river control and engineering.
• In order to protect towns, abadies, infrastructures, canal systems and important
roads, the river diversion is sometime necessitated. When meandering loop of
an alluvial river deepens too far that the above mentioned structres or any other
strategic installations are prone to erosion, then it becomes imperative to cut
230
this loop at its neck by an artificially dug channel called leading cut or cunnette.
At downstream of this cut the active river channel is closed by Gunda Bund to
raise the water levels so that it directs flow in the cunnette widening it to
accommodate Main River. Sometimes it is also assisted by spur and
embankments. Hydraulic model studies are a good support to decide these
interventions.
The typical layout of diversion bunds and cunnette is shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18: Typical layout of diversion bunds and cunnette

The cunnette is made in dry season to carry about ten (10) percent of the flood
discharge and is permitted subsequently to develop to carry total flood discharge.
These channels normally widen in two to three years and gradually alter the river
regime.
The diversion bunds will be sufficiently anchored into the river banks to avoid
outflanking. The cross-section of the diversion bunds will be similar to the cross-
section of earthen marginal bund. The bunds height will be enough to check the
backwater effect in the blocked river channel. The backwater effect will be higher at
bund 1 (upstream) than at bund 2 (downstream). The bund 2 (downstream) will have
less height than the bund 1 (upstream).
231
11. NATURAL AVULSION AND ASSISTED CUT-OFF

A river in alluvium continuously erodes its banks on the concave or the outer side of
the curve and throws the sediment towards the banks on the convex or inner side of
the curve, causing the river bends to continuously shift gradually in the downstream,
direction, thus making the bend sharper and sharper. When the neck or chord of the
loop becomes short (with loop neck Ratio between 2 and 3), the river cuts a straight
path through it and starts flowing through the short cut path leaving the loop high and
dry. This phenomenon of short circuiting is called “Natural avulsion / Natural cut-off.
This takes place during high flow.
During high water stage, the whole valley / active flood plain is flooded and the water
tends to follow a straight course. Since, the length of the chord or the neck is small, it
develops a short and shallow channel along the chord. The cross section of the
channel goes on widening and deepening, which ultimately develops into a deep
channel in the whole length of the chord, which is termed as natural avulsion or cut-
off.
For some distance, upstream and downstream of cut off, the effect of this shortcutting
can be observed prominently. In these reaches a state of utter confusion is exhibited
which includes banks caving, channel silting and channel forming until with low flow
season where this utter chaotic condition subsides. During the next flood season,
however, lesser chaotic condition are witnessed, till such time the river channel
increases its length by meandering and adjusts its slope and the silt conveying
capacity. This usually takes place by the formation of loops. The condition stabilizes
for a short period of time, when the next cut-off occurs and the process restarts.
Thus the river in alluvium remains in the quest for an equilibrium or regime moving
from one bank to the other, adjusting its length, sharpening the bends, developing the
cut-offs, and repeating the process over and over again.
11.1. Assisted Cut-off
Sometimes it becomes necessary to cut through a developing loop with Loop Neck
Ratios less than 2, a short circuiting deep channel termed as “Cunnette” excavated
across the developing neck and river channel at both the ends is closed with a
diversion bunds as expressed in an earlier paragraph. This is called an Assisted Cut-
off.
11.2. Effects of Cut-off
Whenever a river is short-circuited through the neck of the loop, river regime is
drastically changes. The upstream river slope is steepened due to drop available at
cut-off and consequently velocity increase which lowers the flood height. This erosive
tendency develops a short lived straight reach river.
232
12. FLOOD PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

12.1. Introduction
In Pakistan we mostly get floods through Monsoon which is a seasonal prevailing
rainfalls that is brought by winds in the region of south and south- east Asia blowing
from the south-west between May and September (the wet monsoon), also blowing
from the northeast between October and April (the dry monsoon).The wet monsoon
coupled with westerly disturbances coming from central Asia , generates huge
downpour in the Himalayan region. The precipitation thus generated, not stored,
diverted and/or dispersed, becomes floods of catastrophic nature which have quite
often swept across Indus plains resulting in heavy loss of life and property. What is
needed is to bank this abundance resource which is otherwise scarce compared to its
competing requirement for irrigated agriculture, fisheries, industries and domestic
usages. Flood management and planning in Punjab is highly essential and include
both structural and nonstructural measures.
12.2. Occurrence of Floods
The floods are generated essentially in summer by integrated accumulation of
snowmelt and largely due to summer Monsoon. In Pakistan, it rises from Bay of Bengal
in the Indian ocean during months of July, August and September which is drawn
towards Pakistan due to monsoon depressions called ‘Low Pressures’ on arid and
semi-Arid topography marginalized by foothills of Himalayan Range. These
depressions upon reaching Rajasthan (India) in southwest, are prone to proceed
usually in three directions:
a) Continue moving west, causing wide spread rains in Sindh and southern
Baluchistan.
b) Turn in the northeast direction towards the upper catchments of the Sutlej, Ravi
and Chenab Rivers causing extremely heavy rainfalls and consequently floods.
c) Continue moving from north-east to north direction to induce heavy rains in
Catchment of river Indus, Jhelum and its tributaries.
There is also contribution of westerly disturbances coming from Russian /central Asian
region that augment wet monsoon. These hydrological events when combine together,
generate a bursting heavy rains of cyclonic and orographic nature, like floods of 1992.
The track of these depressions are extremely important in predicting the floods in
various watersheds where they approach and therefore flood flows in various rivers
can be predicted in time scale volumetric distribution and flood management attribution
is realized.
The enormous floods thus generated by heavy downpour determine the size of rivers
and their flood plains. The rivers may have several creeks, separating and joining
together, running within flood plains formed by sediment ingress, deposition and scour.
The dominant or bank-full discharge remains within river creeks and when flows
increase, the flood wave surges out of the high banks and spate as a sheet flow. At
233
control points and around cities and other strategic locations, where river is trained to
flow in a predetermined course, the flood heights are contained and floodplains are
protected and checked with embankments, called Marginal Bunds. The area behind
the Marginal Bunds are supposedly safe if there is no breach because the land beyond
margins could be lower than the flood heights.
The topography of the Punjab is such that, during high floods, the water spilled over
the right bank of the rivers returns back to the same river but the one which breaches
the left bank seldom returns to the same river because of the natural land slope.
Therefore, this induces very severe flood damage to life and property. Throughout the
Punjab, and in the world in general, alluvial soils are one of the most fertile and easy
for tillage and also subject to flooding with regimented alluvium, thereby replenishing
fertility. From ancient times, all the great civilizations flourished along river for these
reasons. These lands are highly populated and inhabited in the world. Their dwellings
and infrastructures are naturally subjected to onslaught of floods.
The flood water, in fact, is a treasure which needs to be preserved and conserved. It
should be collected by making detention structures and reservoirs or should be
diverted and dispersed where it is required. A catastrophic nature of flood situations
can be converted into fortune by adopting effective flood management and planning.
The water creating flood is an immense resource for forthcoming dry seasons.
In the mountainous reaches of the river, the majority of rain falls on steep slopes of
hills and plays significant role in developing the flood peaks. The water is collected in
stream with low time of concentration and stream slopes are also steep to improvise
the flood carrying capacity thus causing flooding in the sub-mountainous and plain
regions. Each river has its catchment area comprises of watershed. The bushy,
cropped and forested watershed slopes create lower peak and longer duration of flood
with low sediment yield than barren, naked and eroded slopes which generate higher
peaks of shorter duration with high sediment yields due to excessive erosions.
In Punjab, the Indus and its five tributaries are aligned from North-West to South-East;
one joining the other with the right bank higher in elevation than the left bank. The
other general slope of Punjab plains is from west to east. This setting of the Punjab
topography has made it natural land where this treasure of flood water is carried due
to gravity almost all over. There are also sufficient number of sites in the mountainous
regions where the excess water can be stored for use during the dry weather
conditions for irrigation of early and late Rabi and Kharif crops, in addition to cost-
effective hydro-power generation. If we ignore to utilize these free and scarce water
resources efficiently, these lands will be converted from the green fields into arid and
semi-arid barren lands during the forthcoming global climate change and
environmental degradation.
12.3. Formation of River Channel
The river behaviors and its fluvial impact on fertile alluvial flood plains, depends on the
relationship between flood water, sediments conveyance, meandering pattern
frequency of its occurrence and general topography. The size of river channel
234
dimensions, however, does not depend on the maximum or minimum flows. How much
water a channel will carry depends on the frequency of occurrence of the dominant
flows. Low flows, which occur quite frequently, are not important in the characteristics
of the channel formation, neither does infrequently occurring extra-ordinary floods.
Channel characteristics depend on the dominant discharges of moderate magnitude
which has high frequency of occurrence. In very high and exceptionally high floods,
the river rises above the banks and overflows into the flood plains.
12.4. Watershed Characteristics
The watershed or catchment is the natural land mass of river streams where
substantially all hydrologic processes occur in space and time. Topography, rock and
soil, geology, forest, vegetation cover, land-use, land erosion, stream network, shape,
slope etc. are the principal factors which generate variability of flood-producing
mechanism.
Watershed characteristics pertain to the land and river channel elements of watershed.
Channel elements are hydraulic properties of the river tributaries, such as, size, shape,
channel cross sections, slope, roughness, and length of channels in the network.
These characteristics are somehow responsible for runoff volume, peak discharge,
timing of runoff, base-flow, infiltration, evaporation, interception, deposition, erosion,
etc.
12.5. Watershed Size
The watersheds can be classified as small, medium and large. This classification looks
vague but may be used to understand the characteristics mainly on the basis of area.
As a rule of thumb, the area of small watershed is less than 250 km2, the medium size
is 250 to 2500 km2 and the large is more than 2500 km2. These ranges are rough
guidelines and may vary from one geological area to another.
To produce flood on these watershed, two phases are considered simultaneously;
Land phase and channel phase. Large watershed have well-developed channel
networks and thus the channel storage is dominant. These watersheds are less
sensitive to high-intensity rainfall of short duration. On the other hand, the small
watersheds are opposite of this. The behavior of watershed of same size may differ if
they do not have similar land and channel phases.
12.6. Velley Storage and Dispersion
The flooding severity may be checked if the detention and dispersion strategies are
adopted for protection of downstream floodplains.
Interception is one element of valley storage which is defined as the precipitated
water retained on the drainage basin through its adherence to abstract objects, such
as dykes, vegetation, forests, forest floor cover, buildings, infrastructure, or any other
resistance objects above surface of the ground.
The principal factors effecting the amount of water that is intercepted in a valley
storage are: storm characteristics, vegetation characteristics, such as, plant species,
235
leaf coverage, age, heights, density, directions of plant rows, forest floor cover and
the season of the year.
Dispersion of flood to other drainage lines and towards the natural depressions is
another area that helps for the attenuation of peaks. Dispersion through terraced
cropped land with dykes on their edges is an ancient practice for saving moisture for
the crops and attenuation of the flood peaks.
12.7. Surface Runoff Volume
Runoff volume is the total volume of the flowing water over a period of time. This is
actually the area under the flood hydrograph. The peak of the flood at a certain point
may be attenuated due to various resons.; This results in increasing the base time of
the hydrograph since the volume remains the same.
An estimate of runoff volume from a watershed depends on the precipitation,
infiltration, evaporation, transpiration, and interception and depression storage. Each
of these characteristics are complex in nature and may interact with other variables to
either enhance or reduce runoff. The manner in which these variables interact in time
and space makes direct determination of runoff very difficult. Therefore, the runoff is
estimated using methods that reflect the combined effect of variables in an individual
watershed. Thus each watershed has a different solution, but general approach of the
solution may be similar may be alike. The text books provide variety of solutions for
the estimation of surface runoff, such as SCS Curve Number Method include
references and Water Balance Method, etc.
12.8. Streamflow Hydrograph
A streamflow hydrograph at any point on a stream is a graph of the time variation of
discharge at that point. The graph is plotted with the discharge on the ordinate and
time on the abscissa. A recording stream gauge if plotted on time distribution gives a
continuous flow hydrograph but it is customary to refer to the term hydrograph as to
the time variation of flood discharge for a particular storm.
A hydrograph of a given storm reflects the influence of all the physical characteristics
of the river basin and, also to some extent, the storm causing the flood. The shape of
hydrograph actually reflects the flood producing characteristic of the river and the
intensity of storm, its drainage basin. When a stream flow hydrograph is plotted using
short time interval, the influence of contribution of tributary channels in main river flow
becomes apparent. No two drainage basins produce identical hydrograph for the same
storm. Hydrograph from similar drainage basins may be similar but are not the same.
Hydrograph from the same drainage basin for successive storms of similar intensity
are not be the same.
Total runoff depicted on a hydrograph corresponds to a given storm event. A
hydrograph has two components: direct flow and base-flow. Direct flow is the sum of
overland flow and quick interflow resulting from a particular storm. The base-flow
comprises of groundwater flow and delayed interflow. The volume of total runoff is
determined by including in stream flow hydrograph all runoff between the base-flow
236
discharges occurring prior to the storm up to the same base-flow discharge after the
storm.
Figure 19: Streamflow Hydrograph

A typical hydrograph shown subjectively in Fig-1 illustrates three flow components:
Point A marks the beginning of surface flow; Point B is beginning of interflow and Point
C is the beginning of base-flow. The illustration is arbitrary for the purpose of
understanding since there is no way to verify the source of water during most of the
hydrograph development and certainly separation boundaries cannot be exactly
verified. However there are methods described in the textbooks of applied hydrology
that explains how to separate surface flow, interflow and base flow. The time to peak,
time of concentration and lag time can also be analyzed by empirical relations in the
applied hydrology text books. (Include some references).
12.8.1. Complex Hydrographs
Complex hydrograph are those hydrographs which results from storms with two or
more rainfall events. The variation of rainfall storm may include complete cessation
and resumption of rainfall one or more times during a given period of time. The
hydrograph resulting from such a storm has two or more peaks separated in conformity
with rainfall intervals. Such a complex hydrograph is simplified using base-flow
separation, and then analyzed using standard procedures. As an example, 1992 flood
in Jhelum and 2014 flood in Chenab had complex hydrographs.
12.8.2. Effective Rainfall Hydrograph
237
Effective rainfall is that portion of the rainfall that results in direct runoff. Similarly
rainfall excess constitutes that portion of the rainfall that contributes to surface runoff.
The difference between the effective rainfall and the excess rainfall is that former
includes the later plus some abstractions. But these are sometimes used
interchangeably. Thematically a rainfall storm is considered to be composed of two
portions: one that contributes to runoff and the other that contributes to abstractions,
including interceptions, evaporation, transpiration, depression, detention and
infiltration. The hydrograph prepared on the basis of effective rainfall is called the
effective rainfall hydrograph.
12.8.3. Unit Hydrograph
The concept of Unit hydrograph (UH) was developed in 1932 for determining surface
or direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) from the effective rainfall hydrograph (ERH). The
unit Hydrograph (UH) of a watershed can be defined as DRH resulting from one unit
(1 in. or 1cm.) of effective rainfall(ER) occurring uniformly over the watershed at a
uniform rate during a unit period of time. The unit period of time may not necessarily
be equal to unity; it can be any finite period of time up to time of concentration. As a
matter of fact, unit period of ER is the period for which UH is determined. As soon as
this period changed, so does the UH for a specified watershed. Usual practice is
having 1-hour UH, 6-hour UH, 12-hour UH, or 1-day UH.
Since the UH is applicable for direct or surface runoff only, the base-flow is separated
from the total runoff hydrograph. In order to derive the DRH, several assumptions are
made in applying the UH method. It is not possible to fit these assumptions perfectly,
but they must be reasonably satisfied before UH method can be used so that
erroneous results are not obtained.
12.8.4. Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH)
If the duration D of the ER does not depend on UH by letting D be diminished
indefinitely, the UH so obtained is called Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH). Thus
IUH is a hypothetical UH due to the ER whose duration tends to zero as a limit, but
whose volume remains unity. It is then evident that IUH is independent of ER.
12.8.5. Application of Unit Hydrograph for Flood Management
The UH of a specified duration has many uses in environmental and water resource
development. The UH can be used to determine the watershed response due to a
given rainfall event if an estimate could be made of the abstractions not contributing
to the runoff. This has immediate application for flood forecasting and warning. With
the knowledge of the time distribution of the runoff response, both the flood peak and
its time of occurrence are known. For the maximum possible rainfall, the maximum
possible flood can be determined. Thus the UH can serve as an indicator of flood
producing characteristics of a given watershed.
Another application is in determining the effect of flood protection works on water shed
response. This can be done by comparing the UH of a stated duration derived prior to
the protection works with the UH of the same duration derived after the completion of
238
the works. The UH after completion of protection works shall have an attenuated peak
with milder rising limb and larger time base.
Still another advance application is to determine soil erosion from upland watersheds
if this idea is applied on sediment flow. If the sediment concentration of a given
watershed is known, the unit sediment graph for a specified duration can be
constructed. This in turn can be utilized to estimate erosion due to a specified rainfall
on the given watershed.
12.8.6. Limitations of Unit Hydrograph Application
The unit hydrograph should be derived from fairly large floods; otherwise it may not be
representative of the actual conditions during large floods. All the propositions adopted
in the theory of UH are empirical without any mathematical accuracy demonstrating
rational hydraulic analysis. As a matter of fact, the knowledge of applied hydraulics
and hydrology is not based on pure science but have been derived from practical
operational experiences to formulate empirical formulas. Nevertheless, therefore,
many hydrologists support application of UH as a useful powerful practical tool for
runoff analysis. This theory is particularly adequate in the range of flood experienced
on natural watersheds, such as in Punjab. These results are very useful predictions
well in-advance for meaningful flood control and management.
13. FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
Flood frequency analysis is performed to determine the frequency of the likely
occurrence of flood. This information is required for the design of reservoirs, barrages,
flood ways, embankments, bridges, highways, railways and canal infrastructure
protection. This is also useful in network layouts, hydro-electric power plants,
economic analysis of flood plain development, change in land use and draught
mitigation etc.
It requires hydrological data, like length/duration of flood record, randomness of data
and homogeneity. The length of record should be like more than 25 years for the
derived distribution to be credibly acceptable. It must be understood that the factors
causing winter floods are quite different for those during summer floods. These two
type of floods cannot be combined in single record. Stochastic processes and missing
data interpolation is sometimes estimated using regional analysis from other, so-
called, similar watershed basin.
13.1. CONCEPT OF PROBABILITY, P
To simplify, let us assume tossing of a coin, for Head or Tail. The probably of
occurrence of either head or tail is 50% since there are only two possibilities in this
case. The probability of getting Head is ½ and for tail is also ½. If the coin is defect-
free and the tossing is unbiased, the number of appearance of Head or Tail will be one
half of the number of tossing. In more than one trial, the probability of an event is equal
to the number of successes divided by number of trials. Therefore, the probability of
an event is non-negative and is less than 1. The sum of probabilities of all possible
outcomes in any trial is equal to 1. For two independent mutually exclusive events, the
239
probability of each event is equal to the sum of probability of two events. Also for two
independent events, the probability of their occurrence is product of individual events.
For two different events, the probability of each event is equal to probability of the
other event minus the joint probability of both events. These rules of probability can
be successfully applied in describing the flood events.
13.2. RETURN PERIOD, T
Return period is reciprocal of probability. Suppose the coin is tossed once a year. On
the average, its ‘head’ will appear once in two year. So the ‘return period’ of getting
head is once in two year where the probability of getting head is ½.
Thus
Return Period T=1/P
T is an average value of period of occurrence
Therefore, the flood that has exceeded on the average in 100 year (called 100-year
flood) has a probability of exceedance on the average of any one year equal to 1/100
or 0.01.
The probability that flood will not occur (P’) in any year is
P’ = 1 – P (1 - T1 )
The probable value of storm not occur in ‘n’ successive year
(P’)n = (1-P)n = (1-1/T)n
The probability that flood will occur at least once in n successive years
= 1-(1-1/T)n
The concept of Return period is very important. A 100-year flood, Q100 is the quantum
of flood having average chance of exceedance once every 100 year over a long period
of time.
The matter can be further illustrated with examples.
Example: 1
Compute the Return Period of Design Flood to be used for the design of a bridge.
There is 5% probability that that the storm will occur in next 5 years.
0.05=1-(1-1/T)5
T= 1/ (1- (0.95) ^ 0.2) = 97.98 years
Example: 2
At a rainfall station established years ago, there has been rain only on a single day in
April. Estimate the probability of (a) having rain in the entire month of April and (b)
having at least one rainy day in April.
Data period of each April during 3 years = 90 days
Probability of having rain on any one day of April = 1/90
Probability of not having a rain in any one day of April = 1-1/90
Probability of having rain in entire month of April = (1-1/90) ^30
240
= 71.52%
Probability of having at least one rainy day in April = 1-(89/90) ^ 30
= 28.48%
Example: 3
What is the probability of occurrence of a flood equal to or greater to 20 year (a) in
next 3 years (b) in next 20 year?
P = i/20= 0.05
Probability of not having a flood next year =1-0.05= 0.95
Probability of not having a flood in next 3 year =1-(0.95)3
=14.3%
Probability of not having flood in next 20 year = 1-(0.95)20
= 64.20%
13.3. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Water resources projects often require frequency distribution of magnitudes, volumes,
durations etc. For example, the frequency with which the flood of a particular
magnitude will be equaled or exceeded is frequently needed. The observed data forms
the very basis. Some of the widely used distribution are:
• Binomial Distribution
• Geometric Distribution
• Poisson Distribution
• Exponential Distribution
• Gamma Distribution
• Normal Distribution
• Log-Normal Distribution
• Gumble Distribution
• Log-Pearson Type III Distribution
For detailed description and calculation strategy, refer to a good text book of Hydrology
for Engineers.
Out of all these, the last four distribution methods are widely used in flood frequency
analysis.
13.4. PEAK FLOOD ESTIMATION
The estimation of peak discharge is required for flood protection and prevention works,
design of hydraulic structures, flood plain management, disaster management etc.
There are many empirical methods developed specific to each particular catchment.
An empirical method follows:
13.4.1. Rational Methods
241
The rational formula is well known empirical formula

Q max=CIA
where Qmax is peak discharge in cfs, C is run-off coefficient, I is rainfall intensity, in
in/hr. and A is area of drainage basin in acres.
The value of C depends on the hydrological characteristics of the drainage area. The
formula is inconsistent for each variable. Nevertheless, the consistency of the units by
understanding that flow of one cusec –cfs produces a volume of water approximately
equal to one acre-in each hour, which is 24 acre in = 2 acre-ft. per day. The concept
of frequency is taken into consideration in the occurrence of rainfall and production of
flood; i.e, if the intensity of rainfall is as high as 10 cm/hr. once in 100 years, then the
corresponding Qmax will also have a frequency of once in 100 years.
Table 1: VALUES OF RUNOFF COEFFICIENT ‘C’
(After Chow, 1962)
Type of drainage area Runoff
Coefficient, C
Lawns:
Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.05-0.10
Sandy soil, average, 2-7% 0.10-0.15
Sandy soil, steep, 7% 0.15-0.20
Heavy soil, flat, 2% 0.13-0.17
Heavy soil, average, 2-7% 0.18-0.22
Heavy soil, steep, 7% 0.25-0.35
Business:
Downtown areas 0.70-0.95
Neighborhood areas 0.50-0.70
Residential:
Single-family areas 0.30-0.50
Multiunit, detached 0.40-0.60
multiunit, attached 0.60-0.75
Suburban 0.25-0.40
Apartment dwelling 0.50-0.70
areas
Industrial:
Light areas 0.50-0.80
Heavy areas 0.60-0.90
Parks, cemeteries 0.10-0.25
Playgrounds 0.20-0.35
Railroad yard areas 0.20-0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10-0.30
13.5. ESTIMATION OF DESIGN DISCHARGE
242
Design discharge is not necessarily peak discharge but is selected based on an

acceptable economic risk calculated using return period of occurrence. The project
must be capable of passing peak discharge or discharge hydrograph safely within
adopted return period. The design flood is, therefore, a peak discharge for a certain
return period (say 100 years) against which a water resource project is protected. This
is usually selected with careful analysis of flood frequency analysis of hydrographs of
past floods, economic and risk analysis, socio-economic factors, flood damage
potential, population affected, land-use change, etc.
Project size is best selected by combined effect of functionality and structural safety.
The functional risk involves a cost-benefit analysis, whereas structural safety is usually
for a 100-year design discharge flood. The risk based method combines economic risk
analysis with frequency based engineering solution. The total cost is determined as
cost of the project, cost of maintenance, and consequential cost of its failure like e.g,
loss of human and, animal life, damage to dwelling, clean-up cost etc.
13.6. FLOOD ROUTING
Flood routing is a procedure to create an outflow hydrograph at a downstream point
of a river from an inflow hydrograph at an upstream point. For example knowing the
hydrograph of a flood at RIM station, like. e.g, Mangla at river Jhelum and Marala at
river Chenab, the flow can be routed to estimate peak discharge at Trimmu where both
rivers join. Off course, it is not arithmetic sum of the two due to valley storage, passage
during attenuation, and travel time in each river:
The governing equations for such calculations are essentially for the propagation of
flood waves which hydraulically describe gradually varied unsteady flow i.e. law of
conservation of mass and momentum is implied. These laws are represented,
respectively, by continuity equation and momentum equation
Basic concept is:
Value of Inflow = Value of outflow + storage
There are four principal forces acting on flood waves
• Inertial
• Pressure
• Gravity
• Friction
The relative magnitude of the various terms of the governing equations depend upon
the characteristics of channel reach. The governing equations be found in standard
textbooks of open channel hydraulics, (Ist references).
The flood routing is applied in the design of reservoirs, dams, detention storages,
barrages, bridges, many types of hydraulic structures, operation of control structures,
forecasting of flood at a particular location of river reach, determining of unit
hydrograph etc. Besides flood wave propagation from upstream to downstream, the
243
routing can also be reversed to estimate upstream floods from the known downstream
hydrograph.
13.6.1. Methods of Flood Routing
There are many methods and each method has its own assumptions and empirical
characteristics which may make it distinctly suitable for a particular application.
Therefore, an extreme caution should be exercised in choosing particular methods.
These methods can be classified as: hydrologic and Hydraulics. The hydrologic
method simply uses equation of inflow, outflow and storage.
It is pertinent to mention that these methodologies are based on assumptions of well-
defined and flood plain. The application to natural rivers takes into consideration the
irregular shape and complexity of channel section. The backwater effect, river
junctions and effect of a dam cannot be accounted for in a hydrologic method. The
hydraulics method are may be used provided, these effects are properly simulated.
13.6.2. Flood Routing Through Reservoirs
When a flood wave passes through a reservoir, the peak is attenuated and its time
base is elongated.
The operation of the reservoir can have significant effect on the routing because water
stored in a reservoir may be discharged in a controlled and uncontrolled manner.
There is a continuous change in probability that reservoir will be filled to its
conservation level by releasing some flows downstream during a particular flood
season while keeping some room for the forthcoming monsoon season lest it might
remain empty due to any probable mistake in flood forecasting. Therefore, based on
continuous knowledge of Flood Forecast, a Rule Curve for filling the reservoir is drawn
and followed with the careful risk analysis both for flood damages and non-filling of
reservoir.
To illustrate, the operation of Mangla and Tarbela Reservoirs are discussed below.
Based on the irrigation demands, forecasted river inflows and available storage
capacities, reservoir operation studies have been carried out to develop the reservoir
operation criteria in the form of Rule Curves. This process was initiated with
commissioning of Mangla reservoir in 1968.
Mangla Reservoir and its operation during 1992 Floods is very critical to look at. The
primary function of Mangla Dam Project is to conserve 5 MAF of surplus river flows
and then utilize them for supplementing the natural flows in Jhelum and eastern rivers
during scarcity periods. Its secondary function is to generate hydropower from the
water released for irrigation purposes. The project initially did not have exclusive
capacity for flood regulation. Since most of the catchment area of river Jhelum is in
held Kashmir, so there is a difficulty in having credible flood forecasting.
1992 flood during was caused by the extremely unusual and freak meteorological
events of the combined effect within 24 hours of monsoon depression and westerly
disturbances, which resulted in intense rainfall in Mangla catchment creating a flood
244
hydrograph of twin peaks occurring at short interval. Historically high floods, in excess
of 700,000 cfs had single peak with generally sharp fall. In this particular case point of
time, the first peak of 987,000 cfs was formed within a short duration of 11 hours on
September.9, whereas second peak of 1,090,000 cfs followed on September, 10. In
quantitative terms, the combined flood was to the tune of 2.70 cfs (ever highest in
recorded history). At this stage Mangla had virtually no regulating capacity for design
constraints and poor flood forecasting. Out of the first peak 342,000 cfs were absorbed
in the reservoir and 645,000 cfs were discharged through the spillway which was a
considerable attenuation. In succession, the second peak, was also managed by
absorbing only 157,000 cfs and the remaining 933,000 cfs played a havoc downstream
which is a highly developed populated area.
This story tells us how important a reservoir could be for flood mitigation if initial
capacity for regulating floods could have been kept in design and accurate flood
forecasting. A most realistic Rule Curve then could be drawn for reservoir filling and
operation at various inflow/outflow scenario at different elevations.
With the raising of Mangla Dam, and consequently the conservation level, the capacity
of flood storage is considerably enhanced at Mangla reservoir. Hopefully the 1992
flood scenario shall not repeat.
In a similar context, Tarbela dam is also a storage reservoir, where irrigation
requirements dictate power generation. The Rule Curve for filling and operation of
Tarbela reservoir was developed and it was contained in the special report by project
consultants entitled “Procedures for First Filling of the Reservoir in summer 1974”.
Tarbela dam was not primarily designed for flood management. However, within the
design limitations and management procedures followed, the Tarbela reservoir
provides limited flood peaks attenuation. The prevailing low to very high flood limits
below Tarbela varies between 250,000 to 800,000 cfs. The valley immediately
downstream of Tarbela can take high discharges safely without causing extensive
damage. It is, however, desirable to temporarily hold Indus flood peaks in reservoir
and then controlled subsequent release to prevent synchronization with peaks of other
tributaries at downstream locations. For this purpose, the design criteria for flood
routing through Tarbela reservoir is based on three elements: First,, all major floods
are routed at the maximum conservation level through the spillways. Second, the
design flood of 1,775,000 cfs be routed through the existing outlet facilities with a
nominal surcharge of 2 ft. above the maximum conservation level. Thirdly, probable
maximum flood of 2,128,000 cfs is handled by various outlets with a surcharge of about
2.13m. above the conservation level, still having a free board of about 2.43m to top
embankment elevation. Reservoir filling criteria developed from safety considerations
provide limited flood regulation. Ensuring the availability of catchment information at
Tarbela and using flood routing procedures, and simultaneously having information
about the inflows from downstream tributaries, i.e., Kabul, Soan and Kurram rivers and
Panjnad discharge before its confluence with Indus, flood peaks can be somewhat
attenuated at Tarbela and later to little extent at Chashma to avoid high peaks in
downstream locations. Flood regulation is, therefore, an incidental aspect of Tarbela
245
while the most important element is assured impounding in the reservoir to use stored
water in the following low flow periods. Filling of the reservoir is accomplished based
on 'Rule Curve' criteria evolved from estimated inflows and irrigation requirement.
During actual filling of the reservoir, ‘Rule Curve’ is followed as far as possible with
incidental flood regulation within this envelope. However, it does not eventually make
much of an impact on flood situation except for occasional damping of high peak during
the filling season.
13.6.3. Flood Routing Through River Channel and Flood Plains
The river channel and flood plain routing is more complicated than reservoir routing in
which storage and outflow is uniquely related. When a flood wave propagates from an
upstream reach of a river in a flood plain, it encounters differential resistance along its
course due to various reasons and interventions and thus water flows at different
velocity relative to each other owing to relative slowdown effect on flood plain area
compared to active river channel area. If flood plains are scientifically and strategically
managed with empirical knowledge base, floods peaks can be attenuated with an
appreciable lag time. The correct estimation of resulting channel and flood plain
storage is somewhat complex. The different methods developed for the stream flow
routing differs in the mechanics they account for the relationship between inflows,
outflow and storage. Some of the methods are indicated for further reading from
hydraulics text books and their application should be carefully applied depending upon
their assumptions.
• Convex Method
• Muskingum Method
• Muskingum crest-segment routing
13.6.4. Flood Routing Through Watershed Management
The flood water levels can be lowered and flood peak discharge can be reduced if
water shed and catchment slopes are forested with dwarf leafy trees, shrubs and
bushes. These would have an essentially good affect to prevent soil erosion, reduction
in sediment yield and preservation of top fertile humus layer of soil. In other reaches
with bare slopes, check structures across flow ravines, the small height detention and
dispersion structures if constructed, would result in delay action for flow to accumulate
thus lowering the peak and increasing time lag. The offered resistance to flow not only
slow down eroding velocities preventing sediment erosion and rapidly help in
vegetation and crop growth. These actions are strongly recommended in combination
on mountainous and sub-mountainous reaches of river. Watershed management also
increases the life of the capacity of reservoirs and is a sustainable tool for flood control
/ prevention.
Even in the Alluvial Flood Plain if bush plantations are forested or low height dykes
are erected transverse to the river flow axis in the flood plain, the time lag can be
induced in flow within river course and that of over the flood plain. These interventions
surely attenuate the flood height but increase time for flood volume to pass. The crops
should therefore be resistant to the time lag envisaged.
246
14. WATER RESOURSES OF PUNJAB RIVERS

14.1. Indus Water Treaty
The British while leaving Indo-Pak sub-continent, divided India and Pakistan without
consideration to Geography and Geomorphology. The irrigation system was
beheaded. The source of supplies of Punjab Rivers came under control of India. The
division was made in such a way that headworks of canals off-taking from river Ravi
and Sutlej were given to India and large area of their command remained in Pakistan.
Moreover, India occupied Jammu and Kashmir by force to gain control on the upper
reaches of Punjab Rivers. Soon after creation of Pakistan, India stopped the water
from headworks in its control, illegally stopping supplies for the lower riparian. Pakistan
had to sign the Indus Water treaty to mitigate this situation, in which India was given
exclusive rights to River Ravi, Sutlej and Beas while Pakistan was given Rights to river
Indus Jhelum and Chenab. Pakistan was given choice to transfer water of western
rivers into eastern river by constructing two dams one on Indus (Tarbela) and one on
Jhelum (Mangla). Barrages were remodeled and constructed to off take new link
canals that would transfer waters of Western Rivers to the command area of eastern
rivers. The transfer of sediments of one river to the other did alter the fluvial
morphology of rivers.
14.2. Control Points on Punjab Rivers
14.2.1. River Indus
The Indus is the largest of the naturally set river system in Pakistan. As a matter of
fact this is known as the “Abbasin” or the father of the rivers and all others rivers join
this at various locations as tributaries. The source of the Indus River is Singikabab,
the land of glaciers on the northern slopes of Kailash ranges, some 17,000 feet (5182
meters) above sea level. It takes its source from the Mansarover Lake in the
Himalayan catchment area of Tibit. E It flows over 1800 miles (2900 km2) before it
outfalls into the Arabian sea draining an area of about 372,000 square miles
(964,261sq.km2). The Mansarover Lake is also source of the other major tributary of
the Indus, the River Sutlej. the Ravi
The Indus has five main tributary rivers, Jhelum, Chenab. Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. It
km2 has numerous other small tributaries from Karakorum, Hindu Kush and Suleiman,
and Kashmir range.
Tarbela Dam is one of the world’s largest earth and rock filled Dam completed in 1976
as a component of Indus Basin Project. The Dam is located on the river Indus at a
distance of 130 km (50 Miles) to the North West of Islamabad, in District Sawabi of
KPK province.
14.2.1.1. Jinnah Barrage
Jinnah Barrage previously known as kalabagh barrage is the first diversion structure
across river Indus to irrigate Thal desert area of Sindh Saghar Doab lying between
River Indus and Jhelum by gravity.
247
Figure 20: Tarbela Dam

The study for barrage location, planning started back in 1919 near Kalabagh in
Mianwali District of Punjab Province. The Barrage was however constructed starting
1939 to 1946. Between 2006 and 2012. 96 MW hydropower station with 4 pit turbines
generators were added on right bank.
Figure 21: Jinnah Barrage

248
Off-Taking Canal Design Length Year Location

Discharge between of
(000, cfs) Abutments Const
Length (Canal Miles) Length Design CCA Water Name / Clear
(Canal Discharge (ma) Allowance Water way
Miles) (000, Cs) (Cs/000 (ft)
Acres)
Total Disty Branches Main

s
2,120 1,996 93 32 9 2.100 3.18 (p) Thal 950 3,781 / 1946 Five (5)
Districts 3,353 Km d/s of
Mianwali, Kalabagh
Khushab, Town,
Bhakkar, District
Layyah & Mianwali
Table 2: Jinnah Barrage’s Data
Muzaffar
garh
Dam operation in 1976 which caused excessive downstream retrogression at Jinnah

Barrage remained in operation without any significant problems till start of Tarbela
249
barrage due to silt free water flows through the barrage This Retrogression resulted in
occurrence of abnormally high velocities downstream of the barrage due to lowering
of downstream water levels thereby washing of hydraulic jump got of stilling basin
resulting in repeated structural damages of friction blocks, inverted filter blocks and
stone apron. The safety of barrage was thus jeopardized.
The barrage was remodeled, refurbished and modernized through PMO Barrages,
Irrigation and Power Department, Government of the Punjab during 2012 to 2016. The
safety of the structure has been ensured by providing a subsidiary weir downstream
of the barrage in order to contain hydraulic jump and achieve favorable flow conditions.
14.2.1.2. Chashma Barrage
Chashma Barrage was part of Indus Basin Replacement Works. It is located on river
Indus about 56 km2 downstream of Jinnah Barrage. Its purpose is to supply water to
CJ-Link Canal on the left and Chashma Right Bank Canal on its right side. Unlike other
barrages, a small storage reservoir has been provided at the Barrage to re-regulate
the supplies of Tarbela reservoir.
Table 3: Chashma Barrage’s Data
D G Khan
Khan and
Punjab in
Comman
Comman
d area of
KPK and
Water to
Transfer
Jehlum,
Ismaeel
District
d Area
Indus
Dera
(Cusecs)
Capacity
21,700
5000
C J Link
CRBC
Name
Discharge
(Cusecs)
9,50,000
Design
between
Abutments
Length
3,556
(ft)
1967-71
Year of
Const
Km d/s of
in District
Barrages
Khushab
Location
Kundian
Five 56
Jinnah
near
250
This barrage is different from other barrages for it has a storage capacity in the pond
area of its lake which was originally 0,8 MAF but same had reduced to 0.1 MAF in
2016 due to sediment deposition. A low head hydel power station has been
constructed in 2001 on the right side of Chashma Barrage for power generation.
14.2.1.3. Taunsa Barrage
Taunsa Barrage is third and last diversion structure in Punjab on river Indus. It is
situated 12 km from tehsil Kot Addu of Muzaffargarh District of southern Punjab. The
Barrage was completed in 1958. Three command canals and one link canal off take
from this barrage; Taunsa- Punjnad Link Canal and Muzaffargarh canal from its left;
DG khan canal and Kachi canal from its right P Link canal has a capacity of 12000 cfs.
Muzaffargarh canal has a designed capacity of 5908 cfs which irrigates irrigated
agriculture of Muzaffargarh and Rajanpur districts. DG khan canal having designed
capacity of 8790 cfs is a ridge canal which mostly irrigates on left side along foothills
of koh e Suleiman range spread up to river Indus. Kachi is a lined canal having
capacity of 5000 cfs at head, runs parallel to DG Khan Canal on mountainous side
which transfer Indus water share of Baluchistan through blind reach from Punjab. Both
canals are subjected to heavy and recurrent spate floods from hill torrent floods
emerging from Suleiman range and therefore are prone to severe damages.
14.2.2. River Jhelum
River Jhelum constitutes the western most of the five tributaries rivers of Indus that
merges with the River Chenab upstream of Trimmu Barrage near Jhang City. The
Jhelum rises from a deep spring at Vernag, in the held state western Jammu and
Kashmir .The river meanders northwestward from the northern slope of the Pir Panjal
Range to Wular Lake at Srinagar, which control its flow. Emerging from the lake, the
Jhelum flows westward and crosses the Pir Panjal in a gorge some 7,000 feet deep
with almost perpendicular sides. At Muzaffarabad, the Jhelum receives the Neelam
River from left and Kunhar River from right and then bends southward. Near Mangla
dam the Jhelum breaks through into broad alluvial plains. At the city of Jhelum the
river flows along the Salt Range to Khushab, where it again bends south to join the
Chenab River near Trimmu. The total length of the Jhelum is about 720 km.
In accordance with Indus water treaty, Pakistan has exclusive rights on the flows of
this river and India is restrained from building any storage reservoir.
In Pakistan two major structures have been built across River Jhelum, Mangla Dam
and Rasul Barrage
14.2.2.1. Mangla Dam
Prior to Mangla Dam, a head works was constructed close to this site near Mir Pur
Azad Kashmir to off take Upper Jhelum Canal. This was part of triple canal project
comprising Upper Jhelum Canal, Upper Chenab Canal from Marala on River Chenab
and Lower Bari Doab Canal from Balloki on River Ravi. The project was conceived in
early nineteenth century and in December 1915, the Viceroy of India inaugurated
Upper Jhelum Canal.
251
In 1961 it was decided to build storage facilities to enable transferring of excess waters
of western rivers in the command area of eastern rivers. The Mangla Dam was the
first of the two dams constructed on River Jhelum at Mangla site to reduce the
shortcomings of eastern rivers, the other being Tarbela Dam on River Indus.
The construction of Mangla Dam was started in 1961 and completed in 1967. The dam
had a storage capacity of 9.12 km3 (5.88 MAF) with a lake spread over 251 km2. The
dam has an embankment length of 3140m. It has installed capacity of 1000 MW. The
upper Jhelum canal now take supply from tailrace of Mangla Dam. The capacity of the
dam is continuously and rapidly reducing due to sedimentation. To counteract this
phenomenon, the Mangla Dam Raising Project was started in 2004 and the main dam,
spillway and its allied works were completed in 2009. This project effectively raised
the dam height by 30ft to 482ft (10m to 147m), thereby raising the maximum water
conservation level from 1202ft to 1242ft (367m to 379m). This increased the dam's
storage capacity by an additional 2.88 MAF from 4.51 MAF to 7.39 MAF. Besides, it
is expected that after raising the height of the Mangla Dam by 30ft (10m), the power
house will continue to generate 12 percent additional energy per year and that
increases its installed capacity from 1,000 MW to 1,120 MW.
Figure 22: Mangla Dam

14.2.2.2. Rasul Barrage
Rasul Barrage is a barrage on the River Jhelum between Jhelum District and Mandi
Bahauddin District of the Punjab. It is situated downstream of Kalabagh dam. The old
Rasul Barrage still exists but stands abandoned. The new Rasul Barrage was
constructed in replacement work of Indus Bain Plan.
Offtakes:
Rasul-Qadirabad Link Canal from Left 19900 - cfs
Lower Jhelum Canal from Right 5280 -cfs
252
14.2.3. River Chenab

The Chenab is formed by the confluence of two streams, Chandra and Bhaga, in the
western (Punjab) Himalayas in India’s Himachal Pradesh state. It flows west through
disputed held Jammu and Kashmir state—between the steep cliffs of the Siwalik
Range (south) and the Lesser Himalayas (north). Turning southwest, it continues into
Pakistan, descending from the uplands into the broad alluvial lowlands of Punjab
province. After receiving the Jhelum River near Trimmu, the Chenab empties into the
Sutlej River, a tributary of the Indus River. Its total length is about 974 km, and it feeds
several irrigation canals in the fertile lands of central Punjab.
In accordance with Indus Water Treaty of 1961, Pakistan has exclusive rights on flows
of this river and India is restrained from building any storage reservoir. India was,
however allowed to have limited rights of using the water on tributaries of river Chenab
to develop hydropower with the consent of Pakistan. Some of the dams constructed
by India has violated the treaty and are in dispute.
14.2.3.1. Marala Barrage
It is the first barrage on River Chenab near Sialkot. The barrage is located just below
confluence of River Chenab, Nikki Tawi and Jammu Tawi from left and Munawar Tawi
from right.
Offtakes:
Marala Ravi Link 22000 - cfs
Upper Chenab Canal 16500 - cfs
14.2.3.2. Khanki Barrage
Khanki weir was constructed during 1889-92. It is the oldest weir of Punjab. The weir
is replaced with a new barrage and shall be commissioned in 2017. It is situated near
Wazirabad, District Gujranwala and is 26 km downstream of Marala Barrage. The
important tributaries are Aik and Palkhu from left and Hesli and Bhimber from right.
These tributaries bring flash discharges of high volume of high peak. The net affect is
that Khanki Barrage could experience higher flood peak than Marala.
Offtakes:
Lower Chenab Canal from Left 11500 to15000 - cfs
14.2.3.3. Qadirabad Barrage
This barrage was constructed as a replacement work of Indus basin project in 1968
on river Chenab. The sole object was to transfer storage supply from Mangla dam to
Ravi at Balloki through ‘RQ Link’ canal off-taking from Rasul Barrage. A single canal
called ‘QB Link’ off takes from Qadirabad Barrage which outfall upstream of Balloki
Headworks. The barrage is situated 16 km downstream of Khanki Barrage near Alipur
Chatha Distt. Gujranwala.
Offtakes:
Qadirabad Balloki Link 18600 - cfs
253
14.2.3.4. Trimmu Barrage

It is situated near Jhang and Athara Hazari. Before reaching Jhang, flood plays horrific
affects at Chiniot an old industrial town. At Trimu barrage River Chenab and Jhelum
meet each other. The flood routing from Chenab and Jhelum can tell us combined
effect of the two rivers in order to prepare for adversities. This area is highly affected
by the floods on its both side. The town of Athara Hazari has been drowned
deliberately for more than one time due to operation of breaching section.
Offtakes:
TS Link Canal from Left 11000 - cfs
Havaely Canal from Left 5240 - cfs
Rangpur Canal from Right 2710 - cfs
14.2.3.5. Panjnad Barrage
Panjnad Barrage is situated on the river Chenab near Alipur Muzaffargarh District just
after confluence of river Ravi and Sutlej coming from east. All the five river tributaries
of Indus get together here and onward reach of river up to Indus is called Panjnad
River.
Offtakes:
Abbasia Canal 1064 - cfs
Panjnad Canal 7769 - cfs
14.2.4. River Ravi
Ravi River, is also one of the five tributaries of the Indus River that flows in the Punjab.
It rises in the Himalayas in Himachal Pradesh state, India, and flows west-northwest
past Chamba, turning southwest at the boundary of Jammu and Kashmir state. The
river then flows to the Pakistan near Shakargarh. It flows past Lahore and turns west
near Kamalia, emptying into the Chenab River south of Ahmadpur Sial after a course
of about 725 km. The hydrology of the Ravi is controlled by spring snowmelt and the
South Asian monsoon that brings heavy rains from June to September.
In accordance with Indus Water Treaty, India has exclusive rights on the flows of this
river. Consequently, India stopped and diverted all its waters leaving the river high and
dry. However, all the lower riparian rights of water from Ravi River are being met with
replacement works. Marala-Ravi link offtaking form Marala Barrage, Qadirabad-Balloki
Link off-taking from Qadirabad Barrage and Trimmu-Sidhnai Link off taking from
Trimmu Barrage are meeting the demands of agriculture lands which used to be fed
from eastern rivers These replacement works are using storage water of Mangla Dam
and partly of Tarbela Dam.
The area of Lahore, Kasur and Pakpatan Districts were fed from offtakes of, Madupur
Headworks (now in India), which used to be the RIM Station. But now gauge at Jassar
Bridge in Shakargarh is serving this purpose. The other important gauge is at
Shahdara Railway Bridge near Lahore.
254
14.2.4.1. Balloki Headworks

Balloki headworks is second diversion structure on river Ravi, situated near Bhai-
Pheroo (now Phool Nagar). The headworks gets it supplies mainly from Qadirabad
Balloki Link canal. But nevertheless the area around this barrage is subjected to floods
if India releases the excess water from a large dam practically stopping all waters. The
accreted river is now serving as a drain from Lahore to Balloki.
Offtakes:
Lower Bari Doab Canal from Left 7000 - cfs
Balloki- Salamanca Link Canal from Right 18500 – cfs
14.2.4.2. Sidhnai Barrage
This barrage is the third diversion structure on River Ravi near Abdul Hakeem. It
receives water from Trimmu Sidhnai Link.
Offtakes:
Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal Link on Left 10100 - cfs
14.2.5. River Sutlej
Sutlej River is the longest of the five tributaries of the Indus River that flows into the
Punjab. It rises on the north slope of the Himalayas in Lake Langa in southwestern
Tibet, at an elevation above 15,000 feet. It is also believed that it originates from
Mansarover Lake. Flowing northwestward and then west-southwestward through
Himalayan gorges, it enters and crosses the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh before
beginning its flow through the Punjab plain near Nangal, Indian Punjab. Continuing
southwestward in a broad channel, it receives the Beas River about 105 km of the
India-Pakistan border before entering Pakistan and flowing another 350 km to join the
Chenab River west of Bahawalpur.
The hydrology of the Sutlej is controlled by spring and summer snowmelt in the
Himalayas and by the South Asian monsoon. The onset of the summer monsoon
brings heavy rains that often produce extensive flooding downstream. The winter flow
is substantially lower, since there is little precipitation. The 1,400-km long Sutlej is used
extensively for irrigation. Its water was a source of dispute between India and Pakistan
until 1960, when the countries concluded the Indus Waters Treaty, which allocated the
water of the Sutlej to India in exchange for exclusive Pakistani rights to the Indus and
its western tributaries. Major irrigation works in Pakistan is the Sutlej Valley Project,
which is now fed from transfer of storage water from reservoirs on Western Rivers.
14.2.5.1. Sulemanki Headworks
Now first barrage on Sutlej River in Pakistan. It is fed through Balloki SUlemanki Link
Canal.
Offtakes:
Pakpatan Canal on Right 5200 - cfs
Sadiqa Canal on Left 4917 – cfs
Fordwah Canal on Left 3366 – cfs
255
14.2.5.2. Islam Headworks

It is the last barrage on the Sutlej River on the brink of Chaulistan Desert. It always
experiences shortage of supplies.
Offtakes:
Upper Bahawalnagar Canal 500 – cfs
Lower Bahawalnagar Canal 4000 – cfs
Sidhnai Mailsi Link 10100 – cfs
15. FLOOD MANAGEMENT
15.1. Salient Features of Flood Management
River Flow Management in a river basin is a timewise redistribution of runoff having
basically two objectives,
(a) An increase in the lowest discharge,
(b) Decrease in the highest discharge.
The management has to be pragmatic and skeptical. The experience of developing
countries has shown that it is easy to articulate principles, but translating those into
practice is essentially an uphill task which requires political, professional and
administrative will. Flood management reforms must provide returns for politicians
tracking popular public demands for Flood Control who are willing to make changes
and protections.
Increase in lowest discharge is achieved by storage of water during high flows period
in reservoirs across the rivers and then release more flow from reservoirs to meet
requirement of agriculture and hydropower as per time-scale crop water and energy
demand. On the other hand, decrease in highest discharges is required for Flood
Control and time efficient flood plain drainage at lower peaks. Flood plains of Punjab
with five rivers flowing to spread flood waters and sediments make it fertile and best
suited to support food and fiber for large population. With the population explosion in
Punjab plains, it is the need of time, more than ever, to protect our agriculture crops
(round the year), agriculture land, barrages, canal networks, roads, bridges, cities,
strategic assets and other infra-structures. The flood waves must be attenuated to
acceptable heights. The appropriate flood control methods shall therefore be adopted
to save environment, socio-economies, properties and lives.
15.2. Strategy of Flood Plain Development
In the area of regular annual flooding, people used to live on higher elevation lands
with their live stocks and used to aim at only one harvest during non-flooding period.
Flooding used to fertilize and inundate the land for preservation of moisture and
recharging the groundwater. In order to make second harvest possible, the
embankments were gradually erected along the rivers at considered locations and
elevations to margin the flood heights. This prevented inundations and people started
planning more harvests and building houses/villages/towns/cities and industries. The
influx of this development and population brought about higher economic risk which is
256
ever increasing. That is why there is a continuous necessity to undertake planned

scientific investigations and research in improving and devising general and
customized flood control measures.
The understanding of flood wave hydraulics propagation and influx, fluvial
geomorphology, the probability of occurrence of flood, the meandering pattern and
linear translation of alluvial rivers, the sediment aggradation and degradation,
hydrology and hydrogeology of watershed, roughness coefficients of river channels
and flood are essential to plan and design flood control options. Social and Economic
“Risk Analysis” for the flood of different Return Period is another important factor and
type of flood protection. The best sustainable flood protection is the one with maximum
benefits at minimum cost at low risk.
15.3. Institutional Arrangement of Flood Management
With rapid climate change and land use, the flood control policies need to consider
effective management of maximum floods and associated risks more than ever before.
15.3.1. Soft Engineering/ Non- Structural Solution
These include:
15.3.1.1. Flood Forecasting
• Monsoon from Indian ocean, westerly disturbances and other weather system
tracking information on a time series.
• River wise precipitation prediction in each catchment.
• Actual catchment wise flow information and prediction at important river
location.
• Flood volume and height prediction at important locations and at confluence
points of its tributaries.
15.3.1.2. Flood Routing and Prediction
• Flood volume and wave augmentation along the river course.
• Flood routing for flow prediction at downstream locations in relation to each
storm in various tributaries
15.3.1.3. Mass Communication
• Dedicated broadcast of radios and TV Channels for Flood related information.
• Mandatory mobile/cellular Messaging services about flood related informations by
Flood warning and Flood relief agencies.
• Flood Safety public Instructions
• Health Safety Instructions and location of Medical camps
• Food Camps/Dasterkhawans
• Availability, capacity and location of Flood Shelters
• Special Newspaper Magazine coverage
• Special flood information and safety pamphlets for all above and their distribution
and circulation
• Roads and transport information news during flood situations
257
15.3.1.4. Flood Relief

• Location of flood relief camps at all calamity levels and provisions there in
• Flood relief and disaster management operations information
• The arrangement of disaster relief at the door step
• Compiling of information and its dissemination and publication
• Compiling of tangible and intangible flood damages
15.3.1.5. Flood Risk Assessment
• Flood damage mitigation measures
• Flood risk management
• Review of existing strategies of protection
• Based on improved land use and economic risk analysis, plan for enhanced
protection
15.3.2. Hard Engineering /Structural Solution
Hard engineering is a term used to describe measures taken to prevent the impact of
hazards by building temporary or permanent structures to prevent or protect from such
hazards.
These can be categorized as
15.3.2.1. Short Term Solutions
These are usually emergency works and are not meant to be permanent. These works
are for averting any prevailing dangerous situations. For example, the river channel
straightening at cut-off neck of a meandering loop comes in this category. The other
works like, Killa-Bushing, Tree launching, Tree Groynes, porcupines, dredging,
removal of belas, cunettes etc. are also short-term strategy measures. The short-term
solutions sometimes are strengthened to become long term solutions.
15.3.2.2. Long Term Solutions
Depending upon severity of situation, permanent solution is envisaged based on
social, environmental and economic risk analysis. Flood protection and prevention are
done through the construction of flood control structures based on an appropriate
return period flood, to stay intact for longer period of time.
Long-term Protection works include, embankments, revetments, aprons, sheet piles,
flood walls, spurs, reservoirs, diversion structures, detention structures, dispersion
structures, barriers, escape/relief channels.
Watershed management of a catchment is also a long-term strategy to control floods.
Planting forests in an appropriate pattern not only improves the environment but also
control soil erosion, giving rise to land fertility. Besides the forest floor leaf coverage,
bush and crop cover provide hydraulic resistance which prevents soil erosion and
increases time of concentration for precipitation to accumulate which in turn attenuate
the flood peak. The other measures are erecting small to medium delay-action, check
structures to encourage interflow and also to attenuate the flood heights. These highly
258
environment friendly treatments of watershed are tantamount to constructing what can

be called as green dam.
15.4. FLOOD CONTROL OPTIONS
Flood control is not meant to prevent a flood from occurring. The control is meant to
attenuate floodwaters and flood waves of a designated return period on a cost risk
analysis and divert those to flow with acceptable damages. With the increasing trend
in fatalities and damage cost from floods, it becomes more appropriate to adopt flood
control measures opting both structural and non-structural solutions to suit a particular
situation.
Flood control is generally required for the following purposes:
a) For a single location at a control point like barrages, bridges, dams etc.
b) Along a reach of river for protection of cities, canal systems, roads, strategic
locations etc.
c) To prevent and check erosion of precious agriculture fields and lands of
particular usages.
15.5. FLOOD PROTECTION AND CONTROL INFRASTRUCTURES
The flood control infrastructures and methods are broadly described below:
a) Flood marginalizing and protection embankments or Levees
b) Storage of flood water in reservoir and its routing along the river course
c) Diversion and dispersion of flood water
d) Improving discharge capacity of river reach
e) Spurs, or dykes against erosion and scour protection
f) Flood walls
g) Porcupine structures
Selection of any one method or combination thereof depends upon purpose for which
flood control is necessitated. Usually the selected combinations are tested using on
physical and mathematical models for the best results.
15.5.1. Flood Control by Flood Retaining Embankments and Reservoirs
This is an ancient method practiced by man to protect his abode and property against
flood in the riverine areas. It is still the most expedient method of flood control,
especially when meandering river regime is undisturbed and stable. The most
significant drawbacks are reduction in storage and conveyance capacity of flood plains
and increase in height of flood waves. The safety requirement of the area to be
protected is proportional to selected return period of occurrence from probability
analysis of flood frequencies. This, of course, is a decision based on economic risk
analysis. The detention reservoirs are for the purpose of attenuation of flood heights
and control of flow intensities. These reservoires should have spillways of appropriate
size and as long as they are not overtopped these are very effective flood control
structures. Such detention structures can very successfully be introduced on
259
tributaries of Jhelum and Indus Rivers at feasible sites. Besides flood control, these
can also be utilized for power generation, irrigation and other domestic usages in
remote areas.
15.5.2. Alignment of Flood Retaining Embankment
Considering the meandering action of the alluvial rivers in the alluvium of flood plains,
the flood retaining embankments should be placed nearly parallel to the meandering
axis of the river at a fair distance from the meandering belt based on model studies
through considered opinion of River Engineers and socio- public considerations. As a
guiding principle, there shall be minimal chance of active parallel flow along the
embankment in order to avoid possible erosion/scour by swinging of sinusoidal
meandering channels. The lateral translation of meandering pattern shall also be kept
in view in particular. The alignment essentially depends on general topography,
infrastructure location of canal, road, power networks, and dwelling concentration and
geo-tech parameters of foundation soil. In special cases, the embankments require
protection with revetments, aprons and armored spurs protruding in to the river course.
15.5.3. Height of Flood Retaining Embankments
This is primarily determined by the accepted probability of exceedance (Return Period
which eventually fixed the Design Flood) and degree of protection based on economic
analysis. The additional protection necessitated by adopting a smaller probability of
exceedance may give relatively large increase in the incremental cost. Height of
embankment is, thus determined by design flood and the wave height generated by
winds and/or earthquake plus-factor of safety. The height of flood embankment is also
governed by the subsidence of embankment in poor soil conditions, sub-soil water
level after construction, sedimentation pattern and degree of protection required.
Federal flood commission of Pakistan recommends a free board of 2.13m. above 1973
Flood heights which is close to 100-year return period flood.
15.5.4. Attenuation of Flood Height along Flood Retaining Embankment
Wider the flood plains better the influence on attenuation of flood waves because of
the larger storage capacity of flood water which is further improved due to different
discharging capacity of the main river channels within the flood plain sandwiched
between left and right flood marginal bunds. As a matter of fact, during floods, river
comes out of its channels and starts flowing into the flood plain, the roughness offered
by flood plain is much more than that of river channel because of vegetation, trees
bushes and other obstructions. This results in to faster flow in river channel and slower
flow in flood plain. This differential effect lower the flood heights if the flood plains are
made to offer greater resistance by planting leafy bushes in rows transverse to flow
and raising dividing fields in the same manner systematically. The duration of flood
increased but flood heights are lower. A non-uniform flood water storage in flood plain
can thus be created temporarily.
260
15.5.5. Spurs
The spurs are one of the most favorite river training embankments in Pakistan. Spurs
usually take starts from afflux embankments and protrude in the river at angles
transverse to flow in order to engage and encounter the high-velocity currents of flood
water in order to create no or low flow zone in vicinity of the embankment. The head,
or nose of the spur so to say, is armored with revetment and protection against
potential scour. It should be strong enough to deflect the river currents on the desired
path. It is essential that a scale physical model study be done based on fresh river
survey to ascertain the result of prototype placement. The spurs have potential to
change the entire river morphology and fluvialogy. Therefore, extreme vigilance should
be exercised before these are constructed at site. These are, though, very successfully
applied at barrages, bridges, and dams etc. to have control on the river when
meandering courses are squeezed to flow in a restricted channel to pass through the
structures. These are also indicated for their application where a particular strategic
areas are in need to be protected from river erosion. The spurs may not attenuate
flood heights but are very effective to control erosion and river deflection.
15.5.6. The Negative side of Flood Embankments and spurs
The flood management practices in Pakistan certainly carries benefits for some
segments of the rural communities, specifically those rich famers who huge farming
lands along with effective political powers. However, with their cause and affects,
some of the areas can experience utter disasters leading to loss of property,
husbandry and human lives. Engineer and planners have given insufficient and
inefficient consideration to the sediment load ingress carried within the banks of river
channels through the interventions of embankment infrastructures. This in turn causes
unfriendly unpredictable flow patterns and swollen peaks. The richer farmers with the
state support problems influence building of embankments and spurs for solution of
their localized benefits and allowed ‘Straight Jacketing’ of river reaches through by
disturbing natural meandering patterns. Transferring miseries of one area to another
area should not be a solution. When excessive amount of water is drawn out of a river
leaving behind sediments and then by constructing narrow width levees along the
banks give rise the bed levels of river channel compared to surrounding areas. This
tantamount to create a situation in which water flows at higher peaks attracted to come
out of river into flood plains. The risk of flood becomes ‘anthropogenic’. The careless
and unscientific planning can exacerbate the flooding.
15.5.7. Flood Control by Storage of Flood Water
This is the most direct method of Flood Control. The flood in some situation is totally
prevented or the peak of flood wave is attenuated by detention of flood water in the
reservoir or lake. The stored water can subsequently be utilized for power generation,
irrigation and other industrial and domestic use. In fact this is one of the best methods
of water conservation and management for arid/semi-arid land development which is
a typical case in Punjab. There are two types of Reservoirs, controlled reservoirs like
Tarbela and Mangla dams and uncontrolled reservoirs like detention basins for hill
torrents and tributaries of rivers.
261
15.5.8. Flood Control by Diversion and Dispersion of Flood Water

The diversion and dispersion of flood water by check structures is also a direct method
to lower the top level of flood waves. It is possible to reduce the maximum discharge
by diverting it from one river to the other or by dispersing it to a larger flood plain
through a breaching section or through a dispersion structure. It is frequently applied
in punjab at barrages, bridges, and major cities etc. where breaching section or fuse
plugs are deliberately operated repeatedly to disperse part of the flood in areas which
were given protection before. Flood routing techniques can be scientifically applied in
the system of rivers which are interlinked.
Description of HSSEU for the incorporation in Manual of Irrigation Practices
(MIP)
D & F zone was established in 1974 for coordinating
• flood management within Irrigation department as well as other agencies such
as Federal Flood Commission, Pakistan Meteorological Department and
Pakistan Army
• To evaluate the health of flood protection infrastructure (3352 km of
embankment and 640 hydraulic structures)
The arrangement suffers from following major problems
1. Based purely on adhoc approach towards an important issue.
2. Potential conflict of interest situation.
3. Inspection is limited to visual observation.
4. Inspection is carried out just before onset of flood and have no time for remedies
to identified problems.
5. No systematic arrangement to evaluate the safety of
• 55 small dams
• 13 barrages
• More than 1000 major hydraulic structures
• 3352 km of embankments.
Keeping in view the above problems and experienced gained during 2014 flood,
Irrigation department proposes the dedicated Hydraulic structures Safety Evaluation
Unit within D & F Zone. In view of the Flood Management committee, Chief Minister
Punjab accorded approval for establishment of HSSEU.
The main function of the organization includes
1. Carryout systematic evaluation of flood protection infrastructure, barrages,
small dams, and hydraulic structures on periodic basis
2. To set out protocols for safety evaluation of structures.
3. Carry out at least two inspections in a year before and after flood season.
4. Periodical inspection of all major structures as per set protocols.
262
5. Refer complicated issues to experts if required.

6. Maintain database of inspections, health status, geotechnical information and
measures taken.
Scope of work
1. 3352 km of flood embankments scattered all over Punjab along five rivers and
drainage systems ranging from Attock , Sadiqabqd and gudu barrage .
2. 13 Barrages, the major structures of irrigation department and are backbone of
the economy of Punjab. These barrages are on River Indus, Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi and Sutlej. Each barrage needs special consideration regarding safety
evaluation for reliable and uninterrupted supply of water for irrigation.
3. 57 small dams scattered in potohar region. Each individual structure needs to
be evaluated in detail for its safety and health status.
4. There are more than 1000 major hydraulic structures i.e Head Regulators,
Cross Regulators, Falls and bridges on main Canals. Each structure is
important and needs special care and monitoring for the safe running and
regulation of the canal. These irrigation infrastructures play vital role in the
economy of Punjab Province.
15.5.9. Flood Control by Increasing Discharging Capacity of River Reach
The flood heights can be lowered if discharging capacity of river reach is increased
This can be done by reducing length and roughness of the river bed by shortening the
river channel loops which results in steepening of the slope at given discharge. This
phenomenon also improves sediment carrying capacity of rivers and diminishing of
sand bars and shoals. The bed forms are also flattened for favorable outfit. In the river
reaches with stable meandering regimes, shortening of meander loop necks at
extreme bends in combination with mandatory connects helps to achieve the purpose.
15.5.10. Flood Management Role of Irrigation Department
Punjab Irrigation department is responsible for all structural measures of protection
and maintenance of 17 barrages and a large network of embankments and spurs
spread all along the rivers of Punjab. In addition to this an acquired responsibility of
protecting towns, abodes, highly productive agriculture lands and other infrastructure
also comes in its preview. The department has a Chief Engineer Drainage and flood
who plans comprehensively and facilitates flood management measures, the physical
execution and maintenance of flood related activities are performed directly by
respective zones. Chief Engineer Research provides the facility of conducting physical
hydraulic model studies at a well reputed Hydraulic Model Research station at
Nandipur Distt. Gujranwala.
16. OUTLINE OF FLOOD FIGHTING PLAN
A flood fighting plan is a drawn by each Irrigation Division well before the onset of flood
season. Now there is a unified approach through the department and flood fighting
263
plans are approved by the Chief Engineer drainage and flood. A sample outline of
flood fighting plan is given below:
16.1. Salient Feature of The Concerned Division
• Location
• General description
• Administrative setup
16.2. Flood Protection and River Training Works
• Design parameter of training works
• Location map
16.3. Brief History of Past Flood Events
• Hydrograph of past floods
• Flood eventualities
• Flood damages
• Remedial works
• Flood stage wise inundation plans
• Lag times between control points
16.4. Design Data
• Flood limits
• Highest historic peak floods
16.5. Flood Fighting Strategy
• Review of previous flood damages and restorations
• Pre-flood inspections
• Embankment safety analysis
• Identification of vulnerable reaches prone to breaches
• Identification of river reach engagement close to embankments
• Strategy of flood fighting at highlighted vulnerable
16.6. Flood Fighting Arrangements
• Pre-flood arrangement
• Selection of watching camp locations
• Watching establishment
• General arrangement at various sites
• Special arrangements at strategic and vulnerable sites
• Watching materials specific to site
• Arrangement for bathymetric surveys
• Illumination arrangement
• Logistic arrangements for staff
• Communication arrangements
264
• Transportation arrangements
• Law and order control requirement
• Health, safety and environment protection
• Liaison with other department
• Role of the army and when to call
• Role of the civil administration and when to call
16.7. Detail of Encroachments
• Identification of Locations
• List of encroachers
• Steps taken to remove encroachments
• Impediments of encroachments to flood fighting
• Action plan to remove encroachments
16.8. Duty Roster/Flood Fighting Program
• Strength of gang at each location
• Regular establishment roster
• Work charge establishment roster
16.9. Training to Watching Establishment
• Patrolling
• Reporting and logging of emergencies
• Communicating to whom and when
• Regular repairing
• Detection of rodent activates and its culmination
• Repairing leakages and boils
• Use of various flood fighting materials
• Deployment of machinery and equipment
• Seeking help from whom and when
16.10. Important Telephone Numbers
16.11. Operation of Breaching Sections
• Government procedures for operating breaching section
• Conditions for operating breaching section
• SOP for operating breaching section
• Strategy for inducing breach
• Liaison with concerned departments
• Inundation maps with flood wave heights
• List of affected human and animal abodes and other assets
• Evacuation strategies by civil authorities
• Flood relief measures
• Operation strategy of the breaching section
• Military establishment arranging explosive and detonation
265
• Detail and availability of earthmoving machinery to induce breach.

• Upgraded actions in case of worst case scenario.
• Law and order averting.
• Monitoring effects of operating breaching section
• Closing of breaching section
• History of breaching section operation
16.12. Vulnerable Sites on Flood Bunds/Structures
• Description of vulnerable reaches
• Possible eventualities
• Worst case scenario and its contingency plan
16.13. Flood Preparedness
• SOP of actions
• Arrangements of men, material and machinery
• Flood fighting material location
• Coordination arrangements with civil administration and other
departments, (including mechanism for advance warning, evacuation
arrangements)
16.14. Major Flood Management Challenges
• Identify improvement initiatives
• Identify improved warning system
• Identify maintaining river water flood way
• Advance planning of relief cuts
• Strengthening of infrastructure
• Flood plain management suggestions
• Optimizing reservoir operations
• Institutional strengthening
In addition to above, following information may also be provided in the flood fighting
plan.
• Systematic explanation of flood control planning including maximum possible
discharge at vulnerable locations, wave heights, and flood control measures
• Review of previous flood fighting strategies, damages and their efficacy
• Explanation of topography, climate, and monsoon tracking.
• Review of improved coordination among various departments and rescue
operation
• Identification of volunteer labor and donation of vehicles. equipment and
machinery
• Identification of sand pits for sand bagging during floods
17. TIME LINE FOR FLOOD PREPAREDNESS
Following schedule of activities with time line has been adopted by Irrigation
Department.
266
Schedule of Activities Time Line

17.1. Flood Fighting Plan
Submission of Draft Plan 1st March
Review of Chief Engineer Drainage and Flood 31st March
Finalization and Distribution of Plan 30th April
17.2. Inspection of Flood Protection Works
By Executive Engineer 15th March
By Superintending Engineer 30th March and
By Departmental and army team 15th April
17.3. Removal of Encroachments
Indication of encroachments 30th April
Removal of encroachments 15th May
17.4. Replacement of Reserve Stock
Need Identification 28th Feb
Funding/Procurement Arrangement 15th Mar
Procurement / Stacking etc. 15th June
17.5. MISCELLANEOUS WORKS
Painting of Gauges 31st May
Filling Vacant Positions 30th April
Deployment of Machinery On need basis
Wireless Base, Warning Center 15th June
Operation of Wetting Channel 10th -25th July
Simulation Exercise 15th June
Following activities are required to be conducted essentially as part of flood
preparedness.
• Routine Inspections
• Flood Preparedness Inspection Report before Flood
• Flood inspections during the flood
• Flood Damage Report after the Floods
• Identification and Prioritization of critical damages
• Formulation of Proposals and Estimation
• Execution of Prioritized Works Prior to Floods
18. SAFETY EVALUATION AND EXPERT INSPECTIONS
No flood embankment can be declared safe until unless those are constructed,
inspected, maintained and repaired in accordance with a set plan. The flood protection
and control structures need effective surveillance throughout the year during, before,
and after the flood season as well as during the non-flood season. A standard
procedure for in-depth data observations and safety analysis shall be carried well
267
before the flood season so that necessary remedial works could be satisfactorily
executed before onslaught of the flood season. The hydraulic data during high flow
season and flood seasons must be observed during rising and receding flows.
A three-member team comprises of competent engineers for each group of
embankments shall be nominated to conduct checking and inspections, before, during
and after the flood for comprehensive observations and analysis, thereby suggesting
remedial works to be carried out and extent of vigilance to be exercised by the incharge
incumbents. At vulnerable and strategic locations the arrangements could be
enhanced in accordance with site-specific requirement.
SOP must include:
• Inspection schedule before, after, and during the flood
• Collection of data
• Interpolation of existing data with designed / proposed data
• Safety analysis
• Probability of floods
• Identification of vulnerable reaches and their short term and long term remedial
works.
• Identification of reaches prone to breaches, erosion or scour
• Efficiency of existing gauges and need for new gauges
• Calibration and authentication of rating curves
• Locations of flood fighting camps
• Checking the effectiveness of flood fighting camps
• Procedures for fighting various flood situations
• Setting requirements of transport and equipment
• Bathymetric surveying and mapping arrangement
• Laying procedures for fighting incoming floods
• Step by step arrangement for operation of breaching section and its S.O.P
• Readiness of inundation plans for possible breaches.
• Inundation plan of flood plain at various stages of low, medium, high, very high
and extra ordinary high floods.
• Routing of flood through breaches with possible inundation and damages
thereof to private, public and strategic infra-structures.
• Review of adequacy of design of flood protection and control structures.
• Encroachments and their effects on flood protection activities, vandalism etc.
• Deletion of rodent activities and presence of “boils” on country side.
• River embayment and its possible translation inducing erosion and scour.
• Suggestion of remedial measures for direct river action.
• Land subsidence if any
• Conditions of armored head of spurs and revetments.
• Identification of cut-off in a meandering loop for internal river management.
• Poor quality soil reaches and its remedial measures.
268
• Recommendations for provision of sand or clay, core and rock-toes in a high fill
embankments.
• Necessity for providing foundation key, cut-off and a Pushta in a high fill
embankments.
• Adequate Free-board against wind generated flood waves.
• Physical inspection and Analysis report
269
References
i ADB Publications
Indus Basin Floods
Mechanism, Impacts and Management (2013)
ii Proceeding Diamond Jubilee Session
Pak Engineering Congress Vol-62 (1987)
iii Msc. Dissertation on Guide lines for location, protection and operation
of River Diversion Weir on Alluvial Plains by Muhammad Azam Ch:
(1990)
iv Safety Evaluation of Flood Bunds by Engr. S.M.A Zaidi (2010)
v Papers for P.E.C Proceedings Vol-IV (1986)
vi Weir and Barrages across Alluvial rivers
Iqtidar H Siddiqui (2007)
vii Principles of River
Engineers PPh Jansen , L Van Bendegom
viii Flood Control Technique for Effective Alluvial River Management
Prof. Engr. Ali Rizwan, Engr. Muhammad Azam Ch:
Paper # 559 66 Annual session PEC (1996)
ix On Flood Frequency Analysis at important Discharges Masonry sites
of Pakistan Rivers.
Prof. Engr. Ali Rizwan, Engr. Muhammad Azam Ch:
Paper # 554 66th Annual session PEC (1996)
x Irrigation Engineering
B.L. Gupta Amit Gupta Satya Prakashan, New Dehli
xi Symposium on Flood Management in Pakistan 65th Annual session
P.E.C (1994)
xii Irrigation and hydraulic structures Dr. Iqbal Ali (1993)
xiii Water Resources of Pakistan
Dr. Nazir Ahmad (1993)
xiv Managing the Indus River Basin in light of Climate Change
Janes L Wescoat, (1991)
xv A productive and Water secure Pakistan
270
The Report of the Water Sector taskforce of the Friends of Pakistan

(2012)
xvi Elementary Hydroway
Vijay P Singh
xvii Symposium on Emerging
Phenomenon of Untimely Rains/Floods 2011 in Pakistan
PEC Vol-34 (2012)
xviii Symposium on International Workshop on Floods in Pakistan (2010)
i
HILL TORRENTS MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents
1. HILL TORRENTS MANAGEMENT ............................................................................ 271
1.1. General .................................................................................................................. 271
1.2. Major Hill Torrent Areas of Pakistan ....................................................................... 271
1.3. Hill Torrents of Punjab ............................................................................................ 273
1.4. Hill Torrents in DG Khan and Rajan Pur Distt ......................................................... 273
1.4.1. Major Hill Torrents In DG Khan Distt Above Tounsa Barrage .............................. 275
1.4.2. Hill Torrents in DG Khan and Rajanpur Area South of Tounsa Town .................. 276
1.5. Traditional Management of Hill Torrent Water ........................................................ 278
1.6. Water Rights and Water Users Groups................................................................... 279
1.7. Components of Hill Torrent Structures .................................................................... 280
1.8. Design Considerations of Hill Torrents Structures .................................................. 281
1.9. General Design Principles ...................................................................................... 281
1.10. Flood Distribution Structures ............................................................................... 281
1.11. PREVIOUS STUDIES / PLANS .......................................................................... 286
1.12. MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS FROM PREVIOUS STUDIES........................... 286
1.13. HILL TORRENT MANAGEMENT PROSPECTIVE.............................................. 286
1.14. Catchment Area / Watershed Management ........................................................ 286
1.15. Impact Evaluation and Monitoring of Completed Projects ................................... 290
1.16. Present Status .................................................................................................... 291
1.17. Potohar Area Hill Torrents................................................................................... 294
1.18. Hill Torrents of Rachna and Chaj Doab ............................................................... 300
1.19. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE WEIRS .......................................................................... 302
1.20. References ......................................................................................................... 314
ii
List of Tables
TABLE 1: SALIENT FEATURES OF D G KHAN HILL TORRENTS ................................................................... 273
TABLE 2: IMPROVED FLOOD W ATER DISPERSION AND INCREASE IN CULTIVATED AREA . ........................... 291
TABLE 3: RESULTS OF FREQUENCY ANALYSIS......................................................................................... 296
TABLE 4: SALIENT FEATURES OF MAIN TRIBUTARIES OF CHENAB RIVER................................................... 301
TABLE 5: SALIENT FEATURES OF MAIN TRIBUTARIES OF RAVI RIVER ........................................................ 302
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: MAJOR HILL TORRENTS AREAS OF PAKISTAN ......................................................................... 272
FIGURE 2: CATCHMENT AREA OF DG KHAN HILL TORRENTS .................................................................... 274
FIGURE 3: TYPICAL HILL TORRENT IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 279
FIGURE 4: DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTED HILL TORRENT STRUCTURES ........................................................ 283
FIGURE 5 TYPICAL FLEXIBLE HILL TORRENT STRUCTURES ...................................................................... 284
FIGURE 6: EXISTING AND PROPOSED DRAINAGE SYSTEM ........................................................................ 293
FIGURE 7: POTOHAR AREA .................................................................................................................... 295
FIGURE 8: TRIBUTARIES OF RIVER JHELUM ............................................................................................. 299
FIGURE 9: W EIR WITH UNLINED STILLING POOL FLOOR ............................................................................. 306
FIGURE 10: GRAPH OF X AND (ZO-FG).................................................................................................... 307
FIGURE 11: DEPTH OF SCOUR ACCORDING TO SCHOKLITSCH FORMULA ................................................... 308
FIGURE 12: COUNTER W EIR .................................................................................................................. 309
FIGURE 13: DENSITY OF GABIONS .......................................................................................................... 310
FIGURE 14: FORCES ACTING ON THE W EIR STRUCTURE........................................................................... 311
FIGURE 15: W EIR WITH LINED STILLING POOL FLOOR, JUMP CONTROL BY BROAD CRESTED WEIR ................ 312
FIGURE 16: GRAPH OF (Z1-FB) .............................................................................................................. 313
271
1. HILL TORRENTS MANAGEMENT

1.1. General
A hill stream with steep gradients, high velocities and turbulent and flashy flow is
generally termed as Hill Torrent. Such streams have very high ratios between
maximum and minimum annual flows and loaded with very heavy sediment charge
and cause colossal damages to crops and other public and private infrastructure.
The North and Western Hindu kush and Suleiman Mountain ranges with their rugged
and denuded mountains are the birthplace of hill torrents. There are over 2000 hill
torrents in Pakistan.
Hill torrents impose high flood hazard, which causes loss of life and heavy financial
damages to:
➢ Public / Private Properties Infra-structure / Installations
➢ Communication Systems Cities & Village Buildings/Houses
➢ Damages to standing crops in canal command area, Irrigation Systems,
➢ Suspension in canal supplies, Low crop yield, Limited crop area and Poor
cropping pattern,
➢ Upsetting the Water Rights Local Drainage Systems
➢ Erosion of land and Environmental hazards
1.2. Major Hill Torrent Areas of Pakistan
The hill torrents of Pakistan drain about 65 percent area of the country. The hill torrents
possess enormous potential of water, which if properly conserved can facilitate in
bringing large un-productive areas under sustainable agriculture. Different studies
have indicated that substantial potential exists for conservation of flood flows of hill
torrents and large areas in the vicinity of hill torrents can be benefitted from these flows
for development of irrigation systems. Major part of runoff is presently going waste into
natural drains, Rivers and shallow lakes and only a small component is being used for
domestic and agricultural purpose. Unmanaged flow causes extensive damage along
the flow channels.
Pakistan has already harnessed a major part of conventional water resources i.e.
perennial rivers and streams. In order to meet the needs of growing population,
concerted efforts are required to conserve non-conventional resources of water in
which hill torrents occupy the most prominent position.
The major hill torrent areas (14 No.) of Pakistan are listed below and shown on
Figure 1;
1 Federal Areas and Azad Jammu i. Gilgit – Baltistan (Northern) Areas
& Kashmir ii. Federally Administrated Tribal Areas
(FATA)
iii. Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJ&K)
2 Punjab Province i. D. G. Khan
ii. Pothowar Area
iii. Rachna & Chaj Doabs
272
3 Sindh Province i. Khirthar Range

ii. Karachi Area
iii. Sehwan & Petaro Area
4 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) i. D. I. Khan
Province ii. Hazara, Kabul and Bannu (HKB) Basins
5 Baluchistan Province i. Indus Basin Component
ii. Quetta Valley Reigion
iii. Kharan Closed Desert (KCD) Basin
iv. Makran Coastal (MC) Area
Figure 1: Major Hill Torrents Areas of Pakistan

273
1.3. Hill Torrents of Punjab

The major Hill Torrents in Punjab Province can be categorised with reference to areas
traversed as the following:
A. Hill torrents in DG khan and Rajan Pur Distt
a) Hill Torrents in DG Khan Distt above Tounsa Barrage
b) Hill Torrents in DG Khan and Rajan Pur Distt
B. Hill Torrents in Potohar Area
a) Tributaries of River Indus
b) Tributaries of River Jehlum
C. Hill Torrents of Rachna and Chaj Doab
1.4. Hill Torrents in DG Khan and Rajan Pur Distt
The DG Khan hill torrent area lies between longitude 69° 10' E to 70° 49' E and latitude
28° 27' N to 31 ° 20' N. The catchment area comprising nearly 24,500 Sq Km (9,400
Sq miles), mostly lies in Punjab and Baluchistan.
Over 200 hill torrents originate from the Suleiman Range in the west, of these13 major
hill torrents flow through the DG Khan and Rajan Pur area. These have large
catchment areas, and flood flow potential. Table 1 gives statistics of catchment,
cultivated area, originating elevation in feet above mean sea level(msl) and maximum
generated flow over a period of last sixty years. Figure 2 shows catchment area of
these torrents.
Table 1: Salient Features of D G Khan Hill Torrents
Catchment Max
Period Designed
Cultivated Area
Year Of Observ-
25 years Return
Area Flow
Elevation (ft)
Originating
above msl
Discharge
SR. NO
NAME
Ation
Sq miles
Hectare
Sq km
Cusec
Acres
1 Kaura 523 202 17,310 42,773 77490 2010 19385 58100

2. Vehowa 2,634 1,017 26,730 64,874 110499 2010 7743 96000
3. Sanghar 14,913 1,897 25,770 63,678 229000 2010 6285 123000
4. Sari Lund 500 193 15,660 38,696 97710 2013 6785 42570
5. Vidore 772 298 13,348 32,983 145101 2012 5600 74230
6. Sakhi 158 61 4,190 10,353 43531 1962 3400 26850
Sarwar
7. Mithawan 710 274 11,010 27,206 79999 1978 6913 49800
8. Kaha 5,716 2,207 36,253 89,581 118489 1978 6727 60000
9. Chachar 710 274 17,100 42,254 72618 1983 8520 40360

10. Pitok 231 89 - - 20836 1959 3174 16400
11. Sori Shumali 332 128 - - 19388 1961 3324 25270
12. Zangi 394 154 9,080 22,437 23305 1961 4148 25200
13 Sori Janubi 1,707 . 659 16,180 39,980 82979 1962 3800 41580
29300 6794 192,631 474,815
274
Figure 2: Catchment Area of DG Khan Hill torrents

275
The catchment area can be primarily divided into four units. About 16 percent of the
area lies at an elevation higher than 1,524 m (5,000 ft) above msl, 24 percent between
914 m and 1,524m (3,000 ft-5,000 ft) above msl, 46 percent is situated between 305m
and 914m (1,000 ft-3,000 ft) above msl, while the remaining 14 percent of the area is
below 305m (1,000 ft) above msl. The slope of the area is generally from west to east.
The area situated in the foothills is called “Pachad Area” or the piedmont plain has
been formed by the rich alluvial deposits brought by hill torrents from the Suleiman
Range. Basin irrigation is practised since the time immemorial by constructing earthen
bunds/levees around the huge fields to store about one meter depth of water which is
percolated and used subsequently for crop growth.
Climate of the area is arid and is characterised by the movement of Monsoon in
summer and Western waves in winter. Summer temperatures are fairly high and
winters are cold. Average annual rainfall varies from about 125 mm to 300 mm (5 - 12
inch). Pattern of rainfall is erratic, patchy and unpredictable.
1.4.1. Major Hill Torrents In DG Khan Distt Above Tounsa Barrage
Three Major hill torrents join River Indus within boundary of Punjab province upstream
of Tounsa Barrage, these are kaura, Vehova and Sanghar. When there is heavy
rainfall in catchment area of these hill torrents, these contribute significant quantum of
discharge upstream Tounsa barrage. One of such event observed was in year 2010
floods.
a) Kaura Hill Torrent
Kaura Hill Torrent Basin is situated in the northern area of the DG Khan District. It is
the only basin which shares area from the three provinces of the country - Balochistan,
Khyber Pakhtoon Khwah (KPK) and Punjab. However, the sub mountainous and plain
area of the basin is in Punjab Province where the hill torrent debauches from their
'Darrah'/terminal gorges and fans out to disperse the flows.
Kaura Hill Torrent originates in the form of a small stream in Baluchistan Province. The
stream flows southward and. after covering a small distance takes an eastward turn.
Hereafter, the flow direction remains almost same up to its confluence with a
neighbouring torrent The torrent retain the name of 'Guzai River' upto its crossing of
the Provincial boundary of Baluchistan, where it receives the flows of Mashkha Khwar
from the left. After the union, it enters NWFP and assumes its name as 'Kaura' which
continues to receive flows of a number of small stream inlets from both the sides, and
enters Punjab Province a little above the Darrah.
After passing through the Darrah, it fans out extensively and the main part of its flows
joins 'Vehowa' Hill Torrent on its right. Kaura Hill Torrent encompasses a catchment
area of 523 sq kms (202 sq miles) and flows towards the Indus River after crossing
the CRBC and the Indus Highway. A number of Hill torrent crossing structures of a
cumulative capacity of about 100,000 cusec has been constructed over the CRBC with
a leading channel convey out flow into Indus River.
276
b) Vehowa Hill Torrent

Vehowa Hill Torrent originates near Atal Kach in Baluchistan Province. It flows
northwards for a small distance. After flowing past Atal Kach it takes a right direction
and crosses Dl Khan - Musa Khel Road near Toi Sar. Upto this point, it receives flows
of Nigande Lahar and Zam Khawara from the left; and Tsapparai Mastai, Razanni
River and Khezai Lahar from the right. Just below the road crossing, the torrent
receives the flows of Loa Lahar from the right, which collects flows from the small
tributaries namely Zindai/Tang Lahar,Wangarah,Sherani, Darwazai Lahar, Tor
Haranch, Haranch Lahar; and Sewe Khwara.
Hereafter, the torrent flows eastward near Khundai Kili and assumes a wavy path, upto
Punjab - Balochistan provincial boundary. Just above the boundary, flows from Badri
Nallah Shavan Khwar and Pasta Nallah join the main torrent. Below the confluence,
the main stream takes almost northward turn and flows down to receive Kaura flows,
where after it again turns eastward and fans out after crossing the Darrah (Debunching
gorge).
On its way to the Indus River, it crosses CRBC and Indus Highway and joins River
Indus through well defined channel. Total catchment area of Vehowa is nearly 2,634
sq km (1,017 sq miles). From the point of view of catchment, it ranks third in the hill
torrents of D G Khan Area.
c) Sanghar Hill Torrent
Sanghar is the second largest hill torrent of the area. The torrent springs from a
mountain of Suleiman Range emerging. The stream flows in a north-eastern direction
for some distance and then takes a “U” turn towards south-east. About 15 km down, it
again turns after receiving flows from Tirkh/Artangiwar torrent, Tirkhan Lahar and Bud
Rud torrent from the right. About 11 branch torrents join it from both sides up to the
Darrah, the most potent is the Drug Lahar from a left a little above the Darrah.
Main habitation lying along the channels are Khan Muhammad Kot, Havan Bore,
Mangrotha Taunsa. The torrent crosses CRBC under the CRBC aqueduct of
appropriate capacity, then the Indus highway, and out falls into the River Indus near
Taunsa town through well defined channel.
1.4.2. Hill Torrents in DG Khan and Rajanpur Area South of Tounsa Town
These Hill torrents are described as below:
a) Sori Lund Hill Torrent
Sori Lund Hill Torrent rises in Suleiman Range in Punjab Province. A number of small
branches join to form the main stream about eight kms down from its 'origin. The
stream adopts wavy path but mainly flows in eastern direction receiving flows from
numerous small nallahs from the right and left. Sori Lund debouches into plain area
near Mamdani Village and crosses Kachi Canal, DG Khan Canal. Taunsa-DG Khan
Section of Pakistan Railways and DG Khan - DI Khan HighWay. The main tributaries
277
of the hill torrent are i) Misnit Lahar; and ii) Sorgaric Chur. The torrent finally joins Indus
River near Shah Sadar Din.
b) Vidore Hill Torrent
Vidore Hill Torrent has the same source of origin as that of the Sori Lund. It rises from
the mountains in the form of 'Rud Chur' and, after receiving flows of some small
tributaries, assumes the name 'Jahand Chur'. Khandar Nadi, joins it with drainage of
the areas in the right. The combined channel takes the name of Vidore. Ranghan
Lahar and Sandani Nallah draining large areas join Vidore from the right. The
combined stream flows out of the Darrah and spreads into numerous creeks. The
overspills hit Kachi Canal, DG Khan Canal, communication system, canal irrigated
area and D G Khan City.
c) Sakhi Sarwar Hill Torrent
Sakhi Sarwar torrent is the smallest of 13 major hill torrents of DG Khan area, it rises
in Punjab Province and flows past Sakhi Sarwar Town from the left. The nallah splits
up into a number of channels near Sherwali Gand and its overspills inflict damage to
Kachi Canal, DG Khan Canal, its command area and communication system.
d) Mithawan Hill Torrent
Mithawan Hill Torrent rises in the Suleiman Range. The catchment area is almost
polygonal, wherein, the originating streams flow along the northern and north-eastern
boundary. Major part of the catchment is drained by the Siri Nallah; Rakhi Nallah;
Sahaki Nallah; Nangar Nai Nallah; and Choti Nallah tributaries, nearly all of which join
the main stream above the Darrah. Part of the catchment area has a pleasant weather
during summer. Fort Munro, having a cool weather is situated at the western apex of
the catchment area. D.I. Khan - Fort Munro - Loralai road crosses the catchment area
almost through its middle.
Mithawan Hill Torrent leaves the mountains near Choti Bala and fans out in Pachad
Area into a number of creeks namely i) Kachwala/Chhuri Nallah; ii) Ari Chah; Dirghi
Lahar; iii) Wandoi Lahar; iv) Chang Nallah, v) Hanki / Kharcha vi) Nadi;and vii) Gujji
Nallah.
The surplus flows of the nallah hit Under Construction Kachi Canal, DG Khan Canal
and Dajal Branch, their command area and the communication system.
e) Kaha hill Torrent
Kaha is the largest torrent of the Suleiman Range in DG Khan Area and primarily has
three main sub-catchments: Rakhni; Gand and Philawagh.
Kaha is formed by the union of Rakhni and Gand Nallahs and Philawagh Nallah joins
Kaha below the confluence of upper two major tributaries. Kaha Hill Torrent leaves the
Darrah, upstream of Harand and fans out into numerous small nallahs and wahs in the
downstream area. The surplus spills of kaha hill torrent branches cross Kachi Canal,
DG Khan Canal and Dajal Branch, their command area and the communication
system. Major tributaries are i) Rakhni Nallah, ii) Gand Nallah, iii) Philawagh Nallah.
278
Kaha in general is the trained nullah through thirteen (13) flexible stone dispersion
structures constructed during 1993-1998 and in result of the dispersion very small
discharge reach DG Khan Canal crossing.
f) Chachar Hill Torrent
The Chachar catchment lies in an east-west direction to the right of Kaha Basin. It
continues to flow in an eastern direction upto its exit from the mountains, whereafter it
turns rightward and flows past Drigri Village on the left.
Surface flows of Chachar Hill Torrent hit the Kachi Canal, Dajal Branch Canal, its
command area and the communication system.
g) Pitok Hill Torrent
Pitok Hill Torrent originates from Suleiman Range and has a small part of its
catchment in Balochistan Province, while the remaining lies in the Punjab.
Pitok Hill Torrent leaves the Darrah near Sabzal Kot and fans out into numerous
branches which damage the Kachi Canal, local irrigation and communication systems.
Pitok Hill Torrent carries saline runoff which is not fit for human and agriculture uses.
h) Sori Shurnali Hill Torrent
Sori Shurnali rises in Balochistan Provihce and below the Darrah, it fans out into a
number of branches and crosses Kachi Canal, and proposed Dajal Branch
(Extension). Its flows damage the canal command area and rail-road communication
system in the area. The waters of this torrent are brackish and not fit for drinking and
crop production.
i) Zangi Hill Torrent
Zangi Hill Torrent rises from a hill on Punjab - Baluchistan boundary. The originating
stream is called Khalgiri while the other two main streams - Hingani and Hathai join it
from the left and right. Zangi leaves the Darrah near Dilbar Village, whereafter, it fans
out and damages the under construction Kachi Canal, Dajad Irrigation Branch System
and communication facilities of the area.
j) Sori Janubi Hill Torrent
Sori Janubi is the fourth largest hill torrent of the area. Due to the unfavourable
topographic conditions of the area, bund irrigation is not widely practised in the area.
The flows of this torrent, after debauching from the Darrah, fan out and cross Kachi
Canal, proposed Dajal Branch Extension, damage communication system and outfall
into the River Indus near Shahwali Town.
1.5. Traditional Management of Hill Torrent Water
Spate Irrigation is traditionally practised for diverting hill torrents into cultivable
command areas for growing seasonal crops. The farming system is characterized by
extreme events of floods and droughts. So, a unique irrigation system for hill torrent
area is being practiced, known as “Kamara Irrigation”.
279
The intermittent and erratic patterns of precipitation events, being the unique source
of stream flow irrigation, have become the sole basis for the evolution of Kamara
Irrigation System since centuries. This system enforces the sequential water rights
and dictates the irrigation pattern from upper to lower riparian, without consideration
of the duration and magnitude of the storm generated flow. Under the system
sometimes, the far flung lower riparian remain deprived of irrigation facilities during a
low flow year. It usually entails the construction of an earthen diversion weir across
the torrent with large channel on one or both sides of the hill torrentr to convey flood
water across large distances. These earthen diversion structures and water
conveyance system has traditionally been constructed by the beneficiaries /
communities themselves, making use of traditional technology. Farmers construct field
by making embankments from 3 to 6 feet (1.8 m) high to store the water depending
upon the soil type, share in water and various other factors. Upon drying up water in
the field box, crops are sown which thrive on the moisture stored in the soil. There is
no further irrigation except rains, if any occurs. Figure 3 Shows layout of the system.
Figure 3: Typical hill Torrent Irrigation systems

1.6. Water Rights and Water Users Groups
The term “water rights” refers to as the priority of using the manageable flows of hill
torrents in accordance with the prevalent Kamara Irrigation System, following the
“Saropa Paina‟ rules. The Saropa Paina (head to tail) rules strictly dictate the irrigation
sequence starting from upper (head) farms / fields to the lower (tail) agricultural areas.
The terms are sometimes associated with the irrigation off-takes / wahs when these
280
are categorized in accordance with the water rights. These are Haqooq wahs and Non-
haqooq wahs
Haqooq wahs are those off-taking channels which have the priority rights to use hill
torrents flows. Non-haqooq wahs can only draw the flood flows which are in excess of
the needs / capacity of the haqooq wahs
1.7. Components of Hill Torrent Structures
Generally, the following types of structural/non-structural measures are considered for
hill torrent management in DG Khan Area:
• Construction of a weir along whole width of hill torrent flow path which is a
dispersion structure (such no of weirs are constructed, as per channels sites
along the torrent flow).
• Upstream, downstream and central cut off walls on the basis of worst scour.
• Off taking channels on right and left side with regulators upstream of weir.
• Abutments, wing walls and retaining walls
• Bed fixer on downstream of main weir.
• Protection bunds / embankments/ Dispersion/ Distribution Structures across hill
torrent to divert share water for Irrigation
• Nullah Training Works
• Protection Works for existing infrastructure
• Check and Control Weirs
• Disposal of Surplus Flood Water into river through defined channels
• Studs/Groynes for training of active channels
• Cross drainage structures on Canals & Roads
• Watershed Management/ Delay Action / Storage Dams / Check Dams
Flows from these structures are being used through the following modes:
• Diversion Channels;
• Tube-wells;
• Open/Dug Wells etc.
In upper reaches, delay action dams are constructed and upstream of the gorge
(where the torrent enters plan area) usually a suitable location for a storage dam could
be found.
At downstream of the gorge, flood distribution / dispersion structures are constructed
to divert flow for agriculture. Salaiis /guide embankments/diversion dykes are
constructed in the flood channels to divert water towards the distribution channels for
feeding the fields.
281
1.8. Design Considerations of Hill Torrents Structures

Disintegration of the rock masses/ fragments in mountainous catchments is a
continuous natural phenomenon. The disintegrated matter i.e. boulders, gravel,
pebbles, sand, silt and clay etc is transported to valleys and further downstream by
the run-off caused by rainfall. Hill torrents play a primary role in transporting the
sediment downstream. The fan-out areas and piedmont plains formed by the hill
torrents are, therefore, undergoing continuous morphologic changes. Keeping these
aspects in view, flood management structures on hill torrents have to be designed
with a high degree of flexibility.
Excessive deposition may impair their function within a short time unless the crest
levels etc. are raised. On the other hand, the silt free flow may cause excessive
scours in the downstream thereby under-mining structures and eroding the channels
in the downstream reaches.
1.9. General Design Principles
The following basic principles will serve as guidelines for arriving at a satisfactory
design of hill torrent structures:
The design should ensure flow distribution according to the existing water- rights of
all related users of flood discharges.
a) Design should be based upon a peak flood that corresponds to a frequency
of occurrence which is optimum in view of the cost of structures and its
anticipated benefits.
b) The design should be flexible enough for incorporating future modification(s)
necessitated due to regime changes.
c) Maximum use should be made of local materials and labour force to remain
cost effective.
d) The design should be simple, robust and easy to operate and maintain. It
should be free from sophisticated elements e.g. moving gates etc. as far as
possible.
e) Easy access to the project site should be ensured for future maintenance etc.
f) Beneficiaries should be consulted and entrusted the duty of continuous watch
over the performance and safety of the structure.
Although each structure site has its own specific problems requiring appropriate
technical solutions, however, a general description of the design of major components
of flood management structures, on hill torrents is given in the following.
1.10. Flood Distribution Structures
Figure 4 shows different structures constructed in Hill torrent area and Figure 5
shows the typical Flexible weir structures.
a) Flexible Weir Structures
Flood distributors for hill torrents are essentially a set of low crested flexible weirs
separated by divide walls and confined by wing-walls at extremities of natural
282
channels. The crest lengths and elevations are designed to hydraulically distribute
the incoming flows to pre-determined proportions according to water rights of various
user groups. Sizing of the structure is based on a 25-year return period flood peak,
which is the optimal for most of hill torrents of the semi-arid zone in Pakistan. The
free-board is selected to pass the 50-year peak in which case minor damages to the
downstream apron are to be tolerated. A breaching section, if required, is provided in
the marginal bund for release of higher flood peaks.
The intended breaching/ fuse portion of earthen embankment is constructed with a
top level that gets overtopped as soon as the incoming flow exceeds the critical value
and gets washed away thus automatically releasing the excess flow.
Flood distributors generally accommodate off-takes of irrigation channels on the
upstream of the weir. These off-takes withdraw proportionate discharges and feed
these to the conveyance channels (Canals) leading to the cultivated areas.
b) Dykes and Embankments
For single off-takes in the head reaches below gorge, cross weirs are not economically
viable. Instead, diversion dykes projecting obliquely to the flow direction are used to
divert the flow into open flume type off-take mouths. Farmers construct such dykes
with earth, gravel and brush wood called "Salaiis" which can only stand against low to
medium floods. High floods erode and wash away these dykes depriving the riparian
of the diversions for rest of the season.
Gabion can be advantageously used for constructing such diversion dykes. An anti-
scour apron of gabion mattresses or hand packed stone on the upstream side and
around the nose of these dykes is necessary. Alternatively, rubble mounds of large
size stones may be constructed with appropriate scour aprons. Regular maintenance
is essential for satisfactory operation of the diversion dykes (Salaiis).
c) Channels
Occasionally, earthen channels to divert flood from one stream to another or branches
thereof, have to be constructed for proper utilization of flood flows, and damage
control. Such diversion channels are usually required to off-take from streams that
carry ample flow but are deficient in cultivable land resources in their flood plains.
283
Completed main Weir Qallandar Wah Complex, Kaura Hill Jam – Jat Wah Complex (Dispersion structure) Sanghar Hill
Torrent Torrent
Budhu Head Regulator on Sanghar Hill Torrent Kobhi Wah Complex on Vehova Hill Torren
Dispersion Structure at Sanghar H/Torrent Dispersion Structure at Kaura Hill Torrent
Off-taking Structure at Jewan Wah Bed Fixer Structure D/S Vidore Hill Torrent
Figure 4: Different Constructed Hill Torrent Structures
284
Figure 5 Typical Flexible Hill Torrent Structures

285
Disposal Channels are constructed in the tail reaches of the torrents. The torrents
generally get divided into several shallow channels that pond up against high
embankments of roads, railways and irrigation canals etc. in the settled area near the
recipient major river. These channels connect the cross-drainage structures (culvert,
super passage etc) on the road, railway or canal to the recipient body for safe disposal
of residual flows.
Regular maintenance is essential for efficient working of diversion and disposal
channels, as deposition, weed growth, encroachments and erosion tend to render
these channels ineffective.
d) Spurs/Groynes and Studs
These measures are generally implemented in the upper catchment areas where
orchards have been developed close to the stream banks. The process of bank
erosion often threatens the strenuously developed orchards and has to be checked by
corrective measures.
Spurs are constructed to modify the approach of incoming currents towards a
vulnerable location on bank or a weir, bridge or head-works. Gabions have
successfully been employed for constructing spurs, groynes and studs. Physical
model testing is generally required to determine the shape and size of spurs, groynes
and studs.
e) Scour Calculations
The scour calculations for hill torrent structures conveying heavily silt laden flows of
high velocities and short durations are to be done following models/equations different
from those used for normal alluvial regime channels. For hill torrent flows Brown
formulae for scour is used which is explained as following:
i) For Hilly areas
➢ River subject to sustained floods D= 1.32(Q/Cr)3/10
Maximum scour depth = 1.7 D
➢ Rivers and Torrents subject to sudden and short-lived spates:
D=1.0(Q/Cr)3/10
➢ Rivers subject to fluctuating discharge throughout the year:
D=0.78(Q/Cr)3/10
➢ Rivers and Torrents in Gorges with inerodible banks and deep alluvium bed:
D= 1.32(Q/Cr)3/1 For Gorges width => 2.4(Q/Cr)0.5
D=2.25(Q/(Wr *Cr))3/5 For Gorges width < 2.4(Q/Cr)0.5
Where
D=Maximum scour depth from design flood level to down (ft)
Q= Flood Design discharge (cusec)
Wr= width of gorge feet
Cr= Kennedy’s velocity factor chosen from following table
286
Bed Material Value of Bed Material Value of “Cr”

“Cr”
Fine Sand 0.80 Medium Gravel 1.75
Medium Sand 1.00 Course Gravel 2.00
Course Sand 1.25 Small boulder and 2.50
Gravel
Fine Gravel or 1.50 Medium boulder and 3.00
Bajri Gravel
ii) For streams with less steep gradients and finer alluvium, Lacy’s, blench and
Neil equations can be used. These equations are available in another section/
chapter of this Manual.
1.11. PREVIOUS STUDIES / PLANS
The flows of the hill torrents of “Pachad Area” have been used for irrigation and
agriculture since times immemorial, as far as possible by the farmer’s own diversion
arrangements. Various proposals and schemes have also been proposed by different
government officials and agencies from time to time (1929-2015) but could not be fully
or partially implemented due to one reason or the other.
1.12. MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS FROM PREVIOUS STUDIES
The salient recommendations made in the previous studies/ reports are:
a. Delay action dams / flood flow diversion structures be provided where feasible
Distribute and disperse the flood flows onto wider areas – as per Haqooqs – in
the Fan area (Pachad regions)
b. Training of flood water into designated channels of Fan areas
c. Provision of guide embankments and leading channels at the inlet points of
Cross Drainage Structures of Kachhi Canal / D.G.Khan Canal / Dajal Branch.
d. Right bank of Kachhi Canal be converted into flood embankment to ensure its
stability against rapid rise and fall of flood water level
e. At inlet points of superpassage X-ings of Kachhi Canal, special protection
works on approaches be provided to face high velocity head / flows of torrents.
f. Rehabilitation / remodeling for enhanced capacity of existing drains and
development of outlet channels from Cross Drainage Structures of D.G.Khan
Canal to the collector Drains. Provision of well designed surface drainage
system and protection works in the Rajanpur district.
1.13. HILL TORRENT MANAGEMENT PROSPECTIVE
From the technical reports and studies, hill torrent management may be divided into
three areas, as per geographical and physical conditions which are briefly described
below:-
1.14. Catchment Area / Watershed Management
The watershed management measures can be classified into two broad categories
viz. structural and non-structural.
287
A. Structural Measures
The structural measures include:
i) Flood Control Storage Dams
The construction of such dams, although an important part of the water-shed
management, comes up at the stage when the sediment charge in the flood water can
be controlled otherwise the high sediment load can silt up the dam very quickly
rendering it useless. This is why no storage dam could be taken up till now.
ii) Check Dams
Check dams are very helpful and structures of choice in slope and sediment control in
steep tor torrent channels. The check dams induce deposition of sediment till the
upstream reservoir is almost filled up and the erosion valley widened and slope
flattened, if the valley remains still active, additional check dams can be inserted in
between the existing ones to reduce the slopes further and achieve a stable erosion
valley.
Large check dams more than 50 ft. high fall in the storage dam category and has to
be considered in the latest stage of Water-shed management. In some locations
medium size check dams (up to 50 ft. high) when a reasonable reservoir capacity can
be achieved with reasonable cost, can be a suitable choice. A series of low check
dams of 15 ft. height is the most efficient series of structures to reduce the sediment
yield from an erosion valley and is considered to be the first step in structural measures
for hill torrent channel slope stabilization.
It has been observed that in general a Slope of 10 degrees or about 16% is safe for
most sediment sizes. The number of such check dams will vary for different
parameters of the torrent channel. Sometimes a very large No. of check dams has to
be provided for stabilizing a very steep valley. In Australia, the Schesatoble valley,
required 84 low dams. The Japanese Engineers working in erosion control wing are
working on Yoshino and Water asse Rivers for the last almost a full century and have
future plans that could go on for another century. Watershed management is thus a
trying job and requires a lot of patience and money.
The Japanese and other developed countries use concrete for construction of such
dams but in Pakistan gabions are the better choice and have also been adopted by
JICA Consultants for Mithawan Hill Torrent Pilot Project.
iii) Debris Breaker Screen Structures
These structures constitute a screen supported on side walls and central piers with
training wings to hold the stones and other debris and let the water flow. This is a
recent research development and has been introduced at a few places in Japanese
rivers.
288
iv) Channel Works

The channel works basically serve to contain the torrent channel on a certain
course and contain the larger boulders and stones within the channels to avoid
their running off the channel and damaging the channel side properties, if any.
These include the debris training dykes, the debris flow direction control levees,
the dispersing walls and small stone walls for preventing the sediment movement
in marginal slope reaches.
v) Hill-Side Slope Stabilizing Structures
These can be broadly categorized as below:-
• Anchor works which hold the un-stable slope by means of honey-combed or
perforated concrete slabs anchored deep into the hill side.
• Drainage Galleries
Drainage works which constitute pressure release tube drains, inserted into the
un-stable hill slope, which drain the accumulated water from the deeper layers
into the disposal chamber from where the water flow by gravity into the main
channels
• Terracing by Supporting Walls
In case of very steep slopes, the terracing gives stability as well as ledges for
supporting vegetation and crops by providing terrace support walls which may
be constructed with stone or concrete or any other suitable material.
B. Non – Structural Measures
The non-structural measures for water-shed management include the following:-
i. Arboriculture
Planting of trees in a properly planned manner result in weather protection and
consequent reduction in sediment as well as reduction in the rain fall run-off. The trees
also provided shade for living beings.
ii. Vetiver Grass Hedges
These are used on contour lands for creating terraces, supporting gully plugs and
controlling channel sections. Detailed information about Vetiver grass and its uses is
contained in the two publications by World Bank mentioned at Sr. No. 1 and 2 of
Bibliography. A summarized introduction is as under: -
"Vetiveriazizanioides" commonly known as Khus in India; has been used as an
effective vegetative hedge in the West Indies and Fiji for about 50 years. The contour
lines are permanently fixed through the use of vegetative lines of Vetiver grass hedge.
Vetiver grass is densely tufted, awnless. wiry, clabrous and perennial grass and has
proven ideal for vegetative soil conservation measures in arid and semi-arid climate.
Researchers at International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT) found that vetiver grass exhibits both hydrophvtic and xerophytic
characteristics. Vetiver grass contour hedges hold the runoff on the slopes longer than
other methods, giving a chance to soak in over a wide area and recharge the aquifers.
289
Natural terraces, of sometimes three to four meters high, one built up behind the
vetiver hedge and soil and moisture losses are minimized. Steep and rolling country,
too steep or not suitable for cultivation of cereal or pulses crops, can be successfully
planted with perennial tree crops on the contour cultivation other countries have
started similar programs , such as Nigeria, using Vetiverianigrantana, and the
Philippines and Sri Lanka with Vetiverzizanioides. Most recently, the Peoples Republic
of China has started the project which will concentrate initially on protecting existing
terraces and on reducing runoff and also initiate some trials for protecting tea gardens
on very steep erode able soils.
Vetiverzizanioides has the following characteristics that make it ideal for soil and
moisture conservation:
- It thrives under very wet (6,000 mm) and very dry (200 mm) rainfall conditions from
sea level to 2,600 mm above IvtSL
- It grows well as far north as 39 degrees, surviving freguent frosts and temperatures
as low as -9 ° c.
- The main constraint to expansion is the lack ofnurseries and planting materials.
- It does not produce viable seeds and practically sterile, it has to be planted
vegetatively, meaning that it will not become a weed in farmer's field.
- The plant is extremely drought tolerant; slips for planting have withstood 60 days
without rain.
- In dry areas, it normally takes two to three seasons with constant 'gap- filling' to
establish the hedge.
- Once established, maintenance cost is virtually zero, and it is generally
unpalatable to livestock-It is fire resisting i.e. the roots remain intact and sprout
again.
It is resistant to most pests and diseases.
- So called Vetiver oil can be extracted from the roots. It is used as raw material for
perfumes and medicines.
SACCHRUM MUNJA a self growing grass found in our hill torrent catchments, can
also usefully replace Vetiveriazizanioides which is to be imported.
However both the grasses need to be propagated in nurseries for maintaining supply
of saplings for planting of hedges.
C. Range Management
The range management, if implemented properly, provides good dividends through
proper grazing control and protection of vegetation by rotational use of different sector
of the water shed.
D. Fan area (Pachad area) Management
Based on “Master Feasibility Study for hill torrent management”, 1998 conducted by
NESPAK, Government of Punjab is constructing Dispersion structures in “Pachad
area” to divert hill torrent flows to existing channels to spread water over large area for
irrigation, land development, environment improvement and partially flood
management, which should be continued.
290
E. Institutional Measures
The main institutional measures would include:-
a. Training of trainers for local people.
b. Motivation and training of local people for carrying out small scale, site specific
work like raising vetiver hedges, construction and maintenance of gully plugs,
small check dams weirs and bunds.
c. Appointment of grazing areas into suitable compartments for rotational grazing
and formulation of implementation control rules in consultation with the users
and local leaders and their enforcement.
d. Improvement in modern methods and aid for hydrological measurements like
automatic stage and rain recorders and other logistics for correct and reliable
data collection and record.
e. Installation of weather Radars in Suleman range for achieving the objectives of
better early warning system.
f. Motivation of local people for active and useful participation in catchment and
pachad improvement works and small irrigation schemes.
g. Improvement of facilities like education, health, communication, transport and
marketing.
F. Drainage of hill torrent floods into River Indus.
After crossings of hill torrent water from D.G.Khan Canal and Dajal Branch effective
and efficient flood water drainage system is paramount. Existing seepage drains in
District D.G.Khan cannot drain out the flood water.
Flood carrying channels from each crossing of Kachi Canal/ D.G.Khan Canal / Dajal
Branch to River Indus is the real solution
Alternatively, existing flood flows routes / drains be improved and strengthened and
water to be drained off through enhanced capacity of existing drains / new drains with
protection dykes
1.15. Impact Evaluation and Monitoring of Completed Projects
The Flood management for Kaha hill torrent was carried out during 1993-1996 through
construction of number of dispersion structures under Flood Sector Protection Project
phase-1. Evaluation of hill torrent Management was made by NESPAK and report
submitted in 2004. After completion of structures, flood peaks of various magnitudes
recorded at the Darrah and at hill torrent crossings on Dajal Branch from the year 1997
to 2003 are substantially reduced.
Similar evaluation was made on Koura, Vehova and Sanghar Hill Torrents in 2012
which is given in Table 2.
291
Table 2: Improved Flood Water Dispersion and Increase in Cultivated Area .

Kaura hill Vehova hill Sanghar hill
Description.
torrent torrent torrent
Design capacity of main
structure (40 years 61184 87000 139000
return period) (Cfs)
Flood (August 2012)
43626 68882 99225
(cfs)
Flood water channels
Dispersed to off taking 26178 40729 63535
(Cfs)
Xing CRBC (Cfs) 17448 28153 35690
Dispersion %age 40 % 41 % 36 %
Increase in Cultivated
21971 24008 17997
Area 2012-13(Acers)
It reflects that dispersion of water is enhanced, Peaks reaching CRBC crossings are
reduced and agricultural cultivated area is enhanced manifold as explained below;
1. Flood intensity reduced due to improved dispersing the stream flows to off
taking channels.
2. Enhancement in agriculture activities and cultivated area in fan regions with
improved plantation and vegetation, thus better environment conditions.
3. Protection against flood hazards to cultivable land & soil erosion.
4. Improved yield of the crops, thus increase in production resulting reduction in
poverty with increased economic activities in the region.
5. Positive impacts on livestock, dairy development and social uplift.
6. Reduced flood damages to valuable agricultural lands, public properties, abadis
in fan areas, irrigation system in D.G. Khan Canal Command area and other
infrastructures.
7. Rise in sub soil water, due to increased recharge of the aquifer resulting from
enhanced quantity of water (in depth and number of applications). This water
is being used for drinking purpose and for irrigation.
1.16. Present Status
The flood distribution/dispersion structures and Sallai off takes constructed in last thirty
year period at the key locations of various torrents has caused a marked reduction in
the flows coming down to canal command area.
Nevertheless, flood water is expected to move across the canals (CRBC/DG Khan
canal system) for flood events greater than 5 years return period for some of the hill
torrents.
Still more efforts are needed to construct the required structures to reduce further the
discharge reaching in canal command area. This escaping flood volume would require
leading channels in the command area to safely dispose it into the River Indus. In
order to achieve this objective, a surface drainage system has been proposed. This
292
system would involve the remodeling of the existing system in addition to construction
of a few new drains.
From the view point of surface drainage and final disposal of excessive flood flows,
the DG Khan torrents can be divided into four groups as under: -
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
Kaura Sori Lund Kaha Pitok
Vehowa Vidore Chachar Sori Shumali
Sanghar Sakhi Sarwar Zangi
Mithawan Sori Janubi
Figure 6 shows existing and proposed surface drainage system in Canal Command
area. The surface drainage characteristics of these groups have been discussed in
the following:
a) Group 1
Before construction of CRBC canal, the three torrents namely, Kaura, Vehowa and
Sanghar have direct outfalls into Indus but after its construction the flood water
accumulates on the right side of CRBC canal and then escapes through the hill torrent
crossing structures and well-defined channels take surplus flows to the River Indus. In
low floods command area is not affected but on high floods the flood channels spillage
causes damages to crop area. In last few years through ADB financial assistance,
number of dispersion/distribution structures are constructed to utilize the hill torrent
water for irrigation and is quite successful.
b) Group 2
Sori Lund, Vidore, Sakhi Sarwar and Mithawan are the torrents where maximum flood
dispersion structures have been constructed which have substantially reduced the
quantum of residual flood water crossing the Kachi canal/DG Khan Canal. However,
in very high floods, the spillage is much more which damages the City of Dera Ghazi
Khan as well as cropped area upto Jampur city. The capacity of hill torrent structures
built on Kachi canal is more than those of DG Khan Canal and DG Khan Xing
structures require remodeling. There is, however, no proper system of channels to
lead this water safely towards the River Indus. This results in ponding of water for long
period, thereby, causing large damage to standing crops and infrastructure. The
existing Manka and Kappar drains have been proposed to be remodeled and extended
to outfall into Indus River shortly downstream of Jampur town. The remodeling of
Manaka and Kappar drains shall involve re sectioning and excavation.
c) Group 3
The third group of torrents causing inundation in command area comprises Kaha and
Chachar hill torrents. The residual flood water from these torrents crosses the Dajal
Branch and in absence of proper lead channels, causes inundation in large tracts
between Jampur and Rajanpur. A system of two main drains, namely, Forest Drain
(29kms) and Bukhari Drain (23kms) has been proposed for safe disposal of excess
flood flows to the River Indus.
293
Figure 6: Existing and Proposed Drainage System

294
d) Group 4
This fourth and last group consists of Pitok, Sori Shumail, Zangi and Sori Janubi. The
first two streams i.e Pitok and Sori Shumail have saline effluent which is unfit for
irrigation. Accordingly, no flood dispersion structures etc have been proposed on these
torrents and the entire flow has been planned to be escaped into the River Indus.
Presently, the flood water from these torrents ponds up along the right bank of Kadra
Canal due to insufficient capacity and unfavorable location of the cross drainage
structures for these torrents.
A collector drain (40kms) parallel to the right bank of Kadra Canal has been proposed
to intercept flows for Pitok, Sori Shumali and a part of Zangi. The drain is proposed to
outfall in river Indus. In addition, two independent drains have also been proposed to
dispose of the excess flood flow crossing Kadra Canal and Dhundi Qutub Canal
upstream of the start of Collector Drain. These drains namely Umar Kot Drain and
Safdar Drain, shall be 7Km and 10kms in length respectively. The last torrent i.e. Sori
Janubi has a direct outfall into the Indus near the town of Rojhan.
1.17. Potohar Area Hill Torrents
Islamabad Capital Area, District Attock, Rawalpindi, Chakwal and Jehlam constitute
the Potohar area. Figure 7 shows details of Potohar Area.
Major part of the area is drained off to tributaries of River Indus and part area of District
chakwal and jehlam is drained off in River Jehlam.
A. Tributaries of River Indus
The following major river basins are tributaries of River Indus:
(a) Soan River and its tributaries,
(b) Kurang River
(c) Ling River
(d) Silo River, Large Number of Nallahs/Kus(s) and Haro River
(e) Soan & Haro Rivers are tributaries of Indus River while Kanshi, Kahan and
Bunha rivers are tributaries of Jhelum River. In addition to these rivers, there
are other numbers of nallahs which individually drain small areas.
(f) Major source of flow in the rivers is rainfall with small contribution of snow melt.
Principal volumes of run-off occurs during July-September and constitutes
about 60% of the total annual flow.
(g) The average annual rain fall varies from 305 mm (12 inches) in south west to
1520mm (60 inches) in the north east around Murree. North eastern part of
Area is one of the highest precipitation region of Pakistan. The Monsoon rainfall
increases from north west in Attock area to south east in Jhelum area. The
average annual rainfall for the Area is about 675mm. Soan River and its
tributaries drain major part of Area. The flow of Soan River is measured at
Chirah, Rawalpindi and Dhok Pathan. The drainage area of Soan River at
Chirah is 325 sq km (126 sq miles). Mean annual flow of Soan River is
182xx106m3 (148,000 acre-ft). It is not a perennial river and remains dry for a
295
number of days during non-Monsoon period. The maximum discharge of 3425

cumecs (121000 cfs) was recorded on 15th July 1977.
Figure 7: Potohar Area

296
The drainage area of Soan River near Rawalpindi gauging station is 1684 sq km (650
sq miles). The mean annual run-off is 655x106m3 (531000 acre-ft).
The average annual rainfall is 686mm (27 inches). The maximum peak of 4530 m 3/sec
(160000 cfs) was observed on 7th August 1982. The river is perennial at this point with
a minimum flow of 0.25 m3 /sec (9 cfs).
Soan River has a drainage area of 6475 sq km (2500 sq miles) upto the gauge site
near Dhok Pathan. The mean annual flow is 1406x103m3 (1,440,000 acre-ft).
Maximum peak of 7335m3/sec (259000 cfs) was recorded on 2nd August 1976 which
is equivalent to 8.55 inches of average annual run-off. Average annual rainfall upto
Dhok Pathan is about 675mm (27 inches). Dhok Pathan site almost represents the
accumulative run-off of the entire area because of its location.
Estimation of peak discharge for the design flood is an essential pre-requisite for flood
management structures, while annual run-off volumes of known return period with
monthly distribution together with available area for dispersion facilities form primary
requirements for planning of irrigation system. Table 3 shows the frequency analysis
for Haro, Soan, Ling, Kurang and Sil rivers at different sites for different return periods:
Table 3: Results of Frequency Analysis
Sr. Name of Return 2.33 –Yr. 5 – Yr. 10 – Yr. 25 – Yr. 50 – Yr. 100 – Yr
No. Station period
Unit
1 Haro River Cumec 419 653 844 1085 1264 1440

near
Khanpur Cusec 14799 23064 29810 38322 44644 50861
2 Haro River Cumec 880 1230 1515 1874 2141 2405

at Sanjwal
Cusec 31081 43443 53509 66189 75620 84944
3 Haro River Cumec 1195 1850 2383 3057 3556 4050

at Gariala
Cusec 42207 65342 84167 107973 125597 143045
4 Soan River Cumec 1120 1781 2320 3000 3504 4005

near Chirah Cusec 39558 62905 81942 105959 123761 141456
5 Soan River Cumec 1805 2635 3310 4163 4796 5425

near
Cusec 63752 93068 116909 147036 169394 191610
Rawalpindi
6 Soan River Cumec 3135 4693 5963 7568 8760 9940
at Dhok
Cusec 110728 165756 210612 267300 309401 351079
Pathan
7 Sil River Cumec 421 683 895 1164 1365 1560
near
Chahan Cusec 14870 24123 31611 41112 48212 55099
297
• Prospective Planning
Many of the Hill torrents in Potohar region have been dammed for storage, water
supply and command area development and about all have met the targets
substantially. For the remaining a detailed study is underway for harnessing them.
Up till now 62 Small dams have been constructed in Potohar area for drinking as well
as for agriculture use. Small Dams in Pothowar Area have been extremely useful and
have played a vital role in the development of agriculture. However, the statistics
indicate that there is sufficient potential for further land and water resources
exploitation. These resources, if fully utilized, can play vital role in the economy, social
uplift and develop positive environments in the Potohar area. The results in the
development of agriculture have been quite encouraging. The public has realized the
importance of water for agriculture which has provided an impetus for increase in
intensity and yield of crops in the area. The results are summarized as under:
- Net farm income has increased by 70%,
- Cropping intensity has increased by 25%,
- Livestock development has increased,
- Fish development has been initiated,
- Migration of farmers to urban areas has been reduced,
- Cost of land has gone up and
- Potable water supply to the area has increased
• Present Status
So for 62 small dams have been constructed and 8 dams are under feasibility stage.
In order to study development potential of the area, team of experts of various
disciplines carried out field visit of the area and observed that:.
- Beneficiaries have started taking keen interest in the development of agriculture of
the area
- The orchards / vegetables of the area have a very good market in the nearby twin
cities Rawalpindi/ Islamabad.
- Generally, the maintenance of existing dams was not upto the standard and there
was room for improvements, and recently World Bank has given loan for
Rehabilitation of constructed Small Dams including development of command area
and construction of few new dams.
- Average cost/acre of benefitted area is about Rs. 60000. This cost is much higher
than the cost of canal irrigated area, and three to four times the cost of development
in Baluchistan where mostly the local material is used for construction but is
sustainable in the particular scenario of Potohar.
- So far about 171 dam sites have been identified by Consultants of which Twenty
six sites are of high development potential. 20 high priority schemes have been
constructed in last 20 years and at present 5 schemes are under feasibility study
stage.
298
B. Tributaries of River Jehlam

The Following Rivers originated from Potohar area are tributaries of River Jehlam and
shown in Figure 8.
- Kanshi River
- Kahan River
- Bunha River
- Salt Zone Hill Torrents
a) Kanshi River
Kanshi River originates from area falling left side of GT road near Gujar khan and
finally drain off in River Jehlam upstream of Mangla Dam reservoir. Dungi Dam is
constructed over tributaries of Kanshi RiverKahan River
b) Kahan River
Kahan River drain of area of district Jehlam on rightt side of G T Road and out fall in
River Jehlam upstream of Rasul Barrage. Domeli Dam, Garat Dam, and Tainpura Dam
1 and Dam 2 are constructed on tributaries of kahan river near Dina Town.
c) Bunha River
Bunha River originate from Chakwal town and drain of area of district Chakwal and
Jehlam on right side of G T Road and out fall in River Jehlam upstream of Rasul
Barrage. Jammargal Dam is constructed on tributaries of Bunha river.
d) Salt Zone Hill Torrents
Salt range hill torrents are located on South west of Potohar area in district Chakwal
and Jhelum. The entire streams outfall in River Jhelum downstream of Rasul Barrage.
The important towns located in drainage area are Jalalpur, Pind Dadan Khan and
Khewra. No discharge data is available for the streams/nullahs of the salt range area.
Govt of Punjab has proposed construction of JalalPur Canal project which will offtake
from right bank of Rasul Barrage. During course of study of proposed Jala Pur Canal
Project, the rainfall runoff models were developed to estimate the design discharges
at cross drainage locations based on rainfall data available at Met station Jehlam.
The nullah discharges have been therefore estimated upto the well-defined nullah
portion as afterwards water spreads over large areas of land and contribution from the
remaining area will not be significant.
Strategy for conservation of water in this area is not possible because the torrent run-
off is highly saline therefore drainage crossings are proposed across the Jalapur canal
system to Jhelum River.
The area of different catchments varies from 2 acres minimum to 61,206 acres
maximum. Design capacity of hill torrent crossing structures for different return periods
shall vary as below:
299
Area Return Period and Discharge in cusec

Acres 5 yrs 10 yrs 25 yrs 40 yrs 100 yrs
Minimum 2 8 9 10 11 12
Maximum 61,205 38,748 46,986 57,340 62,537 72,554
Huge drainage network shall protect the canal command area as this spillage cannot
be stored elsewhere
Figure 8: Tributaries of River Jhelum

300
1.18. Hill Torrents of Rachna and Chaj Doab

A. General
The Area has two distinct hydrometeorology zones with Chenab River as the natural
separation line between the two zones. These zones comprise the parts of: a) Rachna
Doab and b) Chaj Doab.
Rachna and Chaj Doab Hill Torrents are located between longitude 74O 5’ to 75O 50’
East and latitudes 31O 0’ to 32O 59’ North, Jammua and Kashmir area in the North
Sindh Sugar Doab in the west, Chenab and Jhelum command areas in the south and
Indian Punjab Territory in the east. It encompasses an area of about 10538 sq km
(4069 sq miles). of which reported area is about 930514 ha.
The culturable waste in the Project Area is 178700 ha, which is not being cultivated at
present due to non-availability of water. This area is fit for cultivation and if water
resources can be conserved or brought into the area, it can be developed for crop
production. The climate of the area is Sub-Tropical. The major portion comes under
Sub-Humid Zone. It is characterized by large seasonal fluctuations in temperature and
precipitation. December and January are the coldest months with minimum
temperature as low as 20 0 C. May and June are the hottest months with maximum
temperature reaching upto 50 0 C. The average annual precipitation is 675mm and it
varies from 600mm in the southeast to 750mm in the north east. About 80% of rainfall
occurs during Monsoon season (Kharif). Rabi precipitation is generally scanty and
sporadic.
Ground water in the area occurs under water table condition in the un-consolidated
alluvium. The deep water quality of the area is generally good except a small area in
the southwest.
Major Irrigation Systems of Jehlam and Chenab Rivers originate in or around the
Project Area (Old Mangla Head works, Rasul Barrage, Marala Barrage, Khanki
Barrang and Qadirabad Barrage). Upper Jehlum Canal System, Lower Jehlum Canal
System, Upper Chenab Canal System, Lower Chenab Canal System and BRBD
System and three Link Canals, Rasul Qadirabad Link Canal, Qadirabad Balloki Link
Canal and Marala Ravi Link Canal pass through this Area. These canal systems
command millions of hectares of area. Marala Ravi Link Canal and BRBD canals have
strategic importance as they are located parallel/near the international boundary.
B. Jhelum River Basin
The Jhelum River takes its rise in Kashmir, about 62 miles south-east of Srinagar. The
part basin map of the Jhelum River is shown in Figure-8 It is located between Indus
and Chenab River catchments, draining basin area at confluence with Chenab River.
Downstream of Mangla dam, the River changes its course in south-westerly direction.
On left bank, The Jhelum is joined by Suketar Nallah, Bandar Kas and Jabba Kas
nallahs crossing Upper Jehlum canal, between Mangla and Jhelum cities, draining
some 310 sq. miles of area south-east of Mangla Reservoir. The cross drainage
301
structures (Level Crossings) are maintained by Jhelum Division of Upper Jhelum

Canal circle.
C. Chenab River Basin
The Chenab River has 10 major tributaries. Chandra Bhaga, Bhut and Maru constitute
the upper catchment of the river in India and Indian held state of Jammu and Kashmir.
All other tributaries join the river in Pakistan territory. These tributaries drain an area
of 4571 sq km (1765 sq miles).
The Area is comparatively high rain fall area and posses large run-off potential. It has
been estimated that run-off of the order of about 1.42x109m3 (1.10 MAF) is generated.
If this would be conserved it could bring large part of culturable waste under cultivation.
Chenab River enters Pakistan about 7 miles upstream of Marala Barrage, which is the
Rim Station of Chenab River. The total catchment area upstream of Marala is about
10,800 sq. miles. A number of nallahs, namely Dowara-I, Dowara-II, Halsi, Bhimber
and Palkhu covering a total drainage area of 1,470 Sq. miles join Chenab River
between Marala Barrage and Khanki Barrage. Salient Features of Main nallahs of
Chenab River are given in Table 4.
Table 4: Salient Features of Main Tributaries of Chenab River
Tributary Length Average Slopes Catchment Highest
Area Elevation
above MSL
Km Miles m/km Ft/mile Sq. Km Sq. m Ft.
mile
Doara-I 50 31 8.9 47.0 259 100 694 2276
Doara-II 56 35 8.6 45.5 342 132 714 2341
Halsi 56 35 2.7 14.5 217 84 381 1250
Bhimber 103 64 5.1 27.0 1075 415 762 2500
Palkhu 121 75 3.3 17.5 2054 793 619 2030
a) Ravi Basin Tributaries
Ravi River Basin has five main tributaries/Nallahs in the Rachna Doaab.
These are Ujh, Bein, Basantar, Deg, and Hudiara. All these tributaries except Ujh join
Ravi in Pakistan. These tributaries drain a total catchment area of about 5727 sq km
(2211 sq miles). High flows of these tributaries sometimes synchronize with Ravi River
discharge which results in higher flood peaks in the channel. Snow-melt does not have
significant influence on the flood peaks due to the fact that its contribution does not
synchronize with the flows generated by the rainfall. Different salient features of Main
Tributaries of Ravi River are given in Table 5.
302
Table 5: Salient Features of Main Tributaries of Ravi River

Tributary Length Average Catchment Area Highest
Slopes Elevation above
MSL
Km Miles m/km Ft/mile Sq. Km Sq. mile m Ft.
Ujh River 128 80 32 169 1748 675 4115 13497

Bein Nallah 77 48 6 31 896 346 621 2037
Basantar 72 45 6 31 632 244 671 2200
Nallah
Deg Nallah 258 160 7 37 1181 456 2012 6600
Hudiara 100 62 0.2 1 1510 583 259 850
Nallah
All these tributaries except Ujh join Ravi in Pakistan. These tributaries drain a total
catchment area of about 5727 sq km (2211 sq miles). High flows of these tributaries
sometimes synchronize with Ravi River discharge which results in higher flood peaks
in the channel. Snow-melt does not have significant influence on the flood peaks due
to the fact that its contribution does not synchronize with the flows generated by the
rainfall.
1.19. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE WEIRS
Assume a weir is to be built in a stream with characteristics as follows:
Slope of the stream bed i = 1.5%
Design discharge Q = 30 cumecs.
Width of the torrent bed I = 20 m
Depth of the uniform flow
𝑄 3/5 30 3/5
(z3 – f3) = ( ) =( ) = 0.58 m
𝐶 𝑋 𝑙 𝑋( 𝑖)0.5 30 𝑋 20 𝑋( 0.015)0.5
Value considered for coefficient C = 30 (Strickler)
𝑄 30
Velocity of the uniform flow: V = ( ) = (20 𝑋0.58) = 2.58 m/sec
𝑙(𝑧3−𝑓3)
Critical Velocity Vc = ( g(z3-f3)) 0.5 =( 9.81 X 0.58) 0.5 =2.38 m/sec
Since V> V c, the flow is supercritical
Case 1: Weir with unlined stilling pool floor. Figure A
Height of Crest
Suppose the width of the rectangular crest is kept 75 % of channel width lg = 7.5 m
𝑄 30
q = 𝐼𝑔 = 7.5 = 4 cu.m/s/m
Assuming q = 4 cu.m/s/m, from the straight line corresponding to µ = 0.4 in Figure B
303
we get: zo - fg = 1.7 m.
The same result is obtained by applying the formula:
Q=u x lg (Z0 – f g ) ( 2g (Z0 – f g )) 0.5
The height of the crest is therefore established as follows:
fa – fg = 2 m.
Depth of scour from Schoklitsch’s formula:
Z3 - fb = ( 4.75 (Z0 – Z3 ) 0.2 x q 0.57 ) / d t 0.32 Assuming dt = 100 mm.
Z3 - fb = ( 4.75 (4.12 ) 0.2 x 4 0.57 ) / 100 0.32 = 3.18 m
The same result is obtained if z3 - fb is taken from the straight line q = 4 cu.m/s/m, with
dt = 100 mm, in Figure C.
Therefore, f3 – fb = 3.18 – 0.58 = 2.6 m.
In order to avoid having to construct deep foundations (50 cm at least below elevation
fb) it is decided to build a counter weir Figure D to increase the downstream water
level, thus reducing the scour depth.
The width of the counter weir crest is assumed Ic = 12 m, (60 % of the bed width of
channel) therefore:
𝑄 30
qc = = = 2.5 m3/s/m
𝐼𝑐 12
The flow over the counter weir is given by:
Q=u x lc (Z2 – fc ) ( 2g (Z2 – fc )) 0.5
𝑄 0.667 30
Z2 - fc = ((𝑢 0.5 ) =( )0.667 = 1.26 m
𝑋 𝑙𝑐 𝑋(2𝑔) (0.4 𝑋 12 𝑋(2 𝑋 9.81)0.5
result is obtained from Figure B with q = 2.5 cu.m/s/m and µ = 0.4.
Once established that the height of the counter weir must be fc – f3 = 0.5 m,
from the Schoklitsch formula or from Figure C, with q = 4 cu.m/s/m and
zo – z2 (≅ z3) = 2.95 m, we find from the straight line dt = 100 mm that z3 – fb = 2.97 m,
therefore f3 – fb = 1.22 m,
The foundation level can thus be established 2 m below f b
The counter weir is located 10 m away from the weir.
Calculation of zv:
𝑄2 302
𝑍𝑉 − 𝑓0 = (𝑓𝑔 −𝑓𝑏 )( 3 )0.22 = (3 )((9.81 )0.22 = 1.10 m
(𝑔 𝑋 𝐥𝟐𝐛 𝑋(𝑓𝑔 −𝑓𝑏 ) 𝑋 𝟏𝟖𝟐 𝑋(3)3
Check of the seepage

According to Bligh’s formula, L must be equal to or larger than C X ∆ H; assume the
weir is to be built on sediments (C = 6), L> 6 x 3.6 = 21.6 m,
The developed length of the weir foundation is not sufficient, therefore a backfilled
apron having a total length of 5 m is located upstream of the weir.
304
Check of the stability

Supposing the gabions are filled with limestone rocks (Ys = 2600 kg/cu.m) from 15 to
25 cm size, the density of the filled gabion results, from Figure E , yg = 1800 kg/cu.m.
The density of the gabion saturated with water is:
Yg1 = Ys (1 – n) = nYw = 2600 X 0.7 + 0.3 X 1000 = 2120 kg/cu.m.
Sedimentary soil: Ys = 2200 (1 – 0.2) + 0.2X1000 = 1960 kg/cu.m
is the density of the saturated soil
Ytw = (Ys - Yw) (1 – n) = (2200 – 1000) (1-0.2) = 960 kg/cu.m
Forces
1
Hwm = 2 [(h1+h2+h3)2 – h12]
1
Hwm = [(1.7+3+2)2 – 1.72] = 21,000 kg applied at 2.23 m above EF. Refer Figure F
2
1 1 𝜋 ᵩ 35𝑜
Hwm = Yw (h4 + h5)2 λa = 2x960 (3+2)2 x0.27=3,240 kg where λa = tg2 (4 - 2) =tg2
2
(45o - 2
) =
0.27 (considering ᵩ = 35 ) applied at 1.66 m above EF.

o
1 2 960
Htv = h X λa 2 X22 X0.27 =518 kg applied at 0.66 m above
2 5
EF.
6700+3100
Sw = 2
X 6 = 29,400 kg applied at 3.35 m from F.
Pg1 = (4x2) x 1800 = 14,400 kg (weight of dry gabions)
Pg2 = (5x2+6x1) x 2120 = 33,920 kg (weight of saturated gabions)
5𝑥2.5+5𝑥2.5+6𝑥3
Coordinates of the center of gravity of the saturated part Xg2 = = 2.69 m
16
6𝑥0.5+5𝑥1.5+5𝑥2.5
Yg2 = = 1.44 m
16
Weight of the water over the crest:
Pw1 = ≅ (1.13x4) x 1000 = 4,520 kg applied at 2 m from F.
Weight of the water over the steps:
Pw2 = ≅ (1.13x2) x 1000 = 2,260 kg applied at 5 m from F.
Pt = ≅ (4x1+2x1) x 1960 = 11.760 kg applied at 5.17 m from F.
Checking of the overturning
𝑀𝑠 𝑃𝑔1𝑋𝑿𝑔1+𝑃𝑔2𝑋𝑿𝑔2+𝑃𝑤1𝑋2,00+𝑃𝑤2𝑋5,00+𝑃𝑡𝑋5,17+𝐻𝑤𝑤𝑋1,03+𝐻𝑡𝑣𝑥0,66
Sr =
𝑀𝑟
= 𝐻𝑤𝑀𝑥2,23+𝐻𝑡𝑀𝑥1,66+𝑆𝑤𝑋3,35
1400𝑋2,00+33920𝑋2,69+4520𝑋2,00+2260𝑋5,00+11760𝑋5,17+4805𝑋1,03+518𝑋0,66=
= = 1,37> 1,3
𝐻𝑤𝑀𝑥2,23+𝐻𝑡𝑀𝑥1,66+𝑆𝑤𝑋3,35
Checking of the sliding

∑𝑉𝑋𝑡𝑔Ҩ (𝑃𝑔1 + 𝑃𝑔2 + 𝑃𝑤1 + 𝑃𝑤2 + 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑆𝑤)𝑋 0,7 =
𝑆𝑠 = =
∑𝐻 𝐻𝑤𝑚 + 𝐻𝑡𝑚 − 𝐻𝑤𝑣 − 𝐻1𝑣
(14400+33920+4520+2260+11760−29400)𝑋0,7
= 21000+3240−4805−518
= 1,39> 1,3
Pressure distribution
𝐵 𝑀𝑠−𝑀𝑟 6 206,475−150,698
e= 2
- ∑𝑉
= 2
- 37,460
= 1.51 m
The resultant is external to the middle third:
∑𝑉 37,460
Ómax = 2 3𝑥𝑋𝐹𝑥100 = 2 3𝑥149𝑥100 = 1.68 kg/cm2
305
Second Case
Weir with lined stilling pool floor, jump control by broad crested weir. Figure G
Crest
See the preceding calculation
Design of the counter weir and stilling pool
Considering Ib = 18 m,
𝑄2 𝑄2
from formula (zo - fb) + = (z1-fb) +
2𝑔ᾨ𝑜^2 2𝑔 (𝑍1−𝑓𝑜)2 ∗𝑓𝑏^2
which by applying the allowed approximation may be simplified as follows:
𝑄
Z1-fb =
𝑓𝑏(2𝑔 (𝑍1−𝑓𝑜))0.5
Or, in a shorter way , from Figure H being
𝑄
𝐼𝑏
= 1.66 cu.m/s/m, it results from interpolation z1 - fb = 0.165 m
From the formula:
(𝑧1−𝑓𝑏) 2𝑄2 (𝑧1−𝑓𝑏)^2
(z2 - fb) =
2
+( 2 2 + 4
)^0.5
𝑔𝑓𝑏 (𝑍1−𝑓𝑏)
𝑄
as well as from Figure H with z1-fb = 0.165 and 𝐼𝑏 = 1.66 cu.m/s/m
a value of z2-fb = 1.65 m is obtained on the dashed segments.
The flow over the counter weir is given by the formula applied in the preceding case, therefore
z2-fb = 1.25 m
The height of the counter weir will therefore be fc-fb = 1.65-1.25 = 0.4 m
The developed length of the stilling pool must be:Lb=Lg1+L12=3.36 + 6.9 (1.65-0.165) = 13.61
m. A value of Lb=14 m will be adopted
Check of seepage
According to Bligh’s formula, L must be equal to or larger than c ^∆ H; assume the weir as
built on sediments (c-6)
L ≅6x4.12 = 24.72 m,
The developed length of the designed weir foundation is sufficient.
An apron is constructed downstream the counter weir to prevent the latter from being
undermined: the length of this apron will be approx. 3 m.
Check of the uplift
The most dangerous point is considered to be in the proximity of point X, in correspondence
with which z1 is formed.
The foundation of the apron is lowered by 1m between points F and G in order to increase the
weight of the apron in correspondence with point X.
𝑍𝑜−𝑧3
P = Yw [(z0-zx) – 𝐿1 y] = 1000
4.12
[7.7- 33 16.64] = 5622 kg.
Sg = (Yg1 + Yw h)=(1960x3+1000x0.165)=1.07
5622
The check is acceptable, in as much the results are satisfactory at the contiguous points.
Check of the stability
Same as in the first case
306
Figure 9: Weir with unlined stilling pool floor

307
Figure 10: Graph of X and (Zo-fg)

308
Figure 11: Depth of Scour according to Schoklitsch Formula

309
Figure 12: Counter Weir

310
Figure 13: Density of Gabions

311
Figure 14: Forces acting on the Weir structure

312
Figure 15: Weir with lined stilling pool floor, jump control by broad crested
weir
313
Figure 16: Graph of (Z1-fb)

314
1.20. References
1. National Engineering Services Pakistan (PVT) Limited, Master Feasibility
Studies for Flood Management of Hill Torrents of Pakistan, November 1998,
Seven Volumes.
2. Kachhi Canal Project, Management of KC-2 & KC-4 Hill Torrents, July 2006.
3. National Engineering Services Pakistan (PVT) Limited, Flood Management of
D. G. Khan Hill Torrents, December 1984.
4. Feasibility Studies of Small Dams
5. Hydrology of Jalalpur Canal Project updated by Nespak
6. Flexible weirs for River Training and water supply MACCAFERRI GABIONS
YOGOSLAVIA
7. Pakistan Engineering Congress International Symposium on Management of
Hill Torrents 1995
8. Zaidi, S.M.A Management of Kaha Hill Torrent Paper No. 189. 1995- Pakistan
Engineering Congress
9. Ch Shafique Ahmed Hilltorrent management initiatives in southern part of
Punjab, an overview impact analysis & way forward Paper No 746 - Pakistan
Engineering Congress
i
GROUNDWATER – OPTIMAL USE & MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents
1. GROUNDWATER – OPTIMAL USE & MANAGEMENT ............................................. 315
1.1. Groundwater Occurrence in Punjab........................................................................ 315
1.1.1. Hydro-Geologic Set-up: Geology and Soils of Punjab ......................................... 315
1.1.2. Aquifer Characteristics ........................................................................................ 318
1.1.3. Groundwater Recharge and Discharge Parameters ............................................ 319
1.1.4. Groundwater Potential ........................................................................................ 322
1.1.5. Groundwater Levels and Flows ........................................................................... 323
1.1.6. Groundwater Quality ........................................................................................... 324
1.1.7. Groundwater Use in Punjab ................................................................................ 325
1.1.8. Artificial Recharge Techniques............................................................................ 326
1.1.9. Areas Needing Immediate Attention for GW Recharge ....................................... 327
1.2. Conjunctive Use ..................................................................................................... 328
1.2.1. Tube Wells .......................................................................................................... 329
1.2.2. Safe Yield ........................................................................................................... 334
1.3. Monitoring of Groundwater ..................................................................................... 336
1.3.1. Monitoring of Groundwater Levels ...................................................................... 337
1.3.2. Monitoring Groundwater Quality.......................................................................... 339
1.4. Groundwater Management Challenges .................................................................. 340
1.4.1. Saving Life and Bread......................................................................................... 341
1.4.2. Lack of Institutional Linkage ................................................................................ 345
1.4.3. Weak Linkage with the Users .............................................................................. 346
1.5. Pragmatic Groundwater Management Approach .................................................... 346
1.5.1. PID Efforts in the Past ......................................................................................... 347
1.5.2. Options for GW Management Framework ........................................................... 347
1.5.3. Institutional Set-up under Future Scenario .......................................................... 348
1.5.4. Groundwater Management under Existing Scenario ........................................... 349
1.5.5. Strategy and Action Plan for GW Management ................................................... 349
1.5.6. Groundwater Management Interventions ............................................................ 349
1.6. Legal Framework for Groundwater Management.................................................... 351
1.6.1. GOP Policies/Approach for GW Management & Regulation in the Past .............. 351
1.6.2. Groundwater Regulatory Framework Developed in the Past ............................... 351
ii
1.6.3. Groundwater Regulatory Framework – under Development................................ 353

1.7. Practitioner’s Toolkit ............................................................................................... 353
List of Tables
TABLE 1: RANGE OF VALUES FOR HYDRAULIC PARAMETERS IN PUNJAB PLAIN ......................................... 321
TABLE 2: GROUNDWATER BALANCE OF PUNJAB (51 MA AREA)................................................................ 322
TABLE 3: IRRIGATION W ATER QUALITY CRITERIA OF DLR (PID) .............................................................. 339
TABLE 4: RESULTS OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY CHECKS BY PCRWR .................................................... 343
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: HISTORIC BEHAVIOR OF GROUNDWATER LEVELS IN PUNJAB.................................................... 316
FIGURE 2: GROUNDWATER LEVELS IN PUNJAB ........................................................................................ 323
FIGURE 3: GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN PUNJAB ............................................ 324
FIGURE 4: GROWTH OF TUBEWELLS IN PUNJAB....................................................................................... 326
FIGURE 5: STRATA CHART AND DESIGN OF A SHALLOW TUBEWELL .......................................................... 332
FIGURE 6: AREAS WITH DECLINING GROUNDWATER LEVELS (FT/GLS) .................................................... 338
FIGURE 7: RISING GWL TRENDS IN DGK IRRIGATION ZONE 2003-16 (FEET/GLS)................................... 338
FIGURE 8: INCREASING SALINITY IN SOME AREAS 2003-13 (DS/M) .......................................................... 340
FIGURE 9: W OMEN COLLECTING DRINKING WATER FROM SKIMMING HAND PUMP IN RY KHAN ..................... 341
FIGURE 10: DECLINE OF GWL IN KAMALIA AREA (FEET/GLS) ................................................................. 345
315
1. GROUNDWATER – OPTIMAL USE & MANAGEMENT

1.1. Groundwater Occurrence in Punjab
Agriculture is the main stay of about 65% population of the Province. The average
annual rainfall is around 388 mm (15 inches) whereas the evaporation is about 1500
mm (about 60 inches. Hence, dependable irrigation system (surface and/or
groundwater) is but a sine qua non. The total area of the Punjab is about 51 MA of
which 24.6 MA is under the irrigation system commanded by 24 major canals.
Presently, about 40 MA of land is under the plough and wheat, cotton, rice and sugar
cane are the main crops. Punjab’s share of canal water supplies at the head-works,
are of the order of 56 MAF, which are grossly inadequate to sustain the present level
of agriculture. Groundwater has played key role in meeting the increasing crop water
requirements and poverty alleviation in rural areas of Punjab Province. Nearly 90
percent of the total groundwater abstraction is being used for agriculture while industry
and domestic supplies consume the remaining 10 percent.
1.1.1. Hydro-Geologic Set-up: Geology and Soils of Punjab
Punjab Plain forms a part of the Indus Basin – lying at the foot of the Himalayas with
general slope form NE to SW. The province is underlain by different types of geological
formations ranging from the hilly plateaus and gullies in Pothwar Plateau and Suleiman
Range to the alluvial plain in the central part of Punjab, with more or less desert
conditions in Thal and the Cholistan Desert. Sediments underlying the Punjab Plain
were deposited in a continuously subsiding basin (The Teythis). Simultaneous rising
of the Himalayas, subsidence of the basin, and regression of the sea resulted in the
deposition of a huge alluvial complex. The sediments deposited during the process
retained the brackish/saline water trapped in them – showing highly saline
groundwater. The rivers kept on adjusting their profiles of equilibrium to maintain their
flow regimes. During the Quaternary Era (for the last 25,000 years) the meandering
rivers flushed these sediments in their flood plains and hence, the chemical quality of
groundwater is generally:
Fresh in the areas along the rivers;
Brackish/saline in the central parts of the Doabs;
Generally fresh in the Pothwar Plateau;
At the foot of Suleiman Range (DG Khan and Rajanpur districts), it is
fresh along the Indus and brackish on the piedmont slopes; and
Predominantly brackish-saline in the Cholistan Desert.
During the last century, a weir controlled irrigation system was superimposed on these
areas. Seepage from the canal system and irrigated fields has formed shallow fresh
groundwater lenses/ layers on top of the saline groundwater zones.
Historic Behavior of Groundwater Regime: The main source of groundwater in
the Punjab lies within the alluvial plain where the water bearing formations range in
thickness up to more than 800m (more than 2500 feet – groundwater investigations
by WAPDA in Bari Doab indicate that the thickness of the alluvial sediments ranges
from around 1000 feet in Lahore to more than 2500 feet near Multan). Punjab Plain is
316
sub-divided into six hydro-geological areas/Doabs by the Indus River and its tributaries
viz.:
1)Thal Doab, 4) Bari Doab,
2) Chaj Doab, 5) Bahawalpur area &
3) Rechna Doab, 6) D.G. Khan Area –at the foot of Suleiman Range.
Before the introduction of the weir controlled irrigation system - rivers were the major
source of groundwater recharge in addition to the rainfall. In those times – the
groundwater levels were relatively shallow near the rivers and ranged up to more than
30m (100 feet) depth below the land surface towards the central parts of the Doabs –
which were relatively higher. Groundwater flow was from the rivers towards the central
parts of the Doabs. With the implementation of the irrigation system - seepage water
from the canals, water courses and irrigated farms became the major source of
groundwater recharge and reversed the groundwater flow system – and the rivers
became effluent during low flows. Based on the groundwater investigations by
WAPDA in 1960s the groundwater table conditions in Rechna Doab - before and after
the irrigation system are shown in the Figure 1 – given below.
Figure 1: Historic Behavior of Groundwater Levels in Punjab
Existing Scenario in the Groundwater Regime: However, there are still

remnants of saline groundwater zones in the central parts of the Doabs. As per
available data 25 % of the canal command area has brackish to saline groundwater.
For groundwater assessment, the Province can be divided into four hydro-geological
zones as briefly discussed below:
I Pothwar Plateau & Salt Range: This part of the province comprises a
number of inter-mountain valleys and basins. Districts of Attock,
Rawalpindi, Chakwal and Jhelum fall under this type of topographic set-
317
up. Indus and Soan rivers flow in this part of the province. Sub-surface
strata underlying these parts of the province form intercalations of clay,
sands of various grades and gravels and conglomerates.Groundwater,
generally, occurs under water table conditions in these areas and is
being exploited through a large number of small capacity tubewells
(commonly less than 1.0 cusec discharge) for drinking purposes and
meeting the crop water requirements in dry seasons. Depth to
groundwater level (DTW) ranges from 4-5 m to more than more than 20.
Near the base of hills the DTW is generally more and central parts of the
small valleys or near the rivers (such as Soan) the DTW is relatively
shallow. Quality of groundwater is generally fresh except in some areas,
e.g. near Khewra Salt Mines, and is being used for drinking and
agricultural purposes.
II. Piedmont Areas along Suleiman Range: These areas comprise
the piedmont slopes from the base of Suleiman Range towards Indus
River and are underlain by the intercalations of gravels, sand and clays
– with clay deposits increasing in thickness towards the Indus River –
before inter mixing with the alluvial sediments laid by Indus River, which
are predominantly sands. Under Poleflucraft Force, due to rotation of
earth from west to east, the rivers in the northern hemisphere have been
shifting their beds towards the right bank – and Indus River also kept on
shifting its bed towards right bank and near DG Khan it flows on a higher
limb like a hockey. Groundwater in this part of the province – generally -
occurs under water table conditions and the depth to water gradually
decreases from the base of the hills towards Indus River. DTW ranges
from more than 30 m (even more in some areas) near the base of hills
to about 4-5 m as we move towards the river. Groundwater quality is
generally fresh at the base of the hills and deteriorates towards the lower
parts. Another phenomenon - impact of the “Hill Torrents” emerging from
The Suleiman Range - also influences the groundwater quality. Some of
the Hill Torrents originate in the saline rocks and carry highly saline
groundwater in spite of the fact that these carry the surface flows.
III. Alluvial Plains of Central Punjab: These areas comprise areas
underlain by active and abandoned flood plains of the five rivers and Bar
Uplands in the central parts of the Doabs (interfluves), forming the
divides between the two rivers. Strata underlying these areas comprise
the alluvial sediments deposited by the rivers comprising sands of
various grades with intercalations of clay and gravel. Groundwater
occurs under water table conditions with depth to water table (DTW)
ranging from less than a meter to more than 30 meters (>100 feet)
depending upon the distance from the rivers, as DTW is generally
shallow along the rivers and increases towards the central parts of the
Doabs. Quality of groundwater is generally fresh along the rivers and
saline in the central parts of the Doab.
318
IV. Cholistan Desert: The Cholistan Desert, also locally known as Rohi,
sprawls thirty kilometers from Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan and covers
an area of 26,300 square kilometers. It adjoins the Thar Desert,
extending over to Sindh and into India. The Cholistan Desert is underlain
by alluvial sediments from the Indus River System and also in some
parts the abandoned bed of Hakra River sediments – predominantly
sands of various grades intercalated with clay layers. Depth to water
table ranges from a few meters to more than 25 m in the area and
sediments being tapped for groundwater in the bed of the Hakra River
system. Practically there are two water tables viz. in the sediments under
the influence of existing irrigation system and the ones deposited by
Hakra River.Groundwater quality is generally fresh along the main
canals and in Hakra River Bed – however, excessive pumping in the
area is resulting in continuous decline of water levels in the wells
installed in the abandoned river bed.
1.1.2. Aquifer Characteristics
General Picture of Prevailing Field Conditions: Around 1,000,000 public and
private tubewells are being operated in the province to meet, drinking, industrial and
agricultural requirements and around 90% of groundwater is being used for
augmenting the irrigation supplies by the farmers though private tubewells.
Parameters Controlling Groundwater Development: The major parameters
governing the groundwater development in an area include aquifer characteristics
controlling storage and flow of groundwater and existing pumping pattern in an area.
Naturally certain groundwater investigations are carried out (particularly in a new area
– as WAPDA carried out detailed groundwater investigations in the province during
1960s). Other modern techniques – such as satellite imagery are also available –
however, these are normally beneficial in case of a large scale groundwater
development - such as a basin or Doab – and only give broad picture. For the
development of dependable water source (s) for drinking, agriculture or industrial use
– it may be adequate to take a clear look around on the groundwater conditions, its
use and response of the aquifer – based on the previous investigations and existing
monitoring data.The major parameters controlling groundwater development and
sustainable use include:
Aquifer’s characteristics – or water bearing properties of the underlying
strata and their distribution in aerial and vertical as discussed below;
Groundwater quality – and its variation in aerial and vertical extent –
particularly for drinking water sources;
Depth to water table – and its long term behavior - based on some
monitoring data;
Existing groundwater use and future plans – particularly in case of large
scale development project.
Aquifer Parameters: During the detailed groundwater investigations by WAPDA
– in the Punjab Province around 2500 deep test bore holes were drilled – ranging in
319
depth from 600 feet to 1500 feet - to ascertain the distribution of alluvial sediments
underlying the Province. For determining the aquifers’ hydraulic characteristics – 140
pump-out tests on the tubewells installed as part of investigational program were also
conducted. The main aquifer characteristics – which govern the groundwater flow and
storage, are:
Permeability (K) of the Aquifer Material – the property of sediments to
transmit water under a unit gradient. Value of horizontal permeability as
compared to vertical permeability is very high say even more than 20 -
30 times.
Transmissivity (T) of Aquifer – or property of aquifer material to
transmit water through a particular section;
Storage Coefficient or Specific Yield of the aquifer(S) – controlling
the volume of water per unit volume of aquifer;
Specific Capacity of Tubewell – is drawdown inside the well in
response to various rates of pumping. This parameter reflects the
aquifers’ property and also the appropriate design – as excessive
drawdown increases pumping cost – apart from the construction cost the
tubewell. Under the given field conditions – appropriate selection of
depth and diameter of the bore holes and pipes and screens affects the
specific capacity of tubewell - saving long term expenditure on pumping.
Based on the detailed groundwater investigations by WAPDA and analysis of data
from the long pump out tests range of aquifer parameters for the four Doabs are given
in Table 1.
1.1.3. Groundwater Recharge and Discharge Parameters
Major sources of groundwater recharge and discharge in the Punjab Province are as
discussed below:
Recharge Parameters: Major groundwater recharge parameters are as below:
❖ Recharge from the rainfall varies from about 20 % in the northern
Punjab to about 5 % in the southern part of the Province (average 10%
of 388 mm rainfall over 20.6 M ha (or 51 MA). Studies carried out under
Punjab Private Sector groundwater Development Project (PPSGDP) by
PID – WB, 1997-2001) indicated the rainfall recharge in different
hydrogeological zones, viz. Multan, Faislabad, Lahore and Sialkot as
below:
Zone Average Average Percent of
Rainfall (in) Recharge (in) Rain
Multan 6 1.0 16.6
Faisalabad 10 2.3 23.0
Lahore 16 3.6 22.5
Multan 25 5.6 22.4
320
❖ Seepage from the irrigation system (canals, watercourses and

irrigated fields) is estimated to be 35-40 % of the discharge at the head
works (say 38 % of 56 MAF or 67 BCM of surface water);
❖ Return flow from the groundwater use is around 15-20 percent of the
pumped water (say 7-8 MAF or 9-10 BCM); and
❖ Effluent discharge from the rivers – in Chaj Doab Jhelum River
recharges groundwater regime near Shahpur whereas Chenab receives
the groundwater flow in this part of the Doab.
Discharge Parameters: Major groundwater discharge parameters include:
➢ Abstraction form around 1,000,000 public and private tubewells –
ranging from 35 to 40 MAF ( 40 to 50 BCM) depending upon wet and/or
dry year,
➢ Non-beneficial evapo-transpiration (ET) from areas with shallow
groundwater levels;
➢ Base flow to the rivers – as under the existing conditions the
groundwater table is relatively higher than the river base flow in the dry
part of the year.
321
Table 1: Range of Values for Hydraulic Parameters in Punjab Plain

322
1.1.4. Groundwater Potential

Under the average climatic conditions and as in the case of drought conditions - the
groundwater balance of the Province is more or less as shown in Table 2 given below
(Study by Irrigation Department and ADB for FODP, 2012).
Table 2: Groundwater Balance of Punjab (51 MA area)
Parameter Water Balance (MAF)

Average Drought
GW Recharge Components
Conditions Conditions
Rainfall recharge 6.5 4.6
Recharge from irrigation system 21.6 17.0
Return flow from GW abstraction 6.8 7.2
Recharge from the River System 1.1 2.0
Total 36.0 30.8
GW Discharge Components
Groundwater abstraction 34.0 36.0
ET losses in shallow water table areas 2.0 1.0
Total 36.0 37.0
Net Balance 0 - (6-7 MAF)
The above figures indicate the order of magnitude of groundwater recharge and
discharge components at province level. However, some of areas in the Province
indicate that the aquifer is already under stress (generally with deep water table
conditions and in the tail reaches of the canals) – the situation worsens during drought
conditions. Accordingly, it is high time that stress has to be laid on water conservation
and efficient irrigation technologies – in line with the field conditions. While estimating
the potential or safe yield of individual areas/basins special attention has to be paid to
the prevailing groundwater conditions and especially the aerial and vertical distribution
of groundwater quality in the area of interest. Any excessive pumping resulting in
continuous drawdown - particularly in the areas underlain by saline groundwater or
located near the FGW and SGW fringe – may result in deterioration of groundwater
quality due to lateral or vertical movement of saline groundwater.
In future - pragmatic groundwater management measures by the farmers in
collaboration with the public institutions can help to increase the potential by
minimizing the non-beneficial discharge and increasing the groundwater recharge for
example by diverting the flood water into the areas suffering from excessive
drawdowns and less recharge under the present conditions.
G o Punjab and Irrigation Department are already in the process of developing a
comprehensive groundwater management action plan – as discussed in the
subsequent sections.
323
1.1.5. Groundwater Levels and Flows

General Picture of Groundwater Levels and Flow: Depth to water below the land
surface in the Province ranges from less than a meter in the areas near the major
canals, to more than 20 m (65 ft) in the central parts of the Doabs and even up to 100
m at the foot of Suleiman Range and Pothwar Plateau. General groundwater
movement is from northeast to southwest with gradients raging around 3.3 E-3 to 4.0
E-3.
However, due to intensive pumping in some areas, local depressions in the water table
have been developed – like in and around Lahore City - a sort of cup shaped - large
cone of depression in the water table has developed. Based on the studies in the past
by PID, a general picture of GWL distribution in the province is shown in Figure 2 given
below.
Figure 2: Groundwater Levels in Punjab

324
1.1.6. Groundwater Quality

Groundwater quality in the Province, generally, is fresh along the rivers and major
canals and brackish to saline in the central parts of the Doabs and some areas at the
base of Suleiman Range as shown in the Figure 3 given below. Due to the seepage
from irrigation system shallow layers/lens of fresh groundwater has formed in many
areas in the central parts of the Doabs - underlain with saline groundwater. These
fresh groundwater layers are also being tapped by thousands of skimming wells.
Figure 3: General Distribution of Groundwater Quality in Punjab

325
Regular checks on the groundwater quality are necessary to avoid any negative
impact on the groundwater regime – as it provides more than 90% of water for drinking
as well as for agriculture. Intensive pumping from about 1,000,000 PTWS also plays
a large role in deterioration of groundwater quality – as the farmers’ TWs are mainly
concentrated in the FGW areas and intensive pumping in these areas lowers the
watertable inducing groundwater flow from the SGW zones. Use of irrigation water
and groundwater for agriculture also promotes salinization of the irrigated lands –
whereas leaching by farmers and sometimes floods also help in washing down the
salts.
1.1.7. Groundwater Use in Punjab
Annual groundwater abstraction in Punjab has increased from about one MAF in 1947,
to 35-40 MAF depending upon the crop water requirements from year to year. As a
result of this development, the cropping intensity gradually increased from 80 % in
1947 to 100 % around 1960 and lately around 130 % (up to more than 150 % in some
of the areas) in the Province. Population growth and increasing demand of water for
irrigation, water supply, industry and environmental needs would further boost its
importance in the years to come
At the time of independence – we inherited a twin menace of water logging and salinity
– due to continuous seepage from the weir controlled irrigation system in operation
since the previous century. Under the salinity control and water logging program
around 10,000 SCARP tubewells were installed. Initial success of these tubewells in
lowering of water table in the water logged areas and provision of timely irrigation
water “at the farm level” inspired the farmers to install their own tubewells for
supplementing canal supplies. This suited the government also as it helped in
producing more food through the participation of private sector and the then policy of
pumping more water for controlling water logging.
Transfer of the responsibility for the development of fresh groundwater to the private
sector in 1981 – through agricultural policy and availability of 12-16 HP centrifugal
pumps (Peter Pumps) enticed framers for a marathon race for private tubewells and
currently there are around 1,000,000 tubewells in the Province – and 90% of
groundwater being pumped is used for agriculture.Of these, around 90 % of private
tubewells (PTWs) are being operated by the farmers and their pumping capacity is
generally within one cusec. Growth of tubewells in the province is shown in Figure 4
given below. Existing groundwater pumping is of the order of 40 MAF (50 BCM).
Groundwater abstraction varies in accordance with rainfall and canal water availability
during dry and wet years.
326
Figure 4: Growth of Tubewells in Punjab

1,000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
-
1964 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2015
1.1.8. Artificial Recharge Techniques

Groundwater resources in the province have been fully developed and are already
under stress due to overexploitation - in many parts of the province. It is high time that
we should look into the possibilities of artificial groundwater recharge which is
practically the need of the day – as “nothing is free and unlimited in nature”. All over
the world - particularly the developed countries – special attention is being paid to
artificial groundwater recharge. Parameters influencing the artificial groundwater
recharge include, slope or gradient, existing depth to groundwater level, infiltration rate
of the sediments, quality of water to be used for artificial recharge, aquifer
characteristics of the underlying strata controlling the storage capacity – and of course
the envisaged use. For example different standards for the water to be used for
artificial groundwater recharge for drinking, agricultural and/or industrial uses may be
opted. The artificial recharge techniques can be broadly categorized as follows:-
Direct surface techniques, viz.:
Flooding
Basins or percolation tanks
Stream augmentation
Ditch and furrow system
Over irrigation
A. Direct Sub Surface Techniques
Injection wells or recharge wells;
Recharge pits and shafts;
Dug well recharge;
Bore-hole flooding; and
Natural openings, cavity fillings.
327
B. Combination Surface – Sub-Surface Techniques: Basin or

percolation tanks with pit shaft or wells
C. Indirect Techniques
Induced recharge from surface water source (s);
Aquifer modification.
Besides above, the ground water conservation structures like ground water recharge
dams, sub-surface dykes or locally termed as “Bandats” (common in Balochistan) are
quite prevalent to arrest sub-surface flows. Similarly in hard rock areas rock fracturing
techniques including sectional blasting of boreholes with suitable techniques has been
applied to inter-connect the fractures and increase recharge. In the Punjab Province
– techniques involving the use of extra surface water–particularly during wet years
and/or diversions from the flood water towards the areas needing augmentation of the
recharge process may be beneficial. Recent floods (2010 onwards) in the Chenab
River have shown a positive effect on declining groundwater levels in Kamalia Area of
Toba Tek Singh.
Suitable Techniques for Artificial Groundwater Recharge in Punjab:
PunjabProvince comprises different types of topographic landscapes and hydro-
geologic set-up from, viz.: Pothwar Plateau, Piedmont Plains of Suleiman Range,
Alluvial Plain in the central Punjab and Cholistan Desert. Following parameters need
to be given due consideration while planning and groundwater recharge scheme in a
particular area – keeping in view the “groundwater depletion area” and “the potential
source /area with surplus surface water”.
1.1.9. Areas Needing Immediate Attention for GW Recharge
For artificial groundwater recharge interventions, the following types of areas may
need our attention:
Areas in the tail reaches of the main canals
Areas in the vicinity of the major towns - such as Lahore City showing
more than 30m (100 feet) decline in some parts – recharge facilities have
to be developed up gradient of the groundwater depression. In case of
Lahore City – these have to be somewhere along Ravi U/S of Lahore
City and BRBD Canal;
Command areas of the canals - originating from the three eastern rivers
–the recharge process dwindled as India diverted the river flows after
independence and particularly after IWT, 1960. For such areas
abandoned canal beds, Sutlej River bed and even Bias River can be
considered;
Cholistan area – there is a particular need that any extra SW during wet
years should be diverted towards the tail reaches of BWP canals.
Small basins in the Pothwar Region and along the base of Suleiman
Range - particularly in the command of some hill torrents with saline
flows. Department is already constructing additional small dams – some
328
of these dams have already provided great help for provision of “potable
water” to certain rural areas in Attock and near Fateh Jang through
construction of “percolation wells and infiltration galleries” near the lake
bed. A small Quantity of irrigation water (tapped through infiltration
gallery – say 0.5 cusec) can help to provide drinking water to a few
villages; and
Any other areas with excessive groundwater abstraction – such areas
have been demarcated in the previous studies by the department as
“Critical Areas” needing immediate attention.
1.2. Conjunctive Use
What is Conjunctive Use: Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater means
the best possible utilization of surface and groundwater resources for boosting the
agricultural production – with minimum negative impact on the land and water
resources. Keeping in view the limitations on the surface water availability conjunctive
use of surface and groundwater is encouraged.
Existing Situation in the Province: Ironically, around 1,000,000 private
tubewells being operated by the farmers for augmenting canal supplies in irrigated
areas to meet the crop water requirements – and already provides a good example of
the “conjunctive use”. In the Punjab Province, groundwater is saline in certain parts
and farmers are practicing conjunctive use by:
Mixing surface and groundwater for irrigation purposes; and/or
Use groundwater only – for the sustenance of the crops during canal
closures or lack of canal water availability.
Points Needing Attention: Following parameters will have to be given due
consideration:
Some farmers in the U/S areas may like to use excessive water – if
available - as was the practice in the past. Education, awareness and
involvement of the farmer brothers is necessary for application of
irrigation water in accordance with the crop water requirementsand
applying necessary improvements in the irrigation technologies (precise
land leveling, bed and furrow techniques etc.). Joint teams of Irrigation
and Agriculture departments can provide the necessary guidelines to the
farmers in the field;
Groundwater is saline in the central parts of the Doabs, some areas
along Suleiman Range and Cholistan. Hence, the farmers should be
encouraged to select the cropping pattern in accordance with the water
quality of the available groundwater – there are salt resistance crops.
Here the advice and participation of agriculture department is required
at field level.
In the past PID conducted some studies in critical area for groundwater
management involving the farmers to change the cropping pattern from
sugarcane to maze or other less water consuming crops – but in such
329
cases public sector departments have to help the farmers in finding

markets for such crops – as the farmers want their livelihood and may
not be interested in a particular crop.
Education of the farmers – on mixing of surface and groundwater – or
application keeping in view crop growing pattern - fresh water in the
beginning and then crops may be able to sustain the use of relatively
brackish water.
Way Forward: Systematic conjunctive use involves a joint team work by the:
Irrigation department for assuring, equity and water availability;
Agriculture department for providing guidance on cropping pattern; and
The farmers to willingly come forward to benefit from the research being
conducted all over the world.
Guidelines for use and interpretation of GWQ data for irrigation are given in Annex-A
(Practitioners’ Tool Kit) given at the end of the report.
1.2.1. Tube Wells
There are around one million tubewells in operation in the province – with about 90 %
of these being operated by the farmers. Tubewells being operated in the private sector
(PTWs) are, generally, designed and constructed as per advice of the local drillers
and/or based on the experience of the neighboring farmers.
Design of Tubewells: Based on the world wide experience some peculiar facts
about designing the tubewells, are shown in the box given below:
Design of Tubewells – Points Needing Attention

There is no universally accepted tubewell design, which can be used
at every site due to the large variations in the sub-surface lithological
conditions;
Each tubewell has to be treated as a “Mini Project” in accordance
with the field conditions;
An appropriate tubewell design is a blend of its hydraulic and
economic efficiencies; and
Tubewell is a structure where hardly any improvement can be made
after its installation.
Sub-surface hydro-geologic conditions differ in various parts of the province – as

already discussed in the preceding sections. However, generalized guidelines have to
be prepared which can be followed in areas with more-or-less similar sub-surface
hydro-geologic conditions. Depth of the tubewells in Pakistan varies from about 60-70
feet in the alluvial sediments in the Punjab for the shallow skimming wells to more than
700 feet - drilled for drinking water in Lahore City and mountainous areas.
330
PID helped the farmers under PPSGDP1 for the installation of “Community Tubewells
(CTWs)” at the time of closure of unnecessary SCARP tubewells (STWs) where the
water tables had already gone down below 15-20 feet. In this case the community
members (a group of small farmers who could not install and operate their own wells)
were trained and handed over STWs by installing a small capacity pump and or were
encouraged to install a small irrigation TW - as per their requirements.
Following are the major components of tubewells or open dug wells fitted with pumps,
which need due consideration during the design stage. Design or rather the desired
discharge of the tubewell – is the controlling factor for deciding other parameters –
keeping in view the field conditions
I Depth and diameter of the borehole – in accordance with the local sub-
surface lithology (sand, gravel, clay etc.);
II Pump housing casing - its length and diameter;
III Screen length and diameter, its slot size and material;
IV Length and diameter of the blind pipes to be placed against the clay
zones;
V Gravel pack or shrouding material to be placed in the annular space
between the borehole and the tubewell casings;
Vi Selection of the pump and prime mover - based on the specific capacity
of the tubewell and expected drawdown at various discharge rates
determined after conducting the pumping test on the tubewell.
Cost of Tubewells: The total cost of a tubewell is the function of its capital cost and
operation and maintenance cost. Accordingly, the cost of pumped water from a
PTW/CTW will depend upon the capital invested and the annual recurring costs. A
large part of the recurring element derives from the pumping cost. Capital and pumping
cost are inter-dependent because the design of TW affects the drawdown and thus
the pumping cost. For example:
A short screen section will produce a large drawdown than a long screen
for a given discharge, thus saving in capital cost is off-set by increased
pumping cost; similarly
A screen of smaller diameter produces excessive friction losses (well
losses) resulting in increased recurring cost;
On the other hand, some increase in the capital cost (by selecting
suitable construction material and pumping equipment) may reduce
pumping head and hence, pumping cost.
Points Needing Attention: For each chosen design parameter, there is
optimum solution for the least possible cost.The capital cost would vary for each of the
individual PTW/CTW, depending upon the following parameters:
❖ Drilling of borehole, including pit digging;
❖ Pump housing, blind pipe type, diameter and length
1 Punjab Private Sector Groundwater Development Project, 1997-2001

331
❖ Screen /Filter type, diameter and length;

❖ Delivery pipe type, diameter and length;
❖ Pumping equipment – prime mover and pump (diesel or electric);
❖ Pump house and discharge box – farmers generally do not construct it;
and
❖ Operation factor – depending upon the type of pump being used and
some repairs.
Length and Diameter of the Screen depend upon the:
Over all opening area of the screen of certain diameter slot size (this
factor takes for granted that enough water is available in the aquifer);
Also on the aquifer properties – particularly the permeability of the
aquifer material ( as a screen will not transmit water if this is installed in
an aquaclude like clay etc.).
Length of screen may be selected by using the following equations:
Screen length (L) = Q/V*π D* P - - -where
Q = discharge in cusecs (ft3/s)
V = entrance velocity (ft/s) - - - -- considered a 0.1 ft/s
D = diameter of screen (inches)
P = percent open area of screen (fraction - - - - 10% or 0.1
π = Pie (3.142)
In case the values of aquifer parameters are approximately known– the envisaged
discharge of the tubewell can estimated from the above equation. Under this set of
parameters a legth of about 25 feet of screen with 8 inch diameter and 10% opening
area and generally considered entrance velocity of 0.1 foot/second may be adequate.
However, keeping in view the permeability of the sediments in the alluvial plain and
some other factors the screen length of about 50-60 feet with 8-inch diameter is
suitable (based on our large experience) for a discharge of one cusec.
During the investigation and implementation of SCARP schemes an equation was
developed, in a simplified form, for the estimation of the screen length as below:
L= 1.32*Q/K*s (1) where;
L= Length of screen (feet)
Q= Discharge of tubewell (cfs)
K= Permeability of aquifer material (feet/s)
s= draw down in feet
Example - Tubewell Design: Farmers - normally do not keep any record of the
construction details of their tubewells, whereas water supply tubewells installed in the
cities like Lahore are not comparable to the tubewells being operated in the rural areas
for agricultural purposes. However, data collected by PHED on water supply tubewells
in the rural water supply schemes can be useful for providing some good example of
the typical design of a tubewell. For illustration purposes design of tubewell installed
by PHED for SB-86 Water Supply Scheme in Sargodha is shown in Figure 5 given
below:
332
Figure 5: Strata Chart and Design of a Shallow Tubewell

333
For the estimation of horsepower of the prime mover, the following factors are
considered:
I) Discharge of the well or pump (Convenient field method to check TW
discharge is given in Practitioners’ Tool Kit)
II) Depth to water table and pumping water level
III) Expected lowering of water table in future
IV) Over all pumping head (considering from the pumping water level below
the ground level to the overhead tank including losses in the
transmission system)
Selection of Pumping Equipment: For the selection of suitable pump, following
factors have to be given a due consideration:
Present static water level;
Estimated draw down at design discharge and pumping water
level under present conditions;
Future pumping water levels due to general lowering of water
table in the area and the reduction in the specific capacity of the
well;
Convenience of operation and maintenance and economic
capability of user(s);
Following types of pumps are normally being used for withdrawing water from
tubewells and open wells:
I) Centrifugal Pump: These types of pumps are being most commonly
used on the small capacity wells – particularly in the private sector
especially by the farmers on more than 90 % of tubewells installed in the
Punjab (0.5 to 1.0 cusec discharge capacity wells). These types of
pumps are normally used in the areas with shallow depth to groundwater
level so as the suction involved is within about 20 feet from the pump
setting horizon
II) Vertical Turbine Pump: These types of pumps have been most
extensively used in the country, mainly, in the public sector. These
pumps are quite suitable for deep water table conditions and large
variation in discharge and pumping head. The cost normally is relatively
very high as compared to centrifugal pumps but the overall convenience
of use and O&M override the cost factor – keeping in view the long-term
operation.
III) Submersible Pump: These types of pumps are generally used
under deep water table conditions – particularly when the water table is
deeper than 80 feet. These pumps are normally used in the deep wells
in Balochistan and some parts of the Punjab Province.
IV) Jet Pump: Jet pumps or double suction pumps are normally being
used in the private sector on small capacity wells. The main advantage
334
with these types of pumps is that these can draw water from 40-50 feet
depths. However, these are generally available in small sizes, as these
have not become popular in the public sector
One of the major factors for the selection of suitable pump would be long-term
convenience in the operation, maintenance and monitoring of hydraulic efficiency of
tubewells. Some of the merits and demerits of the above types of pumps are discussed
below.
Estimation of Horse Power: Horsepower can be defined as “the force
required for lifting a weight of 550 pounds for one foot in one second”. It is expressed
as:
HP = W*H (work * head) hence,
HP = discharge of water in pounds per second * head in feet/550
Or in case the discharge is known in pounds per minute, then
HP = W * H/33,000 ………… which is … (550*60)
The break horsepower (BHP) is estimated by dividing the HP with the efficiency of
pump and prime mover.
BHP = W*H/550* where  is the efficiency factor. Normally, next higher size
available in the market is selected. Value of for pumps with electric motors is taken
as 0.6 to 0.7 and for pumping sets with diesel engines is taken as 0.5.
Efficiency of Pump & Prime Mover: Literature available from the pump
manufactures indicates that the:
Efficiency of the pumps in general is around 75 % (i.e. input/output)
Manufacturers of turbine pumps (KSB and PECO) claim that the pump
bowl assembly has the efficiency of 80 % whereas the pump efficiency
at the head is 75 % of total head (although pump efficiencies differ for
different makes of the pumps);
The efficiency of electric motors (Siemens) is claimed to be 87%,
preferably should be taken as 80%;
Diesel engines manufactures also show that the efficiency of their
products is about 75 %;
Accordingly, the over-all efficiency of the electric pump and prime mover
is taken as 60 % and that of diesel pump and engine as 50 %.
1.2.2. Safe Yield
The annual amount of water that can be taken from a source of supply over a period
of years without depleting that source beyond its ability to be replenished naturally in
"wet years”. Safe yield of a tubewell, well field (group of tubewells), an aquifer or a
basin is the quantity of water which can be pumped /exploited without any continuous
drawdown and /or undesirable effect on the groundwater regime. This varies greatly
depending upon the hydraulic characteristics of the subsurface sediments (viz. sand,
gravel, clay, etc.) and needs to be determined through appropriate investigations and
systematic monitoring of groundwater recharge and discharge components. Major
335
components governing safe yields of a tubewell and/or an aquifer are discussed

below:
A. Safe Yield and Specific Capacity of Tubewell:
In case of an individual tubewell, its specific capacity is determined before the
selection and installation of a permanent pump for long term use. Specific capacity
can be defined as the rate of discharge which can be pumped at a particular
drawdown. When a tubewell is pumped the drawdown occurs fast in the beginning
and then gradually it stabilizes - in case the well is pumped within its specific capacity.
Specific capacity (Sp. C) of the TW can be determined as below:
Sp C = Q/s …….…Where:
Q = discharge of tubewell in cusecs or gallons per minute
s = drawdown in feet
In the Punjab Province specific capacity of tubewells ranges from about 20-30 GPM
per foot of drawdown – incase of PTWs – to more than 100 GPM per foot of drawdown
in case of large capacity tubewells of WASA (Lahore).
Hydraulic Efficiency of a Well: When a tubewell is pumped the draw down inside
the well depends upon the permeability and specific yield of the aquifer material and
forms a sort of cone of depression - as the drawdown decreases with increase in
distance from the pumping well – and at a particular point it is almost zero. This defines
the radius of cone of depression and/or the influence of a particular well. Hydraulic
efficiency of a tubewell, drawdown at various distances from the pumped well and
mutual distances between tubewells to avoid excessive drawdown can be determined
as below:
Draw down (s) at any distance “r” from the pumping well- under non-steady state - can
be estimated by the equation:
s = (2.3 Q / 4*π*K*D) * Log (2.25 K*D*t/r2S) where,
s = Draw down at any point from the pumping well (e.g in an observation well)
Q = Discharge in cusecs or GPM
K =Permeability of aquifer material
D =Thickens of aquifer being tapped ………. (K*D = Transmissivity (T)
t =Time since pumping began
r = Distance from the pumped well (of a point or piezometer)
S = Storage coefficient or specific yield of aquifer material
Similarly, the differential draw down – under steady state conditions - at the two
different wells/points at distances “r1” and “r2” from the pumping well can be given by
the equation:
s= (2.3 Q / 2*π*T) Log (r2/r1)
In case, “r1” is the radius of the pumping well and “r2” is the radius of the cone of
depression or the radius of influence of the well. Then the theoretical draw down can
336
be estimated at the “well face” and can be correlated with the specific capacity. This
draw down just outside the well or at the well face will denote the aquifer loss.
The draw down measured inside the well will include both the aquifer loss and well
loss. The well loss is associated with the turbulent flow, it is indicated as:
sw =(2.3 Q / 2*π*T) * Log (r2 / r1) + C * Qn ………or
sw =B * Q + C * Qn (by considering (2.3 / 2*π*T) * Log (r2 / r1) as “B”…Where:
B =Aquifer loss component; and
C =Well loss component
Value of “n” is a time variable factor and ranges from 1 to 2. However, generally the
value of “n’ is taken as 2. Accordingly, the total draw down in the well can be expressed
as:
sw = B * Q + C * Q2
During the past investigation by WAPDA and other public sector departments a large
number of studies have been conducted and hence, if need be the field engineers can
refer to such studies.
B. Safe Yield of an Aquifer:
Pragmatically speaking the safe yield of the aquifer, a basin or an area may be defined
as the quantity of groundwater which can be safely pumped on long term basis without
any:
Continuous decline of groundwater levels, and/or
Any deterioration of groundwater quality due to lateral or vertical
movement of saline groundwater into fresh groundwater zones.
Under the normal field conditions – there will always be some variation in the
groundwater components and hence, the pumpage will also vary but some minor
groundwater decline or rise and change in GWQ can be acceptable – as long as there
is no continuous harm to the groundwater regime.
1.3. Monitoring of Groundwater
Historic Background: Historically groundwater monitoring was initiated by
Irrigation Department in start of the 20th century for keeping an eye on the response
of groundwater levels due to the seepage induced by the weir controlled irrigation
system. Control points were selected (generally open wells in those times) along
particular cross-sectional lines in each Doab) for the measurement of groundwater
levels. These data have been used in the development of a large number of technical
reports on the groundwater regime in the Punjab Province and implementation of
Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs).
Groundwater Monitoring by WAPDA: With establishment of WAPDA in 1958, the
role of groundwater monitoring was transferred to SCARP Monitoring Organization
(SMO) for the monitoring of the groundwater levels and quality in the province before
337
and after the implementation of the SCARP projects for the eradication of the twin
menace of water logging and salinity in the various parts of the province.
Groundwater Monitoring by DLR (PID): After the formation of PIDAs the role
of groundwater monitoring and management was entrusted to the provincial
governments. Hence, from 2003 onwards the groundwater monitoring has been
conducted by Directorate of Land Reclamation (DLR) of Irrigation Department. Main
objective of the groundwater monitoring is to keep a watch on the “time-rate changes”
in groundwater levels and quality in response to the variation in the groundwater
recharge and discharge components – such as variation in annual precipitation, canal
flows and pumping from tubewells for agriculture. As per DLR records:
there are 3,338 GWL monitoring points and of these 1,896 points are
active (2016); whereas
there are 4,014 monitoring points for GWQ of which 3,094 were
operative in 2013.
Relevant data are placed at the web site of Irrigation Department.
1.3.1. Monitoring of Groundwater Levels
Main objective of the GWL monitoring is to identify:
Aerial distribution of groundwater levels in various parts of the Province
with shallow and deep groundwater zones;
Time rate changes in GWL due to the interaction among various
sources of GW recharge and discharge; for
Provision of drainage measures in case of shallow GWL or assessment
of the necessary interventions in areas with continuously declining GWL
for the sustainability of the resource.
Trends in Groundwater Levels: Variations in hydro-climatic conditions, surface
water flows and uncontrolled pumping from around 1,000,000 tubewells keep on
affecting the groundwater storage and quality. Groundwater regime in the Province –
and rather in the Indus Basin keeps on showing small changes which demand
continuous monitoring. Based on the monitoring of groundwater in the Province - the
areas showing conspicuous changes needing attention are discussed below. A broad
picture of GW conditions in the Province is being given.
Areas with Declining GW levels: Such areas - located relatively in the tail
reaches of the main canals and /or in the central parts of the Doabs - include
Khanewal, Lodhran, Multan, Toba Tek Singh, Fort Abbas and Pakpatan districts as
shown in Figure 6:
338
Figure 6: Areas with Declining Groundwater Levels (Ft/GLS)

-30.00
Jun-05
Jun-06
Jun-07
Jun-08
Jun-09
Jun-10
Jun-11
Jun-12
Jun-13
Jun-14
Jun-15
Jun-16
Period
Oct-05
Oct-06
Oct-07
Oct-08
Oct-09
Oct-10
Oct-11
Oct-12
Oct-13
Oct-14
Oct-15
-40.00
-50.00
-60.00
-70.00
-80.00
-90.00
Khw-GIS-498 Lodh-GIS-259 Mtn-GIS-190

PkPtn-GIS-330 SHW-GIS-438 F Abbas-GIS-385
Field data shows that GWL decline in the “tail end areas” from 2005-16 ranges from 8
feet in Lodhran to about 12 feet in Khanewal. Some other areas are also showing
declining GWL – as per field data. However, the above data shows that there is a need
for cross checks by GW Management Cell atv PID.
Areas with Rising GW levels - located relatively in the head reaches of the main
canals and /or in the near vicinity of the rivers forming topographically low areas
include districts of Rajanpur, DG Khan, Muzaffargarh and Bahawalpur. GWL trends in
DGK area shown in Figure 7, given below:
Figure 7: Rising GWL Trends in DGK Irrigation Zone 2003-16 (Feet/GLS)
339
Some areas in DG Khan zone falling under the command of CRBC have shown
conspicuous rise after the commissioning of the canal. However the above data shows
that there is a need for cross checks by GW Management Cell atv PID.
1.3.2. Monitoring Groundwater Quality
Main objective of the GWQ monitoring in the area is to identify zones with:
Fresh, marginal and saline groundwater underlying different areas;
Distribution of groundwater quality in aerial and vertical extent;
Time rate changes in GWQ due to the interaction among various sources
of groundwater recharge and discharge; for
The identification of critical areas needing immediate attention in case of
continuous deterioration of GWQ - through appropriate interventions for
the sustainability of the resource.
General standards for the identification of fresh and saline groundwater followed by
DLR in line with FAO guidelines are as shown in Table 3 given below.
Table 3: Irrigation Water Quality Criteria of DLR (PID)
Indicator Unit Permissible Level Unfit Level
Electrical Conductivity (EC) dS/m ≤ 1.5 > 1.5
Sodium Adsorption Ratio(SAR) - ≤ 10 > 10
Residual Sodium Carbonate

me/l ≤ 2.5 > 2.5
(RSC)
Areas with Deteriorating Groundwater Quality: In the last decade efforts have
been made by the Department to obtain equity of canal water distribution and control
seepage losses in the shallow groundwater areas. However, intensive and
uncontrolled pumping by the farmers particularly in the areas adjacent to the SGW
zones is causing deterioration of groundwater quality.
As a matter of fact there is less recharge in the dry years whereas the farmers have
to pump more groundwater to meet their crop water requirements resulting in induction
of SGW from the saline zones and/or due to the up conning effect in the areas with
shallow layers of FGW overlying SGW. These types of areas /patches can be
observed all over the province – particularly in the areas where the farmers have to
use brackish/saline groundwater to augment canal water to meet crop water
requirements. Based on the monitoring data by DLR some negative changes in GWQ
can be seen in different parts of the province – particularly in the areas located in the
tail reaches and/or near SGW zones – as shown in Figure 8 given below:
340
Figure 8: Increasing Salinity in Some Areas 2003-13 (dS/m)

8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Jun-03
Jun-04
Jun-05
Jun-06
Jun-07
Jun-08
Jun-09
Jun-10
Jun-11
Jun-12
Jun-13
Oct-05
Oct-03
Oct-04
Oct-06
Oct-07
Oct-08
Oct-09
Oct-10
Oct-11
Oct-12
Oct-13
Shjaabad-GIS-301 Shorkot HCC-18 Samundri-GIS-356
BWNG GIS-304 Minchinabad GIS-268
Data on groundwater monitoring – on bi annual basis – are available with DLR and
can be used to study the behavior of groundwater regime. These data are also placed
at the PID Web Site.
1.4. Groundwater Management Challenges
Population growth and increasing demand of water for irrigation, water supply, industry
and environmental needs would further boost the importance of groundwater in the
years to come. Drought conditions during 1998-2003 led to acute water shortages and
illustrated just how close water use is to the limit of the resource. The importance of
groundwater for our food and fiber is increasing as we have to ensure the sustainability
of this invaluable resource which is under great threat due to:
Uncontrolled development of groundwater resulting in groundwater
mining showing continuous decline of groundwater levels and
deterioration of groundwater quality due to induction of saline
groundwater through lateral or vertical movement; and
Unchecked discharge of agricultural, industrial and sewerage effluents
into surface and groundwater regimes - making our groundwater “unfit”
for drinking /agricultural purposes due to salinity and/or bacterial
infection.
The aquifer has already started showing adverse side effects of groundwater mining,
quality deterioration and ultimately to hamper the agricultural growth and threat to the
availability of “safe drinking water”. Accordingly, there is a need for systematic
management and regulation of the resource for its optimal but sustainable utilization.
GW Management Problems in Punjab: GW management problems can be
attributed to physical, social, institutional and policy constraints – interacting & tied to
each other. Major GW management problems in the province include the following
aspects –as briefly discussed below (box):
341
Groundwater Management Problems

Groundwater Depletion/Overdraft in some areas
Saline Groundwater Intrusion – both lateral and vertical
Water Logging and Soil-Salinity in some areas near large canals or
topographic depressions
Groundwater Pollution – the greatest problem for drinking water
Lack of Reliable Data and Coordination among Public Agencies,
Legal Framework, Awareness and Participation by the Users
1.4.1. Saving Life and Bread

For making groundwater management effective, ensuring availability of safe drinking
water to around 100 million people, the sustainability of agriculture for food and fibre
and environmental protection with optimal but judicious use of the resource we have
to identify the challenges and the way outs. The major challenges under the existing
conditions are:
Health hazards due to the groundwater pollution resulting from the
discharge of the industrial, agricultural and sewerage effluents into water
bodies are posing the greatest threat to the human health. This problem
is on the increase – in spite of some efforts to control this monster and
more acute in the areas down gradient of the industrial clusters in the
country;
Increase in salinity of groundwater due to uneven pumping – mainly
through around 1000,000 PTWs. Naturally, there is more pumping in the
FGW areas and this induces the saline water inflow from the adjacent
SGW zones. Problems of getting safe drinking water in Amman Garh
Village2 (RYK) can be seen in Fig. 9 – given on the right.
Figure 9: Women collecting drinking

water from skimming hand pump in RY
Khan
2 Punjab Water Supply and Sanitation Project by PHED Punjab, 2004-06

342
Continuous lowering of water levels in some of the areas with

intensive pumping is making cost of groundwater un-economical for the
small farmers; and
Water logging – persisting in some areas – of the Province. The recent
floods - definitely have done a great harm -(though increased recharge
in some areas) which may take a long time for restoration of normal
conditions.
A brief discussion of these technical problems with respect to GW management is as
below:
I. Health Hazards due to Groundwater Pollution
Pollution of groundwater resources due to unchecked discharge of
sewerage, agricultural and industrial wastes and also excessive and
untimely application of the fertilizers by our framer brothers is causing
health hazards which need immediate attention by the concerned public
institutions also awareness and involvement of the private sector and
groundwater users. Some of the major challenges in this regard are as
below:
A. Arsenic Contamination in Drinking Water: The greatest
challenge of the day is the increasing danger of groundwater pollution
due to the industrial, sewage and agricultural effluents finding their way
to the groundwater regime. Groundwater quality study carried out by
UNICEFF and Pakistan Council for Water Resources Research
(PCRWR) in 17 districts of Punjab and Sindh in 2003 found alarming
results - especially the Arsenic contamination in groundwater had been
found in 4-5% sampling sites beyond the permissible limits of the WHO.
Whereas around 20 % of the sampling sites indicated Arsenic above the
safe limits of 10 PPB – as per WHO guidelines.
B. Bacterial Contamination - Pollution of Aquifer:
Continuous discharge of industrial, sewage and agricultural
effluents are posing another threat to the availability of potable water to
- both the urban and rural communities. In spite of efforts by the federal
and provincial EPDs and other public and private agencies necessary
awareness of the stake holders and the discharge of industrial,
agricultural and sewage water has not been controlled by the concerned
authorities. This has resulted in the contamination of the surface and
groundwater – particularly from drinking point of view. Some of the
recent studies conducted by PCRWR to assess the suitability of water
for drinking include as shown in Table 4:
343
Table 4: Results of Groundwater Quality Checks by PCRWR

Survey Results
Water quality survey under Multiple 51 % of samples (44, 844) were
Index Cluster Survey (MICS) of about found unfit due to bacterial
91,280 drinking water sources in contamination, Arsenic or Fluoride
Punjab, 2005-06
Water quality survey under Punjab 6 % were found unfit from bacterial
Education Sector Reform Program – contamination and 17 % from
through collection of about 44,717 Arsenic contamination
drinking water sources from schools
in, 2007-08
Water quality monitoring survey in Results indicated that 64 % to even
Pakistan – at Union Council level in 92 % samples were found unfit for
all the four provinces, 2008-09 drinking water - in Lahore 45 %
sources were found unfit.
C. Use of Nitrate Fertilizers, Pesticides and Fungicides: is also
threatening - through continuous use, in some areas overuse and
untimely use for boosting agricultural production and then unchecked
discharge into surface water bodies and open lands is creating threat to
life as these chemicals find their way back to the kitchens through
vegetables grown particularly around the human settlements. Studies 3
conducted by Irrigation Department in the past highlighted the following
life-threatening concerns:
90 % of the groundwater samples were contaminated with arsenic
(As) and exceeded the WHO maximum recommended value for
drinking;
Similarly, 70 % of groundwater samples exceeded the WHO
maximum limit for Selenium (Se);
40 % of samples show higher concentration of Lead (Pb) than
WHO permissible limits; and
Cadmium (Cd) is also in excess of WHO limits in one sample
Necessary precautions have to be taken by the farming communities and technical
advice has to be available from Agriculture Department – particularly in the areas
around industrial clusters.
II. Increase in Salinity of Groundwater
Groundwater use in the country is on the increase and this is affecting
the groundwater quality. This deterioration of groundwater quality – in
terms of increasing salinity – is occurring in two ways - intrusion of FGW
aquifers by the saline groundwater adjacent SGW zones and/or due to
3Studies by Irrigation Department & World Bank under PPSGDP 1997-2001 & Surveys conducted by
Agriculture Extension in Mandi Bahauddin, Sargodha, Muzaffar Garh etc.
344
the up-coning of SGW due to intensive pumping. When groundwater is

used for agriculture, around 80 % is consumed by the evapo-
transpiration from the plants and the remaining - saturated water
percolates down through the soil. This process of recycling groundwater
adds to the salinity of the water in the aquifer – termed as secondary
salinity. Continuous use of groundwater - and in excess of the average
annual recharge and leaching - is a very slow process and unfortunately
is noticed when the harm has already been done. During the past more
than 250 drainage cum irrigation tubewells initially installed in FGW
areas of SCARP – II had to be abandoned due to the gradual increase
in the salinity of pumped water due mainly to lateral movement of SGW
from the central part of the Chaj Doab. Continuous use of groundwater
– especially with marginal quality – affected the soil texture and salinity
level. There are areas where the salinity of soils has not increased but
its’ sodicity has increased due to continuous groundwater use. Rocks
surrounding the Indus basin are predominantly lime stones and hence,
the groundwater is rich in bi-carbonates – resulting in increase of RSC
and Sodicity. IWASIRI has done a lot of work on the secondary salinity
of soil and groundwater and the problem needs continuous monitoring.
III. Continuous Lowering of Water Table
Since the development of groundwater is mainly - the domain of private
sector – the farmers use their tubewells in accordance with the crop
water requirements – without any consideration to the groundwater
recharge during a particular period. This results in more pumping in dry
years resulting in excessive draw downs of water table. Moreover, there
is more pumping in FGW areas (as compared to SGW areas) and the
areas located in the tail reaches of the canal system. This uneven
pumping has resulted in excessive and continuous lowering of water
table in some areas. Similarly, groundwater regime in some large towns
e.g. Lahore, Faisalabad, is under stress and showing continuous
lowering of GWL - threatening the drinking water supplies.
Critical Areas with Continuous Decline of GWL: Some critical
areas have been identified in the studies conducted by PID in the past.
e.g.: Kamalia Distributary command area – with continuous decline of
groundwater levels even from 1980 onwards – in response to increasing
groundwater abstractions. Figure 10 shows the continuous decline of
groundwater levels in Kamalia Area from 1987 to 2001 (based on
monitoring by SMO, WAPDA.
345
Fig 10: Decline of GWL in Kamalia Area (Feet/GLS)

0.00
-10.00
-20.00
-30.00
-40.00
-50.00
SMO-15/1 SMO-13/2 SMO-12/5

SMO 11/2 SMO 10/3
Figure 10: Decline of GWL in Kamalia Area (Feet/GLS)

Similarly, there areas in commands of the three eastern rivers – as their flows were
diverted by India after independence.
IV. Water Logging in Some Areas
Paradox it may look but some areas are still suffering from water logging,
in some parts of the Punjab. These areas are located in the topographic
depressions and/or along main canals – feeders. National Water Policy
Study by ACE-HALCROW (2005) indicates that inadequate drainage
facilities have resulted in 18 % of the irrigated land having been water
logged and about 5 % suffering from severe salinity. Improved irrigation
efficiency and better drainage facilities are required to mitigate this.
Adequate data are already available on these areas through monitoring
by public institution - action is awaited.
1.4.2. Lack of Institutional Linkage
With the implementation of Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act in 1997 –
groundwater is now under provincial domain. However, a large number of institutions
are involved in development, monitoring and management of groundwater. There is a
lot of duplication - and waste of time and funds due to lack of appropriate linkage. It is
high time to clearly define the needs, role of institutions and bring them under one
canopy – as clearly laid in National Water Policy, 2005. A close and strong linkage
amongst the following agencies is but a sine qua non for optimal but judicious
groundwater development, use and management:
Irrigation Department – being guardian of surface and groundwater
resources in the province;
Agriculture Department - 90 % of groundwater is used for agriculture;
Public Health Department & WASAs/Local governments – drinking water
is always on the top priority;
346
Environmental protection authority; and

Groundwater users – particularly the farmers – as discussed in the
succeeding section.
1.4.3. Weak Linkage with the Users
Farmers are using more than 90 % of groundwater – in spite of some efforts under
PIDAs and OFWM there is a general lack of mutual confidence between the service
providers and the water users – the farmers. Sustainability of groundwater and
agriculture cannot be attained without developing public-private sector partnership.
Involvement of the groundwater users – mainly farmers has to be actively on board for
monitoring and management of groundwater. Some of the progressive farmers are
already using modern irrigation techniques, better seeds and hybrids for agricultural
production much higher than the national average – however, management of
groundwater and boost in agriculture requires – involvement of millions of small
farmers - all over the province.
1.5. Pragmatic Groundwater Management Approach
Pragmatic groundwater development involves a comprehensive knowledge of the
groundwater regime in the area, assessment of the groundwater potential keeping in
view the periodic changes in groundwater recharge and discharge components and
optimal but sustainable development – as shown in the box below.
Importance of Groundwater Development & Management

More than 90 % of drinking water supply is based on the groundwater;
Groundwater is also providing more than 50 % of agricultural
requirements; accordingly
Judicious use of groundwater and its appropriate development and
management warrant due attention by public and private sectors.
It is desirable that groundwater development should be within sustainable groundwater

recharge particularly, in the sub-mountain valleys of northern Punjab in Pothwar
Plateau, along Suleiman Range, and areas with a shallow FGW layer/lens overlying
the SGW and in the Cholistan desert, keeping in view the following parameters:
Hydro-climatic conditions of the area /hydrologic unit;
Aerial and vertical distribution of various sub-soil geologic formations;
Hydraulic parameters of the aquifer (s);
Depth to water table in the area, its seasonal and long-term trends;
Groundwater flow pattern;
Aerial and vertical distribution of groundwater quality and time rate
changes;
Interaction between various sources of recharge and discharge;
Existing groundwater abstraction; and
347
Proposed projects/schemes related to water resources development

and management.
1.5.1. PID Efforts in the Past
G o Punjab has been cognizant of this situation and carried out a number of studies
for the optimal development, management and regulation of groundwater. As a part of
these studies under PPSGDP, DPL, LBDC and PISIP following tasks were
accomplished under, joints studies:
I. Database for Groundwater Management – Groundwater Conditions and
Management Problems. Development of GIS system for irrigation
network and groundwater monitoring control points.
II. Mathematical models – Flow and Solute Transport for simulation of
groundwater conditions under present and postulated future
development scenarios.
III. Groundwater monitoring in the province - particularly the irrigated areas
where groundwater abstraction is both extensive and intensive.
IV. Selection of Groundwater Management Areas and identification of
Critical Areas needing special attention for groundwater
monitoring/management.
V. Development of Groundwater Regulatory Framework – Technical,
Institutional, Legal and Socio-economic considerations and studied the
political economy aspects of implementing the GWRF. Theses aspects
are being updated currently by a team of water resources and legal
experts.
VI. Development of a groundwater monitoring program for the Province to
study the time-rate changes in the groundwater regime and their
interaction with soils and agriculture;
VII. Establishment of Groundwater Cell in IRI (I&PD) and training of
personnel for future monitoring and management of groundwater.
VIII. Establishment of a Groundwater Monitoring Coordination Working
Group (GMCWG) for linkage among various agencies and with the
Environmental Management Plan developed under NDP.
IX. Pilot Testing in one of the Critical Areas – Public Campaign for
awareness & involvement of the farmers in GW monitoring and
management.
1.5.2. Options for GW Management Framework
GW Management Framework in the Province under the desirable / future scenario and
present set-up can be conceived as given in the box below:
348
Groundwater Management Scenarios

Future Scenario: “Desirable and long-term measures” - in
collaboration with the users - when the capacity, staff strength,
public and private sector acceptability of cooperation and
regulations in case of problem areas, are available; and
Existing Scenario: Manageable under the existing conditions,
staff, capacity, logistics through involvement of users particularly
FOs, WUAs’, KPs, etc.
Keeping in view the international experience, the groundwater management involves

and is supported by the following building stones with information on “what to
manage”, “who will do it” and “how to do it” – as shown in box given below. The point
needing attention is that, “nothing is free and unlimited in nature”. Hence, management
of resources is a sine qua non and it has to be a joint venture of public and private
sector – groundwater users have to be fully involved.
Building Stones for GW Management and Regulation

A sound database on groundwater
Implementation agency – with mandate and linkage with other
water managing institutions;
Users’ awareness, involvement and active participation -
particularly the farmers is this case;
Implementable legislation and enabling environment;
Implementation strategy – involving FOs and WUAs /Farmers
Envisaged institutional set up under the future (desired) and existing scenarios is
discussed below
1.5.3. Institutional Set-up under Future Scenario
A broad outline of the future institutional set-up under future (desired) scenario is
discussed below. There will be an elaborate arrangement for GW monitoring and
management with linkage among various agencies involved in management of water,
agriculture and environment – with an independent body to oversee all the operations
at provincial level – with:
The major role to be played by the Irrigation Department in collaboration
with PIDA, Agriculture Department, PHED / WASAs and PIDA at local
level - with active participation of FOs & WUAs;
The farmers - with help from AWB, FO, KPs and WUA - will automatically
take care of these aspects on optimal and judicious use of groundwater
349
at Water Course, Distributary Level, Canal Command and or hydrologic

basin;and
Involvement of local governments will also be there for the provision of
“safe drinking water” to the people and helping in keeping the water
bodies clean from pollution.
1.5.4. Groundwater Management under Existing Scenario
Under the Existing Scenario Irrigation Department is involved in the:
Monitoring and management of groundwater within the available
resources and staff; through
Awareness and brotherly involvement of the farmers (using around 90
% of groundwater) and other groundwater users and public/private
agencies involved.
1.5.5. Strategy and Action Plan for GW Management
With the development of a sound database through systematic monitoring of
groundwater development status (number of pumping wells and use) groundwater
levels and quality - we can assess:
The types of the problems in individual areas. The problems – in general
– are excessive use resulting in decline of groundwater levels,
deterioration of groundwater and / or rise in water table in low lying areas
or near the major water sources. Around 90 % of groundwater is used
for agriculture through private tubewells; and hence
The awareness and involvement of farmers -is but a sine qua non.
1.5.6. Groundwater Management Interventions
The most important aspect of the groundwater management would be assessment of
the condition of aquifer in different areas of the Province. The different areas will need
different treatment in the regulation of groundwater. Review and analysis of monitoring
data indicates that there are different types of areas needing necessary attention and
management interventions – some of these aspects may need political will and powers
through necessary legislation – such as Canal & Drainage Act 62-A.
However, we can start the ball rolling by applying certain interventions to check
lowering of water tables and/or deterioration of groundwater quality – as discussed
below – about start doing something in line with the field conditions.
Category A: Areas with shallow water table areas
These are areas where the pumping of underground water is essential for
environmental reasons. Therefore, there will be no need of imposing any restrictions
on the extraction of groundwater in such areas. In fact extraction should be
encouraged in such areas. Such areas can be further divided into fresh water and
saline water zones and each may need different treatment – such as encouragement
for GW use and/or management of SGW and drainage wherever necessary.
350
Category B: Areas where the extraction is lesser than recharge

There will be no need of any restriction on the extraction of groundwater. However,
the installation of pumping devices may be required to be registered with competent
authority (Registration Officer – at some stage) – to keep a watch on GWL & GWQ.
Category C: Areas where extraction is more or less equal to recharge
There may be need for imposing restrictions on the future installation of pumping
devices which will lead to discrimination against the prospective users. Therefore,
some balancing of interests of the existing users and future users will have to be
devised by the policy makers. This is especially true since there may be no
requirements to compensate future users and therefore they will be easier targets for
regulation than the existing users.
Category D: Areas with deep water table conditions and declining water level -
where the aquifer is in a critical condition due to low recharge and excessive
extraction are the real problem areas
It is being advocated that not only the future installation of pumping devices will have
to be prohibited but also some of the existing facilities may have to be closed down
and that the affected persons will be paid compensation or provided alternative source
of water. Such a course will create serious socio-economic and legal complications:
(1) Firstly, which of the tubewells should be closed down? It will be very
difficult to device a criteria and generally difficult to adhere to it. A great
potential of misuse of discretion is available in such activities;
(2) Secondly, the question of compensation will be equally difficult to handle;
and
(3) Thirdly, providing alternative source of water is not a simple solution.
Therefore, it is desirable that instead of closing down some of the tube-wells, a well
thought out plan of imposing reasonable restrictions on all such facilities should be
worked out in consultation with all the stakeholders – including selection of cropping
pattern, use of modern irrigation techniques through virtuous incentives.
Category E: Areas where there is fresh groundwater adjacent to the saline
groundwater zones with the potential hazard of the lateral movement of saline
groundwater
There may be a need to impose present and future pumping restrictions to prevent the
movement of saline water into the fresh water (Development of necessary legal
framework is already in process).
Category F: Areas where there is a shallow-groundwater layer or lens overlying
saline groundwater with the potential hazard of up coning of saline groundwater
Farmers will have to be involved in pumping groundwater within permissible limits in
each area (as the sub-surface lithologic conditions may be different) - however, the
monitoring activity - acting as “watch dog” can help the farmers and public agency in
deciding the groundwater extractions within safe limits.
351
1.6. Legal Framework for Groundwater Management

Management of water resources both surface and groundwater falls under the domain
of the provincial governments as per G o P policy however, practically speaking no
pragmatic efforts have been made due to lack of political will, weak inter linkage
amongst the public agencies involved and joint partnership between the public and
private sectors – particularly the lack of awareness and involvement of the
groundwater users. G o P policies in the past are briefly discussed as below.
1.6.1. GOP Policies/Approach for GW Management & Regulation in the
Past
Go Pakistan policies in the past were mainly oriented towards development and
management of groundwater resources with main emphasis on providing
drinking/irrigation supplies and meeting drainage requirements, particularly, in saline
groundwater areas. The policies formulated from 1873 to 1979 were, mainly, aimed at
the regulation of canal supplies, eradication of water logging and salinity rather than
controlling/restricting the use of groundwater as no scarcity was ever felt. With the
increasing pressure on the groundwater regime and water table from rising to falling
(in general) we had to think of the sustainability of the resource which is the life line
for more than 100 million people – the policy landscape changed from “development
to management from 1980s.” GOP’s previous legislation concerning groundwater
development/use, were as below:
I) The Canal and Drainage Act VIII of 1873
II) Punjab Soil Reclamation Act, 1952
III) West Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) Act,
1958 / WAPDA Act, 1975
IV) Punjab Local Government Act, 1979
V) Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997
VI) Reforms in the Irrigation and Drainage Sector, PIDA Act 1997 and
subsequent amendment in Canal & Drainage Act Clause 62 - A, in 2006.
With increasing pressure on groundwater regime an amendment was
made in PIDA act in 2006 as shown below:
Amendment in Canal and Drainage Act (2006): Section 62-A was prepared to
enable GOP to take steps in order to:
(a) Improve the groundwater knowledge base; and
(b) Develop and introduce groundwater management schemes taking into
account the conditions prevailing in different areas of the Province with
participation of the stake holders.
Thus, Section 62 – A of Canal & Drainage Act provides a broad framework for the
implementation
1.6.2. Groundwater Regulatory Framework Developed in the Past
PID has been making efforts to develop a groundwater regulatory framework so that
necessary interventions can be carried out in the areas suffering from groundwater
352
mining and/or deterioration of groundwater quality, which is of course a slow process

but difficult to manage once the genie is out of bottle. Accordingly, PID conducted a
number of studies and even developed Groundwater Regulatory Framework (GWRF)
under:
GWRF Developed under PPSGDP, 2001: Punjab Private Sector Groundwater
Development Project (PPSGDP) implemented in collaboration with World Bank in
1997-2001. A team of groundwater specialists and legal consultants (from PID and
WB) were involved in the development of GWRF4. The main features of the Legal
Frame Work included:
I. Ownership of water – State, Common Ownership, Private Ownership
II. Constitutional and Islamic aspects
III. Water rights – international and Pakistan law
IV. Constitutional perspective and human rights
V. Existing legal framework; and
VI. Proposed Legal Framework
Experience of groundwater management in other countries and the management
frameworks were also used for the development GWRF. The report (Technical Report
# 48 under PPSGDP) is available with the department and after that the project carried
out a study on the possible “socio-political impacts of the implementation of any
GWRF” and conducted a pilot study in one of the Critical Areas identified for
groundwater mining. All these reports are already available with PID.
Groundwater Modeling and Framework under LBDC Project: Water resources
in the LBDC command are under intense pressure and the quality and quantity of
groundwater are deteriorating rapidly. Utilization of groundwater is now integral to
water resources and agricultural production in the LBDC command but the present
rate of groundwater abstraction is not sustainable because the depth to water table is
fast approaching the maximum depth at which the most commonly used pumping
technology can perform; the farmers; and the quality of the groundwater is getting
worse. Accordingly, the consultants - Lahmeyer International GmbH, Germany and
NESPAK conducted detailed studies, developed mathematical groundwater flow
model and developed GWRF for sustainable use. The recommended framework for
groundwater management is based on:
Sustainable management of land and water resources by stakeholders
and includes regulatory framework and water rights, economic
instruments, awareness raising and stakeholder participation;
Sustainable use of the aquifer wherein the groundwater quality and
quantity are stabilized by resource monitoring and evaluation,
contaminant and pollution control and managed recharge and
abstraction (NB:The relevant technical reports are available with PID).
4“Legal
and Regulatory Framework for Punjab Province by Groundwater Regulatory Framework
Team” Technical Report # 48, February 2001
353
1.6.3. Groundwater Regulatory Framework – under Development

As a part of the development of IWRM Policy by PID, a groundwater regulatory
framework is being updated keeping in view the existing groundwater, social,
economic conditions. The framework - after completion may be put into the process of
approval by the Punjab Government for implementation. A team is already working -
on the finalization of the GWRF.
1.7. Practitioner’s Toolkit
T.1 Preamble
Young Field Professionals involved in groundwater monitoring and management need
up to date and readily available information on the formulae, hydraulic equations, etc.
for day to day work both in field and office. Keeping in view the general need of the
young engineers, hydro-geologists and agronomists - particularly based in the field
some important aspects have been laid down as guidelines – as given below:
T.2 Hydraulic Parameters of Aquifer
A brief account of the major parameters governing the occurrence and movement of
groundwater, their definitions and the range of values, particularly, in the Punjab
Province is given blow. For practical purposes, the groundwater is all the water, which
occurs under the soil or below the land surface occupying the pore spaces in the sub-
soil and/or the underlying rocks.
A. Permeability (or Hydraulic Conductivity)
It is the property of the sediments of soil or rocks to let the water flow through the pores
or fractures. It is defined as the quantity of water, which can flow per unit area under
a unit gradient as illustrated in Fig A.1 – as below.
Gradient Unit area for

horizontal flow
1:1
Permeability of a material (e.g. sand, gravel, sand stone, fractured lime stone, etc.) is
measured in terms of groundwater flow in cubic feet per unit area of cross section. It
is normally denoted, as “K” and the values are expressed as below:
I) Cubic feet of water per unit time per square foot of area (e.g.; 100 cubic
feet per day per foot square). It is also expressed as feet per day (or feet
per second)
II) Gallons per day per square foot – in field units.
354
Horizontal Permeability (Kh) indicates the groundwater flow in the horizontal

direction. Value of horizontal permeability, in the Punjab Plain, ranges from a few feet
per day to more than 200 feet per day. In Chaj Doab, the value of K h, ranges from 53
feet/day to 245 feet/day. In the field generally, it is convenient to measure certain
parameters in gallons per unit of time. Permeability of sand underlying Indus Plain
ranges from 500 GPD/ft2 to about 4,000 GPD/ft2. Permeability values for various types
of formations are given below:
Permeability Value
Material/Rocks
GPD/ft2) Ft/day
Clay-Silt 0.001to 2.0 Up to 0.25
Sand 100 to 3000 13 to 400
Gravel 1,000 to 15,000 133 to 2,000
Sand & Gravel 200 to 5,000 26 to 670
Sand Stone 0.1 to 50 0.01 to 7
Shale 0.00001 to 0.1 Up to 0.01
Vertical permeability (Kv): is the groundwater flow in the vertical direction. Its
value in the Punjab Plain ranges from less than one foot per day to more than 5 feet
per day.
Anisotropy: It is the ratio between horizontal and vertical permeability. In general,
horizontal permeability of the sediments is much higher as compared to the vertical
permeability. This is due to the fact that during the sedimentation process (for example
in a stream or basin) the sand particles tend to settle on the flat sides. Accordingly, it
will be more convenient for water to flow in the horizontal direction as compared to the
vertical direction. Analysis of the pump-out tests performed in the Province indicates
that anisotropy ratio of the sediments ranges from 8 to 130, with general value of 40
to 50.
B. Transmissibility (T)
Transmissibility of the sediments is expressed as the flow of groundwater in a unit
thickness of the sediments up to the bottom or a certain depth. It is the multiple of
permeability and the thickness (m) of the sediments. General values in the Punjab
Plain (for the section being exploited by private tubewells say up to 150 feet), is 5,000
feet2/day to more than 25,000 feet2/day depending upon the grain size and sorting
arrangement of the sand particles.
C. Vertical Leakance
In larger part of the Province, the sediments are not uniform from the top to bottom
(from the land surface to the depth of a particular aquifer), as these were deposited in
the form of layers. Groundwater occurs in these layers under a certain “hydrostatic
pressure” and when one layer is pumped, a vertical flow starts from one to another
layer. This is known as the “vertical leakance”. This is determined by dividing the
vertical permeability with the distance between the two layers. In case:
355
Vertical permeability = 3 feet/day

Center to Center distance = 120 feet (between the two layers)
Leakance = (3 feet/day) / (120 feet) = 0.025 day
D. Storage Coefficient and/or Specific Yield (S)
Storage coefficient is defined as the volume of water, which a soil or rock can absorb
per unit volume (volume of water/volume of soil or rock). It is expressed as fraction or
even in percentage. In the sands of Punjab Plain, it ranges from less than 0.1 to more
than 0.3. This is equal to the total porosity of soil/rock.
Specific yield is the volume of water, which a unit volume soil or rock, will yield per unit
decline in the hydraulic head. This is actually the effective porosity of soil or rock.
Specific yield (S) is equal to:
Specific yield (S) = Total porosity – Specific retention
Value of specific yield (S), for common sands in the Punjab, ranges from around
0.1 to 0.25.
T.3 Tubewell Discharge Measurement
Trajectory Profile Method: In the field, generally, more sophisticated
techniques (such as orifice plate, V-notch, etc.) are not available and hence, the
measurement of the tubewell discharge can be made through “trajectory profile
method” with a reasonable level of accuracy/confidence. The parameters to be
checked in the field are shown in the Figure D-1 given below:
Figure D-1 Trajectory Profile Method

Discharge of the tubewell can be measured by using the following equation:
Discharge (Q) (in cusecs) = 0.00632 * (D)2 * X / (Y)0.5 Where,
Discharge (Q) = cusecs
Diameter (D) = inches
X (horizontal coordinate) = inches
Y (vertical coordinate) = inches
0.00632 = Factor
356
Precaution: The pipe should be full and X and Y coordinates should be measured at
right angle with X being parallel to the pipe. In case the orifice flow is partial then the
discharge factor is as below:
Q = 0.00632 * (D)2 * X * a/A / (Y)0.5 - - - -- - - where;
a /A is the ratio of the area of the jet (a) and area of pipe (A).
Example – Tubewell Q: We know that farmers’ tubewells are generally installed
with discharge varying from 0.5 to 1.0 cusec and their delivery pipes are (around 90%)
5-inch diameter. A hypothetical example, in line with the field conditions, is given
below. Say:
D = 5 inches
X = 10 inches
Y = 5 inches
Q = 0.00632 *(5)2 *X / (Y)0.5 = 0.71 cusec
This is in line with our common observation for farmers’ tubewells.
A. Orifice Flow Method
During the pumping tests on the tubewells – particularly using turbine pumps the
discharge is measured by fixing an orifice at the outer end of the discharge pipe. A
mono metric tube is fixed for the measurement of head due to the check on flow at the
orifice. Diameter of the discharge pipe, orifice and the head in the mono metric tube is
checked for the estimation of the discharge – as shown in the figure given below and
the equation and the example. In this case the following figures can be used:
Flow through orifce

"h"
"D"
"d"
Q= 8.02 KA*h^0.5 - - - - -- - where:

h= Mono metric head (inches)
K= Ratio of orifice to pipe (d/D)
A= Area of pipe (sq inches)
Q= discharge (gpm - US)
Example:
h inches= 16
pipe dia. Inches = 6 - - - -- (orifice = 4 inches)
k (orifice/pipe) = 0.67
Q (gpm) = 8.02 *0.67 *22/7*3^2*16^0.5 = 608 US GPM
357
T.4 Estimation of Horse Power of Electric Pump for Farmers’ Tubewell

In case of farmers’ tubewells in larger parts of the Punjab (with shallow water table
conditions), the suction pipe is 20 feet, which limits the end of its pumping level. Water
is delivered in a discharge box – only 4 to 5 feet above the ground level. Accordingly,
if we consider a pumping head of 30 feet it may be in line with the field conditions.
BHP of the motor for a discharge of one cusec can be estimated as:
BHP = (1*62.5*30) / (550*) = 5.68 HP
Under this case “” is the efficiency factor of the motor and pump – both are about 80
to 90 %. The next available HP capacity in the market is 7.5 HP motors, which may be
adequate. However, the field experience shows that the farmers will go for 10HP motor
keeping in the future deterioration and even uncertainties in the market brands.
Estimation of horsepower for a community water supply well equipped with
turbine pump and considering following parameters can be made as below:
Discharge = 5625 imperial gallon per hour (0.25 cusec or 94 GPM)
Head = 250 feet (from pumping level to an OHT at the highest place in
the village)
BHP = 11.86 HP in such a case A motor of 15 HP will be
recommended as per market availability.
T.5 Estimation of Electricity/Fuel Consumption
The operation cost of the tubewell mainly depends upon the consumption of electricity
or diesel. While designing a tubewell it is desirable that an estimate of:
Electricity consumption in units of KWH (Kilo Watt Hours); or
Diesel consumption in terms of liters should be made. In case of diesel
pump, the cost of lubricants (mainly engine oil) will also be included as
it is a regular feature.
For this purpose, the efficiency of pumps and prime movers should be kept in
consideration. This will help in the selection of appropriate pumping equipment and
the quantum of future expenditure to be involved. It may be of interest to note that:
The pumping cost of a diesel tubewell is directly proportional to the
utilization factor – it increases directly with increase in pumping hours;
but
The cost of pumping of electric tubewell is initially higher and gradually
decreases with increase in the operation factor. It is because of some
fixed charges per hose power of the motor, which is charged every
month irrespective of the operation of tubewell.
Electricity Consumption: One HP motor consumes 0.746 KWH units of electricity
per hour. Accordingly, a 10 HP motor will consume 7.46 KWH in one hour of tubewell
operation. Electric meters are also graduated for noting the daily or monthly electricity
consumption in KWH. In accordance with the electric tariffs in vogue, the pumping cost
can be estimated.
358
Consumption of Fuel: In case of tubewells operated with diesel prime movers,

the estimation of diesel and other lubricants can be made on the basis of the HP of
engine. The manufacturers recommend the oil change after 100 hours of engine
operation. As per available information, the diesel engine consumes 0.225 liters of
diesel per HP per hour. However, a peculiarity of the diesel engines is that after the
initial start, the engine comes down to the requisite HP – which is generally less than
the HP of motor being used. This is why, the farmers, using Peter Engine (16 HP)
report about 1.5 to 2.0 liter diesel consumption per hour (instead of 3.8 liters) as the
actual load of a private tubewell with a discharge of up to one cusec is 6 to 10 HP
during normal operation. Based on the field surveys during a recently implemented
project by Irrigation & Power Department5, commonly reported diesel consumption by
the farmers on various types of the prime movers is as below:
Peter Engine (16 HP): 1.5 to 2.0 liters per hour
LSD Engine (22 HP): 3.0 to 3.5 liters per hour
Tractor (45 HP): 4.0 to 6.0 liters per hour
Diesel consumption for same type of prime mover varies from place to place in case
of private tubewells, due to change in the pumping head or depth to water and the
draw down in the well.
T.6 Water Quality Standards - Irrigation Uses
Different water quality standards are used for drinking, industrial and irrigation water.
In this section the guidelines for interpretation of the water quality data - based on the
chemical analysis of the water samples in the laboratories – for irrigation use are given
below in accordance with FAO standards (FAO Paper 29).
Guidelines for Interpretations of Water Quality for Irrigation

Degree of Restriction on
Use
Potential Irrigation Problem Units
Slight to
None Severe
Moderate
Salinity (affects crop water availability)2
ECw dS/m < 0.7 0.7 - 3.0 > 3.0

450 -
TDS mg/l < 450 > 2000
2000
Infiltration (affects infiltration rate of water into the soil)
Evaluate using EC w and SAR
together)3
SAR = 0-3 and E Cw = > 0.7 0.7 - 0.2 < 0.2
5 Punjab Private Sector Groundwater Development Project (PPSGDP), implemented from 1997-2001.
359

Use
Slight to
None Severe
Moderate
= 3 -10 = > 1.2 1.2 - 0.3 < 0.3
= 8 - 18 = > 1.9 1.9 - 0.5 < 0.5
= 18 - 26 = > 2.9 2.9 - 1.3 < 1.3
= 26 - 40 = > 5.0 5.0 - 2.9 < 2.9

Specific Ion Toxicity (affects sensitive
crops)
Sodium (Na)4
Surface irrigation SAR <3 3-9 >9
Sprinkler irrigation me/l <3 >3
Chloride (Cl)4
Surface irrigation me/l <4 4-10 > 10
Sprinkler irrigation me/l <3 >3
Boron (B) mg/l < 0.7 0.7 - 3.0 > 3.0
Miscellaneous Effects (affects susceptible crops)
Nitrogen (NO3 - N)5 mg/l <5 ‘5-30 > 30
Bicarbonate (HCO3) me/l < 1.5 1.5 - 8.5 > 8.5
(Overhead sprinkling only)
pH Normal Range 6.5 - 8.4
Notes: FAO Paper No. 29
1 Adopted from University of California Committee of Consultants 1974.

ECw means electrical conductivity, indicating water salinity, reported in Deci
Siemens per meter at 25o C (dS/m) or in units millimhos per centimeter
2
(mmho/cm). Both are equivalent. TDS means total dissolved solids, reported
in milligrams per liter (mg/l).
360

Use
Slight to
None Severe
Moderate
SAR means sodium adsorption ratio. SAR is sometimes reported by the
symbol RNa. At a given SAR, infiltration rate increases as water salinity
3
increases. Evaluate the potential infiltration problem by SAR as modified by
ECw. Adapted from Rhoades 1977, and Oster and Schroer 1979.
For surface irrigation, most tree crops and woody plants are sensitive to
4
sodium and chloride; use the values shown.
NO3 -N means nitrate - nitrogen reported in terms of elemental nitrogen
5
(NH4-N and Organic-N should be included when wastewater is being tested).
i
DRAINAGE & SALINITY CONTROL

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 361
1.1. Definition ................................................................................................................ 361
1.2. History and Importance .......................................................................................... 361
1.3. Benefits of Drainage ............................................................................................... 361
1.4. Drainage and Environment ..................................................................................... 362
1.5. Drainage Problems and Challenges ....................................................................... 362
1.6. Drainage Classification and Nomenclature ............................................................. 363
1.7. Outline of Principles and Practices ......................................................................... 363
1.8. Outline of Principles and Practices ......................................................................... 365
1.9. Field Data ............................................................................................................... 365
1.10. Diagnosis of the Problem .................................................................................... 366
1.11. Stages of Project Preparation ............................................................................. 366
1.12. Scope of the Manual ........................................................................................... 367
2. GENERAL INVESTIGATIONS ................................................................................... 367
2.1. Topography ............................................................................................................ 367
2.2. Supplementary Survey Information......................................................................... 368
2.3. Climate ................................................................................................................... 368
2.4. Hydrogeological Survey and Mapping .................................................................... 369
2.5. Geological Investigation and Soil Characteristics ................................................... 370
2.6. Aquifer Characteristics ........................................................................................... 370
2.7. Water Table (Phreatic Level) and Perched Water Table ......................................... 370
2.8. Water table and Ground Water Survey ................................................................... 371
2.9. Piezometic Studies ................................................................................................. 373
2.10. Soil Surveys ........................................................................................................ 374
2.11. Specific Yield ...................................................................................................... 378
3. DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM .......................................................... 378
3.1. General .................................................................................................................. 378
3.2. Layout .................................................................................................................... 379
3.3. Alignment ............................................................................................................... 380
3.4. Design Rainfall ....................................................................................................... 380
3.5. Return Period ......................................................................................................... 380
3.6. Design Discharge ................................................................................................... 382
ii
3.7. Hydraulic Design .................................................................................................... 387

3.8. Structures ............................................................................................................... 394
4. PUMPING STATIONS ............................................................................................... 397
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 397
4.2. Type of Pumps ....................................................................................................... 397
4.3. Archimedean Screw Pump ..................................................................................... 397
4.4. Rotodynamic Pumps (Impeller Type Pumps) .......................................................... 399
4.5. Pumping Head........................................................................................................ 400
4.6. Pump Selection ...................................................................................................... 401
4.7. Sump Design for Subsurface Drainage .................................................................. 403
4.8. Sump Design .......................................................................................................... 403
4.9. Priming ................................................................................................................... 404
4.10. Power Calculation / Annual Cost Estimation ....................................................... 405
5. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SURFACE DRAINS..................................... 406
5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 406
5.2. Maintenance Problems ........................................................................................... 406
5.3. Weed Control and Clearance ................................................................................. 407
5.4. Silt Clearance / Re-Sectioning ................................................................................ 408
5.5. Sloughing of Side Slopes ....................................................................................... 409
5.6. Maintenance of Service Roads, Banks and Spoil Banks ......................................... 410
5.7. Performance O&M Contracts for Surface Drain ...................................................... 410
5.8. Preventive Maintenance of Surface Drains ............................................................. 410
5.9. Scheduling of Maintenance .................................................................................... 411
5.10. Inspection Check List .......................................................................................... 411
5.11. History of Drainage System ................................................................................ 412
5.12. Performance Assessment of Surface Drainage Systems .................................... 412
6. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE ....................................................................................... 413
6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 413
6.2. Subsurface Drainage Options ................................................................................. 414
6.3. Hydrological Cycle .................................................................................................. 415
6.4. Subsurface Drainage Investigations ....................................................................... 416
6.5. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE DESIGN ..................................................................... 429
6.6. Construction of Pipe Drain Systems ....................................................................... 448
7. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SUBSURFACE PIPE DRAINAGE SYSTEM 453
7.1. Monitoring of Pipe Drains ....................................................................................... 453
iii
7.2. Inspection of Pipe Drains ........................................................................................ 453

7.3. Repair and Clearing of Pipe Drains ........................................................................ 453
7.4. Root Management and Clearance .......................................................................... 454
7.5. Clearing of Manholes.............................................................................................. 454
7.6. Chemical Clogging (Iron Ochre, Gypsum) .............................................................. 454
7.7. Outlet Condition...................................................................................................... 455
7.8. Sump Operation ..................................................................................................... 455
7.9. Performance Assessment of Subsurface Drainage System .................................... 455
8. SALINITY CONTROL AND SOIL RECLAMATION ..................................................... 456
8.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 456
8.2. Occurrence of Salts in Soil ..................................................................................... 456
8.3. Salinity Effects ........................................................................................................ 457
8.4. Classification of Saline and Sodic Soils .................................................................. 461
8.5. Salt Balance and Leaching Requirement ................................................................ 461
8.6. Determination of Leaching Requirement (LR) ......................................................... 462
8.7. Reclamation of Salty Soils ...................................................................................... 464
List of Tables
TABLE 1: SAMPLE MOISTURE BALANCE CALCULATIONS ........................................................................... 369
TABLE 2: PARTICLE SIZE CLASSIFICATION............................................................................................... 376
TABLE 3: RANGE OF DRAINAGE COEFFICIENTS “C” FOR LOWER INDUS PLAIN ......................................... 384
TABLE 4: MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED VELOCITIES FOR EARTHEN CHANNELS ............................................. 389
TABLE 5: MANNING “N” FOR EARTHEN CHANNELS ................................................................................... 389
TABLE 6: RECOMMENDED B/D RATIOS .................................................................................................... 390
TABLE 7: RECOMMENDED SIDE SLOPES .................................................................................................. 390
TABLE 8: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR DROP IN W ATER LEVEL ......................................................................... 395
TABLE 9: VALUES OF C FOR USE IN THE AUGERHOLE METHOD ................................................................ 419
TABLE 10: SHAPE FACTOR C/R FOR USE WITH THE PIEZOMETER METHOD ............................................... 423
TABLE 11: W ATER QUALITY CRITERIA .................................................................................................... 424
TABLE 12: COMPUTER IRRIGATION SIMULATION DATA FOR COTTON......................................................... 426
TABLE 13: RANGE OF DRAINAGE COEFFICIENT ....................................................................................... 428
TABLE 14: DAIN SPACING CRITERIA USED IN PROJECTS IN PAKISTAN ........................................................ 430
TABLE 15: EQUIVALENT DEPTH “D” FOR COMMONLY USED PIPE DRAINS..................................................... 433
TABLE 16: GRADATION RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BASE MATERIAL ........................................................... 442
TABLE 17: GRAVEL ENVELOPE GRADATION ............................................................................................ 443
TABLE 18: CLASSIFICATION OF SALINE AND SODIC SOILS ........................................................................ 461
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: DRAINAGE SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION ...................................................................................... 364
FIGURE 2: W ATER TABLES IN THE SOIL ................................................................................................... 371
FIGURE 3: TYPICAL HYDROGRAPHS OF W ATER TABLE ELEVATIONS ......................................................... 372
FIGURE 4: SIMPLE PIEZOMETER SUITABLE FOR DRAINAGE STUDIES......................................................... 373
FIGURE 5: TYPICAL USE OF PIEZOMETERS .............................................................................................. 374
iv
FIGURE 6: SOIL TRIANGLE OF THE BASIC SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSES............................................................ 377

FIGURE 7: CURVE SHOWING GENERAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFIC YIELD AND HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY. .............................................................................................................................. 379
FIGURE 8: RAINFALL FREQUENCY CURVE FOR 48 HOURS RAINFALL PERIODS .......................................... 381
FIGURE 9: ANNUAL COSTS OF DRAINAGE................................................................................................ 381
FIGURE 10: FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF DRAINAGE DISCHARGES .............................................................. 383
FIGURE 11: CATCHMENT AREA (M) TO 5/6 (O.833) POWER VERSUS CATCHMENT AREA IN SQUARE MILES... 385
FIGURE 12: CURVE NUMBERS FOR DETERMINING SURFACE RUNOFF: ...................................................... 386
FIGURE 13: DIRECT RUNOFF BASED ON CURVE NUMBER AND RAINFALL .................................................. 387
FIGURE 14: TYPICAL DRAIN SECTIONS: ................................................................................................... 393
FIGURE 15: LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A TYPICAL DRAINAGE CULVERT .................................................. 397
FIGURE 16: MAIN CHARACTERISTICS AND LAYOUT OF A LAND DRAINAGE PUMPING STATION .................... 398
FIGURE 17: ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW PUMP ............................................................................................... 398
FIGURE 18: TYPES OF PUMPS ................................................................................................................ 399
FIGURE 19: SHAPES OF ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS....................................................................................... 400
FIGURE 20: COMPONENTS OF THE DYNAMIC HEAD.................................................................................. 401
FIGURE 21: SELECTION CHART FOR PUMPS............................................................................................ 402
FIGURE 22: TYPICAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAJOR TYPES OF PUMPS ..................................... 402
FIGURE 23: PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF A W ELL-DESIGNED INTAKE SUMP ................................................ 404
FIGURE 24: W EED GROWTH .................................................................................................................. 407
FIGURE 25: A BUCKET ATTACHED WITH A LARGE SIZE 4X4 TRACTOR ...................................................... 409
FIGURE 26: SLOUGHING OF BANK FROM PIPING ACTION .......................................................................... 410
FIGURE 27: CONE OF DEPRESSION ........................................................................................................ 414
FIGURE 28: MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE ............................................................... 416
FIGURE 29: STANDARD NOMENCLATURE USED IN AUGERHOLE METHOD .................................................. 418
FIGURE 30: ARRANGEMENT OF AUGERHOLE METHOD IN TWO LAYER PROFILES ....................................... 420
FIGURE 31: THE INVERTED AUGERHOLE METHOD ................................................................................... 421
FIGURE 32: NOMENCLATURE FOR THE PIEZOMETER METHOD .................................................................. 422
FIGURE 33: COMPUTER SIMULATION SHOWING DEEP PERCOLATION........................................................ 428
FIGURE 34: SYMBOLS AND DIAGRAM RELATED TO DONNAN FORMULA ..................................................... 431
FIGURE 35: PIPE DIAMETER NOMOGRAPH FOR CORRUGATED PIPES (PLASTICS) ...................................... 436
FIGURE 36: FLOW IN DRAINS OF VARIOUS DIAMETER BASED ON SLOPE ................................................... 437
FIGURE 37: FIELD DRAINAGE LAYOUT PATTERNS .................................................................................... 439
FIGURE 38: SCHEMATIC LAYOUTS OF SINGULAR AND COMPOSITE PIPE DRAIN SYSTEMS .......................... 439
FIGURE 39: LAYOUT PATTERN BASED ON SUMP LOCATION...................................................................... 440
FIGURE 40: PVC CORRUGATED PIPES SHOWING PERFORATIONS AS SLOTS ............................................ 441
FIGURE 41: SUMP DESIGN ..................................................................................................................... 446
FIGURE 42: DESIGN OF A TYPICAL MANHOLE .......................................................................................... 447
FIGURE 43: TWO TYPES OF COMMONLY USED PIPE LAYING MACHINES ................................................... 448
FIGURE 44: TRENCHER IN OPERATION .................................................................................................... 449
FIGURE 45: GRAVEL TRAILER CONVEYING GRAVEL THROUGH A CONVEYOR BELT.................................... 450
FIGURE 46: PIPE DAMAGED DUE TO RADIATION ...................................................................................... 451
FIGURE 47: CLEARING OF SILT WITH FLOAT FROM MANHOLE ................................................................... 452
FIGURE 48: ECE-VALUE OF THE SOIL AND YIELDS OF CROPS..................................................................... 457
FIGURE 49: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EC-VALUE AND YIELDS OF CROPS ................................................. 458
FIGURE 50: SALT TOLERANCE FOR FIELD, VEGETABLE, AND FORAGE CROPS ........................................... 458
FIGURE 51: OUTLINE OF THE ECE MEASUREMENT ................................................................................... 459
FIGURE 52: THE MONOGRAPH FOR DETERMINATION OF SAR/ESP ........................................................... 460
361
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Definition
Land drainage is the removal, by artificial means, the excess water from the land
surface or from the soil to make the soil more suitable for agriculture by increasing
production, sustaining yields and reducing production costs.
Adequate drainage provides proper balance between soil moisture and oxygen both
of which are required by plants to grow and survive. Drainage is essential to maintain
supply of oxygen and helps to maintain a favourable salt balance in the root zone.
When saline water table rises and remains in the root zone for more than 48 hours,
agricultural production is seriously affected.
1.2. History and Importance
Importance of irrigation is easily understood and appreciated. Without water, the crops
do not grow. Without drainage, some sort of agriculture is possible, though crop yields
are seriously affected. Operation and maintenance of surface drains is also a major
issue. Professionals as well as farmers are, therefore, much less enthusiastic about
drainage as compared to irrigation.
During the development of irrigation network in Pakistan, surface drainage received
limited attention; partly this could be due to the fact that natural drainage at that time
was fairly effective since infrastructure was not fully developed and natural drainage
paths were not blocked. Water table at that time was between 6 to 30 m below the
land surface, subsurface drainage was not, therefore, considered seriously during
planning.
Lack of adequate surface drainage, seepage from irrigation networks and deep
percolation from the irrigated fields have brought the water table and the salts close to
the surface. Agriculture in seriously affected areas came to a halt. The need and
importance of subsurface drainage, thus got recognized at professional and policy
making levels.
1.3. Benefits of Drainage
Surface and subsurface drainage promote conditions that:
• improve soil structure and workability,
• help intake of water and nutrients and develop root growth,
• provide aeration in the root zone thus ensuring oxygen supply to crops,
• encourage aerobic bacteria which are needed to provide nitrogen for crops,
• improve preparation, planting, cultivation and harvesting operations,
• cause warming of soil which promotes biological and chemical activity that is
important for seed germination and plant growth (saturated soils are 7 oF to
14oF cooler than drained soil), thereby making early plantation possible for 2
to 3 weeks,
• promote deeper root development leading to healthier and more vigorous plant
growth,
362
• make mechanized harvesting possible since heavy machinery cannot operate

in boggy soil conditions,
• provide farmers with a wider choice for the selection of crops,
• provide firm and dry foundation for development of roads and building
infrastructure,
• help eliminate breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other insects.
1.4. Drainage and Environment
• Drainage generally improves environment by eliminating insect breeding
grounds and reducing the hazard of surface salinity. Drainage Engineer must,
however, specifically note that excessive drainage could dry established
wetlands that have great ecological value by providing valuable wildlife habitat.
• Significant amount of toxic industrial waste and untreated sewage from urban
centres is flowing into the surface drainage network. On way to the outfall, it
impairs the quality of groundwater and surface water for downstream farmers.
Although this happens without the consent of the drainage engineers, the
concerned drainage engineers need to constantly pursue, with the help of
Environment Protection Agency (EPA), that untreated effluents are not
discharged into surface drains.
• Highly saline effluent from SCARP tubewells is also discharged into the
surface drainage channels. This also deteriorates the surface and groundwater
quality for lower riparians.
• Reclaiming land in the head reaches of link canals (where there is excessive
seepage), is a very expensive drainage solution. In such areas fisheries could
be developed with small additional costs. It could be financially more rewarding
for the farmers while creating new wetlands with added benefits to ecology and
environment.
1.5. Drainage Problems and Challenges
The following drainage issues specific to Pakistani conditions need to be looked into
while planning and designing new or remodeling existing systems:
• inadequacy of existing surface drainage systems in various canal commands
• lack of field drains and their connection with the Govt.-operated sub-drains
• blockage of natural drainage flow by motorways, road network and other
infrastructure development projects,
• poor outfall conditions for main drains causing back flows and flooding,
• inadequate capacity in the outfall reaches of drains,
• sheet flow entering into surface drainage, bringing considerable amount of
sediments by eroding top soil,
• disposal of untreated sewage and toxic industrial waste through drains,
• accumulation of salts in the Indus Basin due to lack of national outfall drain to
sea,
• ineffectiveness of the existing drainage facilities primarily due to lack of funding
for O&M,
363
• non-availability of data for performance evaluation after intense rainfall and

flooding,
• lack of clarity about the “Return Period” for the design of surface drainage
systems. Different consultants have used different Return Periods,
• poor groundwater management and monitoring,
• irrational water allowances among different canal commands and lack of equity
of water distribution leading to excessive pumping of groundwater in water
short canal commands and waterlogging in areas with excessive water
allowances.
1.6. Drainage Classification and Nomenclature
Drainage system, can be broadly classified into “natural drainage” and “artificial
drainage”. Natural drainage includes rivers, streams, nullahs and depressions.
Artificial drains can be classified as surface and subsurface drainage systems,
including open channels, buried pipes and tubewells.
Nomenclature of different types of drains according to their function and type is
tabulated in Fig 1.
Dry drainage: It is a practice of irrigating a part of an area while some area is left as
fallow land where salts are allowed to concentrate for evaporation. It essentially
implies export of salt from irrigation areas to the fallow areas. The fallow land however
creates environmental issues for the adjoining land due to windblown salts.
Deferred drainage: Subsurface drainage is normally conceived at planning stage of
surface drainage system. However, if the groundwater levels are low, its
implementation is deferred, until such time the problem eventually appears.
1.7. Outline of Principles and Practices
Drainage plan essentially involves the preparation of a plan for the solution of a
drainage problem. The problem may relate to a particular catchment or for a large
area to improve regional drainage conditions. The core of a drainage plan consists of
new drainage works. The detailing of such works, mostly falling in the domain of
engineering, is referred as “Design”.
The following broad principles provide a frame work for planning process:
• to keep the natural drainage system free of obstructions and blockages so
that artificial drainage system caters for reduced storm water runoff,
• the drainage system efficiently removes ponded water from the
agricultural fields within 48 hours,
• groundwater table is maintained at optimum level so as to minimize
drainage surplus,
• focus on local use of saline water as far as possible,
• efficient and safe disposal of saline water from saline groundwater
tubewells,
364
• drain capacity takes into account the escape discharge from irrigation
channel,
• sheet flow does not enter surface drains,
• saline tubewells operation is staggered to let the surface runoff peak pass,
• urban base flows are considered as additional flows in the drain capacity
calculations. However, irrigation excess flows is not considered since the
drain designed for storm runoff handles these flows.
Figure 1: Drainage System Classification
365
1.8. Outline of Principles and Practices

Drainage plan essentially involves the preparation of a plan for the solution of a
drainage problem. The problem may relate to a particular catchment or for a large
area to improve regional drainage conditions. The core of a drainage plan consists of
new drainage works. The detailing of such works, mostly falling in the domain of
engineering, is referred as “Design”.
The following broad principles provide a frame work for planning process:
• to keep the natural drainage system free of obstructions and blockages so
that artificial drainage system caters for reduced storm water runoff,
• the drainage system efficiently removes ponded water from the
agricultural fields within 48 hours,
• groundwater table is maintained at optimum level so as to minimize
drainage surplus,
• focus on local use of saline water as far as possible,
• efficient and safe disposal of saline water from saline groundwater
tubewells,
• drain capacity takes into account the escape discharge from irrigation
channel,
• sheet flow does not enter surface drains,
• saline tubewells operation is staggered to let the surface runoff peak pass,
• urban base flows are considered as additional flows in the drain capacity
calculations. However, irrigation excess flows is not considered since the
drain designed for storm runoff handles these flows.
1.9. Field Data
Design of a functional and efficient drainage largely depends upon the reliability,
adequacy and accuracy of the field data. The data should provide basic knowledge
meeting the following requirements:
• source, amount and characteristic of excess water that is required to be
disposed,
• available hydraulic gradient, natural as well as induced,
• topography, soil properties and land use to determine rainfall - runoff
relationship,
• existing cropping pattern and future cropping pattern after drainage is
improved,
• depth to water table data and groundwater quality,
• soil infiltration and permeability,
• impact of drainage on social and economic environment,
• geology,
• soil characteristics,
• salinity and alkalinity,
• groundwater contour maps,
366
• identification of the impermeable barrier layers,

• piezometer profile / groundwater profile.
1.10. Diagnosis of the Problem
An analysis of the field data establishes the nature and cause of the problem relating
to water table, salinity/alkalinity, lack of field/sub drains and flooding from upstream
areas. If foreign water is involved, a study of a broader area is required and field data
from outside the project also need to be collected.
1.11. Stages of Project Preparation
Identification Stage
Usually the drainage problems are identified by the affected farmers and the public
representatives bring these to the notice of the policy makers. Problem areas have
also been identified in the Drainage Master Plan prepared by WAPDA. Areas that do
not have adequate surface drainage system can be identified from the Master Plan.
The drainage circles of Irrigation Department must however, prepare their own master
plan by updating the data given in the Drainage Master Plan.
Reconnaissance / Pre-Feasibility Stage
It involves delineation of area for project proposal and cover the following aspects:
- preliminary diagnosis of the drainage problem,
- rough outline of possible solutions,
- project concept design and information for which PC-II is to be prepared,
- justification of the project on the basic of approximate cost / benefit
analysis,
- broad features of the works involved.
Feasibility Stage
Feasibility includes:
• preparation of detailed project proposal on the basis of topographic
survey (scale 1:10,000/50,000), field investigations, including
assessment of the excess water to be disposed, (surface as well as
subsurface),
• preparation of project layout plan and alignment of filed, sub and branch
drains and remodeling of existing drainage system,
• preparation of groundwater and water quality maps,
• feasibility level design of all project components and preparation of cost
estimates,
• analysis for technical and economic viability of the proposed solution.
The feasibility report is used to decide whether or not to proceed with the project.
Depending upon the size and complexity of the project, the feasibility study is carried
out by a multidisciplinary team of experts. Such expertise is usually not available as
in-house capacity of a drainage circle and is usually outsourced. It could usually take
367
a year or more. There are no short cuts to save time at this stage. Allowing reasonable
time is a pre-requisite for a sound engineering plan.
Detailed Design Stage
This is the final stage for project implementation. While the Feasibility Report provides
the basic information, the final design may vary from the feasibility level design. At this
stage more elaborate field investigation is carried out. This may take more time than
what was required for feasibility. All plans and drawings are detailed so that these
serve as working drawings for implementation.
1.12. Scope of the Manual
The manual updates Chapter 12 (relating to drainage) of the 1943 Manual of Irrigation
Practice and supplements the Surface Drainage Manual for Pakistan which do not
cover subsurface drainage. Its objective is to sensitize the professionals of Irrigation
and Agriculture Departments to the importance, need and benefits of drainage for the
success and sustainability of irrigated agriculture. It is not meant to be a text book on
drainage nor can it cover the full aspects for the design of surface and subsurface
drainage. It does however provide broad design principles and guidelines for planning,
design and maintenance of drainage systems.
The manual includes engineering techniques and practices that have proved useful
over the years for successful irrigated agriculture. It provides drainage engineers, a
ready reference and a guide for the assessment of drainage requirements and
provides tools and procedures for the design of drainage system.
2. GENERAL INVESTIGATIONS
2.1. Topography
Topographic maps are indispensable for the planning of a drainage project.
Information from these maps determines whether or not and to what extent drainage
facilities are required. Favourable topography may provide adequate natural drainage
and reduce the need for artificial drainage.
• For feasibility study, topographic survey with a scale of 1:10,000/25000
and contour interval of 0.6 to 1.5 m (2 to 5 ft) suffice. For detailed design,
more detailed maps are needed, usually to a scale of 1: 5000/10,000 with
contour interval of 0.3 to 0.6 m. For flat land, contour interval of 0.3 m is
normally required.
• Map scale should match the contour interval so that the contour lines are
not more than 5-10 cm and not less than 0.5-1.0 cm apart.
• For the design of groundwater drainage systems, somewhat lower
standard for the mapping may be acceptable.
• Topographic maps should also show the main elements of any existing
drainage system (natural as well as artificial) and all relevant
infrastructural features, such as roads, railways private buildings etc.
368
• For integration into the existing branch/main drains, longitudinal profile to

a scale of 1:5000/10,000 and x-section @ 50-150 m to a scale of 1:100
are needed in addition to the levels and condition survey of all structures.
• To assess outfall conditions, the topo survey may extend outside the
project area.
Before undertaking these surveys, check that some of these maps might already be
available as part of completed drainage projects, or as a part of other development
projects in the vicinity.
2.2. Supplementary Survey Information
Google Maps
Topo maps can be supplemented with the latest google maps of the area which are
helpful for the planning stage. Depending upon the mapping date, good information
relating to cultivated and fallow land is available from these maps.
Satellite Imagery / Remote Sensing
Different software applications are available that enable the generation of geographic
information from satellite and airborne satellite sensors data. The relevant applications
perform many features, including determining the changes from images taken at
different times of the same area and providing information relating to different land
cover classes. Some of the popular remote sensing file formats include: GeoTIFF,
NITF, JPEG 2000, ECW and Net CDF. Other examples of Remote Sensing software
include:
Geomatics, PCi Geomatics, TNT mips, MicroImages, USA, ERDAS IMAGINE, ENVI,
Google Earth, GRASS GIS, Open E V, Opticks, Remote View.
2.3. Climate
Most drain problems result from rainfall exceeding the evapotranspiration. An analysis
of the climatic condition in the project area helps in the assessment of the scope of the
drainage measures and determination of most appropriate and cost effective drainage
solution. More importantly it helps in the calculation of design discharge.
The seasonal rainfall data over a considerable time period is required. Average
monthly rainfalls are to be superimposed on the evapotranspiration for that period, to
estimate infiltration and surface runoff. Respective “Excess” and “Deficient” are
computed. The situation, however, varies from year to year but the information yields
good insight into frequency of occurrence of excess and deficient. A sample
calculation is shown in Table 1.
369
Table 1: Sample Moisture Balance Calculations
(evapotranspiration)
(Precipitation)
Excesses
(storage)
Deficits
P-E
P
S
mm mm mm mm mm mm
End of January S = Smax =75
February 54 ___ +54 75 54
March 49 24 +25 75 25
April 69 70 -1 74
May 90 102 - 12 62
June 101 116 - 15 47
July 85 136 - 51 0 4
August 81 112 - 31 0 31
September 80 65 +15 15
October 67 30 +37 52
November 102 10 +92 75 69
December 79 5 +74 75 74
January 60 ___ +60 75 60
(Source: Land Drainage, BT Batsford Ltd. London)
2.4. Hydrogeological Survey and Mapping
Hydrogeological map is a dynamic tool for groundwater management, particularly the
demarcation of aquifer and may be used as a ready reckoner for groundwater quality
and quantity.
Hydrogeology Directorate of WAPDA prepared a hydrogeological map of Pakistan to
a scale of 1:250,000. The map was prepared in 2001 to international legend
established by UNESCO.
Following information is available from these maps:
• demarcation of principal groundwater bodies,
• demarcation of groundwater scarcity areas,
• demarcation of saline groundwater and surface body,
• variation in groundwater quality,
• groundwater pollution threat areas,
• demarcation of precipitation data in the form of isohyetal contours,
• geological features to help understand groundwater regime,
• groundwater potential for each province and region,
• tubewell yield ranges for different basins,
370
The information available in these maps may not be relevant in certain respects. The
survey is supposed to be updated every 10 years, which has not been done. To
exercise a vigilant control of groundwater and for maintaining salt balance,
hydrogeological mapping should be part of investigation for long-term planning of
drainage.
2.5. Geological Investigation and Soil Characteristics
These investigations are needed for the design of surface as well as subsurface
drainage systems. The most widespread soil material in irrigated lands of Pakistan is
alluvial in character. These water deposited materials range from clays to coarse
sands. Most alluvial soils have good hydraulic conductivity for the design and
development of an economically viable drainage system because of adequate
hydraulic conductivity of soil. Geological investigations are required at the site of
structures for designing suitable foundations for structures and for the stability of side
slopes in designing the earthen sections of surface drains.
An impermeable barrier, (mostly horizontal), its thickness, its spatial occurrence and
its gradient affect the flow pattern to the subsurface pipe drains. The barrier restricts
vertical movement of water although in some cases, vertical barriers can restrict
horizontal movement of water.
2.6. Aquifer Characteristics
Aquifer of different types may occur at various depths. The groundwater in the
permeable strata may be freewater under normal static or dynamic pressure or it may
be subjected to an over-pressure. The later may occur where an aquifer is overlain
by a poorly permeable layer. Such aquifers are termed as confined aquifer.
Agricultural drainage is primarily concerned with the free groundwater directly below
the surface i.e. the “Phreatic Groundwater”. Its surface is termed as “Phreatic level or
water table” (Fig. 2 (a)).
Phreatic groundwater 25-50 m below the soil surface is of little direct concern for
agriculture drainage. If water table is less than 5 m below the soil surface, it has
relevance to agricultural drainage.
For the calculation of design discharge for subsurface drainage, determination of the
existence or otherwise of artesian aquifers is essential. An artesian aquifer which is
under sufficient pressure and causes the piezometric water surface to rise to near the
ground surface contributes additional discharge for the subsurface drains. In such
situations, the drain discharge comprises deep percolation from irrigation and artesian
water.
2.7. Water Table (Phreatic Level) and Perched Water Table
The location of water table is determined by sinking a borehole into the body of
groundwater. The borehole is fitted with a perforated pipe, water from the adjoining
soil flows into the pipe and fills it to the water table level.
371
Where deep percolation is impeded by a poorly impermeable layer, a so called

“Perched Water Table” (Fig. 2 (b)) is developed. Its occurrence can be temporary or
it can exist long enough to cause serious problem of excess water in the soil. It can be
detected by drilling a borehole into the groundwater, but not through the impermeable
layer.
Figure 2: Water Tables in the Soil

2.8. Water table and Ground Water Survey
Groundwater surveys provide valuable information on the groundwater drainage
conditions in the area. Groundwater levels reflect the prevailing balance between
groundwater recharge and discharge components. As the balance changes so do the
water table levels. When the water table is permanently or seasonally too close to the
soil surface, sub surface drainage may be required.
Water Table Observation Wells
The water table is investigated using observation holes and piezometers. For a long-
term record, the measurements are made twice a year (pre- & post-monsoon).
Measurements after rainfall are made only after static equilibrium, usually several days
after the rainfall. In Pakistan these measurements are done in June and October.
The observation well data is analyzed to produce:
• water table depth maps,
• groundwater table contour maps,
• depth to barrier maps,
• water table profile,
• piezometer profile,
• hydrographs.
The water table depth and contour maps should indicate the water logged area (1 to
1.5 m from the surface, the potential water logged areas (1.5 to 3 m) and the direction
372
of groundwater movement by the shape and position of contour lines. Areas of

groundwater recharge and discharge can be classified. Some idea of relative
hydraulic conductivity can be derived from the distance between the contour lines.
Depth to Barrier Maps
These maps are used to locate the subsurface pipe drains, to estimate quantity of
groundwater movement and to design subsurface drainage.
Water Table Profile
Water table profile can be prepared from a series of observation wells. The profile is
generally prepared along the direction of flow. It is plotted from the water level in each
well along the line. A visual comparison of the profile indicates fluctuation of water
level along the profile. Significant changes indicate recharge and discharge factors.
Hydrographs
Hydrographs (Fig. 3) show the fluctuation of water table with the respect to the time
from a single observation well or a piezometer. The hydrographs provide explanation
for trend in water table movement as a result of rainfall on canal irrigation, and the
impact of tubewell pumping in the vicinity. The effectiveness of existing subsurface
drainage measure can also be judged.
Figure 3: Typical Hydrographs of Water Table Elevations
Ground Surface Elevations -1136.6
1128
OBSERVATION
1
WELL (O.W) 1128
4 2 N - 2E
1127 1127
1126 1126
1125 1125
1124 1124
QW. 3 12 S - 4 34W
1131 1131
1130 1130
1129 1129
1143 QW. 2 14 N - 3 W 1143
1142 1142
1141 1141
TYPICAL HYDROGRAPHSOF
1140 WATER TABLE ELEVATIONS 1140
5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025 5 10 15 2025
JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.
(Source: Drainage Manual, US Deptt. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation)

373
2.9. Piezometic Studies

Observation wells do not provide information relating to potential difference within the
groundwater body. Where such differences are expected, piezometers should be
used instead of observation wells. Piezometers (Fig. 4) measure the pressure in the
water body at the point where its filter is placed consisting of the bottom 5-10 cm of
the piezometer tube.
Figure 4: Simple Piezometer Suitable for Drainage Studies

Typical use of Piezometers
The piezometers are installed 1-2 m apart at different depths. The levels in piezometer
1 and 2 show (Fig. 5) that the pressure distribution with depth in the highly permeable
layer III is hydrostatic indicating that there is no flow in the vertical direction.
Piezometer 2 and 3 show that there is upward flow from layer III to the root zone
(generally termed as seepage flow or leakage from underlying aquifer). This leakage
has to be taken into account in addition to the drainable surplus from irrigation and
rainfall.
Location of Observation Holes
Observation holes for the observation of static water level should be located at places
where the effect of surface water on ground water level is completely eliminated, i.e
these should be away from canals, water channels, ponds, lakes, reservoir etc. They
should preferably be near all-weather roads for accessibility and close to a permanent
structure in order to avoid damages. If the topography is by and large uniform, these
should be located on a grid pattern.
Installation
A 50 to 100 mm dia hole is usually sufficient which can be dug by a hand Auger. Power
Auger can be used in case the holes are deeper than 3 m, the soil is compact or large
number of holes are required. About 100 mm of sand or gravel are put into the hole
before the perforated casing is installed. The annular space around the casing should
then be filled with sand (passing the # 8 sieve and retained on the # 18 sieve) to the
374
top of the perforation. At this point, 1 to 1 bentonite – soil mixture should be tapped
around the casing and mounded on the ground surface so as to prevent surface water
entering the sand and then to the casing. For permanent observation wells, a concrete
collor may be placed at ground surface. A careful log of the soil should be preserved
while auguring. The depth of observation hole should be below the lowest expected
groundwater level.
Figure 5: Typical Use of Piezometers

2.10. Soil Surveys
Information on the land and soil classification is required for the following purposes;
• Erodibility: It can be deduced from soil character, such as texture,
structure, rainfall intensity and duration, degree of
slope etc. Erodable soils in the drainage basin carry lot
of sediments into the drainage system. For this, soil
analysis of top layers 0-20/30 cm is needed.
• Retention It can be determined from the soil and land features,
capacity: including surface roughness, type of cover, and
presence/nature of field bunds in irrigated lands.
• Infilterability: It is maximum rate at which water can infiltrate into dry
soil. Cracked clay soils may absorb water almost
instantaneously (100 to 200 mm) of water but once
cracks are filled and closed as a result of swelling of
soil, the infiltration virtually stops.
375
Total infiltrated water after Infiltration Rate after

Description
3 hours 3 hours
Coarse textured soil 150 – 300 mm 15 – 20 mm per hour
Medium textured soil 30 – 100 mm 5 – 10 mm per hour
Fine textured soil 30 – 70 mm 1 – 10 mm per hour
• Thickness and To assess conditions for lateral top soil drainage.

hydraulic
conductivity of the
top soil
• Main soil profile / Investigation of this profile is needed to determine:
root zone (0- - root development potential,
75/150cm)
- extent and limitation of capillary rise,
- most appropriate drainage depth, method of pipe
installation and selection of pipe material,
- degree of clogging of pipes by iron ochre,
- hydraulic conductivity value of difference layers,
- existence of soil anisotropy.
• Substructure Substructure is required to be explored to determine:
(75/150 cm – 5/20 - Depth, thickness of an underlying impermeable
m) layer,
- Hydraulic conductivity,
- Real and perched water table.
Salinity Survey
An assessment of soil salinity and groundwater quality can be made from the analysis
of the following data:
- electric conductivity (EC) of the soil at different depths
- EC and SAR (Sodium Absorption Ratio) values of the groundwater
Soil Texture
Texture relates to the proportion of various sizes of particles in a soil sample and has
a direct relationship with hydraulic conductivity and water retention. In general, the
coarse texture soils have higher hydraulic conductivity and lower water retention than
fine textured soil. Particle size classification (Table 2) is used for land classification for
drainage works since it may be used to correlate with hydraulic conductivity.
376
Table 2: Particle Size Classification

Material Diameter
Stones Greater than 10
inches
Cobbles 10 to 3 inches
Coarse gravel 3 to 5 inches
Fine gravel 0.5 inches to 2 mm
Very coarse sand 2.0 to 1.0 mm
Coarse sand 1.0 to 0.5 mm
Medium sand 0.5 to 0.25 mm
Fine sand 0.25 to 0.10 mm
Very fine sand 0.10 to 0.05 mm
Salt 0.05 to 0.002 mm
Clay Less than 0.002
mm
Soil Texture Triangle
Soil texture triangle (Fig. 6) is used to correlate quantitative data from a detailed
gradation analysis of soil less than 2.00 mm, to texture class names, such as clay,
loam and sand.
Soil Structure
The structure relates to the size, shape and arrangement of the aggregates and the
shape and size of the pore spaces that give the soil its structure. It is used in
evaluating and correlating the hydraulic conductivity of soils with similar texture.
The soil particles are classified as:
Platy The hydraulic conductivity is usually higher for medium
platy material with plate thickness 0.08 to 0.2 inch (2 to 5
mm).
Prismatic or These particles have blocky structure approximate square,
columnar pentagonal or hexagonal. They swell when wet which
results in very low hydraulic conductivity.
Granular This type of structure is formed of uniformally sized
particles, spherical in shape. This type of structure usually
have good hydraulic conductivity, both vertically and
horizontally.
377
Figure 6: Soil triangle of the basic soil textural classes
TEXTURAL CLASSES
TEXTURE SAND % SILT % CLAY %
SAND (S) 85 to 100 0 to 15 0 to 10
LOAMY SAND (LS) 70 to 90 0 to 20 0 to 15
SANDY LOAM (SL) 43 to 85 0 to 50 0 to 20
LOAM (L) 23 to 52 28 to 50 7 to 27
SILT LOAM (SiL) 0 to 50 50 to 100 0 to 27
SANDY CLAY LOAM (SCL) 45 to 80 0 to 28 20 to 35
CLAY LOAM (CL) 20 to 45 15 to 53 27 to 40
SILTY CLAY LOAM (SiCL) 0 to 20 40 to 73 27 to 40
SANDY CLAY (SC) 45 to 65 0 to 20 35 to 55
SILT (Si) 0 to 20 80 to 100 0 to 12
SILTY CLAY (SiC) 0 to 20 40 to 60 40 to 60
CLAY (C) 0 to 46 0 to 40 24 to 100
BASIC TEXTURAL CLASS MODIFYING TERM
378
SAND GRAVEL
Diameter, U.S Term Content
millimeter Standard Percent Term
sieve
numbers
0.05 to 0.10 300 to 140 Very fine sand (VFS) 20 to 50 Gravelly (Gr)
0.10 to 0.25 140 to 60 Fine sand (FS) 50 to 90 Very (VGr)
gravelly
0.25 to 0.50 60 to 35 Medium sand (S)
0.50 to 1.00 35 to 18 Coarse sand (CsS)
1.00 to 2.00 18 to 10 Very coarse (VCsS)
sand
Coarse sand :25% or more CVsS and less than 50% of any other grade of sand.
Sand :25% or more VCsS, CsS, and S, and less than 50% of F or VFS.
Fine sand :50% or more FS and less than 25% of VCsS, CsS, and S and less than 50% of
VFS
Very fine :50% or more VFS
sand
(Source: Drainage Manual, US Deptt. of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation)
2.11. Specific Yield
It is defined as the volume of water released from a known volume of saturated soil
under the force of gravity and the inherit soil tension.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆 = 𝑥 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
For optimum crop growth, the specific yield should be in the range of 6 to 10%. In this
range, the soil has sufficient aeration, hydraulic conductivity and water holding
properties. If S is less than 3%, drainage becomes difficult.
Specific yield can be determined using undisturbed soil sample of known volume. Both
laboratory and field tests of specific yield are difficult to perform and are expensive.
Field offices may not be equipped to do the test. U.S.B.R has developed a relation
between hydraulic conductivity and specific yield on the basis of 2000 lab tests.
Specific yield may be determined from Fig. 7.
3. DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM
3.1. General
The design of surface drainage system may be divided into:
a. Selection of type and layout of the system, including alignment of sub,
branch and main drains.
b. Determination of the hydraulic dimension of the different components.
379
The main function of a surface drainage system is to convey the excess water from
agriculture fields to the outlet point. The system may also have to receive and convey
discharge from urban drainage system. The layout of the system is based mostly on
the geography and topography of the area. It has an interrelationship with the layout
of irrigation system as well as the road network in an area.
Figure 7: Curve showing general relationship between specific yield and

hydraulic conductivity.
3.2. Layout
The composition of surface drainage layout is hierarchical in order with field drains (at
farm level), sub, branch and main drains. The hierarchical composition of the network
emerges naturally in a design based on topography. Generally the drains follow the
depression along the lower side of the farmlands in a basin. However, no hard and
fast rules apply as the sub-drains may directly discharge into the main drains in certain
situations.
To start the layout in a given drainage basin, the main drain is marked keeping in view
the hydrological condition of the area and the outlet point along the river or a nullah.
Then, the secondary, branch drains and tertiary or sub-drains are added on the layout.
Further refinement is required taking into consideration the topography, infrastructure
and land holding of individual farmers. Severing farmlands parcels with no access
through a bridge, create major operational difficulties for the farmers and is usually
resisted. Compensation by way of liberal severance allowance should be allowed by
the Land Acquisition Collector.
380
3.3. Alignment
Main drains are generally aligned considering topography and location of the outlet
point. Existing infrastructure also impacts on the alignment. The main drain mostly
follows the depression. However, major depressions should be avoided due to
constructability problems and subsequent maintenance issues relating to sloughing of
side slopes. Cost optimization studies influence the alignment and it should be the
shortest route within the basin. The alignment and the bed levels should be such that
it directly provides relief to the adjoining farm lands.
The sub-drains also follow the depressions and sometimes, the requirement for main
branch/sub drains, are in conflict with regard to levels. A compromise solution is
developed for the most suitable alignment for the network.
A serious consideration is given to maintain the source of irrigation when a farm is
severed by the drain alignment. This involves construction of a large number of water
course crossings or else the drains alignment should follow the chakbandi lines. For
main drains, the transfer of land from one source of irrigation to the other may also be
considered if the cost of water course crossings becomes excessive.
The alignment should not be close to potential or important wetlands, as the drainage
tends to dry the wetlands with a negative environmental impact on ecology.
3.4. Design Rainfall
The design rainfall is the most critical rainfall event that the drainage system has to
handle. Although higher than design rainfall may occur and may cause damages, yet
these events are rare. It may be economical to accept occasional damages than to
construct a foolproof expensive system capable of handling extreme rainfall events.
The selection of design rainfall is based on the return period for the rainfall event.
3.5. Return Period
Return Period is the frequency of occurrence of a rainfall event. As the rainfall depth
increases, its frequency of occurrence decreases. This relationship is plotted as
frequency curve. An example is shown in Fig. 8.
From Fig. 8, a 48 hours rainfall higher than 40 mm is expected to occur once every
year, while a depth higher than 85 mm is likely to occur once every 5 years (5 year
Return Period). Selecting higher period, the capacity of the system increases and
damages are reduced but the cost of constructing and maintaining the system
exponentially increases. The selection of design rainfall which in turn depends on the
return period is an economic parameter involving optimization of benefits in relation to
cost. Cost optimization curves can be drawn, as shown in Fig. 9 to determine the
lowest cost corresponding to a return period.
381
Figure 8: Rainfall Frequency Curve for 48 Hours Rainfall Periods
125
rainfall depth (mm)
100
uncontrolled rainfall
75 design rainfall
50 controlled rainfall
25
0.5 1 3 5 7 9 11
return period at which rainfall is equalled or exceeded (years)

Figure 9: Annual Costs of Drainage
average annual cost (thousand rupees)
total costs
200 annual costs
of the drainage
system
100
average annual damage due to uncontrolled rainfall
0.5 25 50 75 100 125 design rainfall (mm)
0.5 1.5 3.0 10 50 return period (yrs)

For agricultural drainage, the system designed for a rainfall event of 1 in 5 years is
optimum. However, there are no hard and fast rules. For high value crops, the system
can be designed for a less frequent event, i.e. 1 in 10 years. Structures are usually
designed for a return period double of what is used for the section of the drains. There
is often a difference in the return periods adopted for sub, branch and main drains.
Failure of the main system is of greater consequence, involving far more damages
than the failure of sub drains. The main drain can be designed for a 10 year return
period while for sub and branch drains, 5 year return period can be adequate.
382
Rainfall data is available from MET offices, WAPDA Hydrology Directorate and the
rainfall gauging stations installed at important locations. A minimum of 10 years data
should be required for doing full frequency analyses. Collection of fresh rainfall data is
seldom needed.
If a particular drainage basin does not have the requisite rainfall data, data for a
nearest rainfall gauging station may be utilized.
3.6. Design Discharge
Design discharge at a particular point in a drainage network is generally based on
rainfall since this is almost always the most critical source of excess water which is
required to be removed. Intense storm of short duration normally produces the peak
flow. Urban uniform flows and subsurface flows are added to the rainfall runoff. The
rainfall runoff relationship is a complex matter which is dependent upon lot of variables,
primarily the storage and flow resistance. The soil has potentially the largest storage
capacity (storage underground through deep percolation and storage on the surface
within the bunded cultivated fields). The factors offering resistance to flow include the
land-use, its roughness and gradient.
Effect of Time of Travel
In addition to the runoff generated from different sub-basins, the effect of time of travel
from different sub-basins to the point of concentration is also a relevant consideration.
Even if the rainfall intensity and its duration for different sub-basins might be the same,
the peak from farthest sub-basin does not coincide with the peak of nearest sub-basin
from the point of concentration.
Due to the complexity of these variables, the statistical method for calculating the
design discharge is the simplest and most reliable method.
Statistical Method
In this method, the existing discharge data from different stream gauging stations
within an area is analyzed to compute the design discharge. This method is more
relevant if an existing drainage system is to be remodeled or if new drainage sub-
basins are to be added in the existing drainage system. Stream gauging discharge of
20 to 25 years suffices for the design of agriculture drainage systems.
During planning and design of various SCARPs (Salinity control and Reclamation
Projects), lot of basic data relating to rainfall and steam gauging has been and is being
collected for most of the Indus Basin. The stream gauge data may be obtained from
Chief Engineer, Surface Water Hydrology, WAPDA.
A sample discharge data from the gauging station is analyzed in Table 3-1.
383
Figure 10: Frequency Analysis of Drainage Discharges

Recurrence
Maximum Rank Rank
Discharge Probability Internal/Return
Year discharge number number
(m3 .sec-1) (P) Period
(m3 .sec-1) m m
(T, years)
1958 85.1 4 1 98.3 0.05 20
1959 50.1 17 2 90.2 0.10 10
1960 48.2 18 3 85.3 0.15
1961 68.3 10 4 85.1 0.20 5
1962 60.4 13 5 80.7 0.25 4
1963 55.2 14 6 80.6 0.30
1964 80.7 5 7 78.4 0.35
1965 90.2 2 8 78.3 0.40
1966 85.3 3 9 76.7 0.45
1967 61.3 12 10 68.3 0.50 2
1968 98.3 1 11 61.5 0.55
1969 78.4 7 12 61.3 0.60
1970 80.6 6 13 60.4 0.65
1971 36.7 19 14 55.2 0.70
1972 50.2 15 15 50.2 0.75
1973 61.5 11 16 50.2 0.80
1974 50.2 16 17 50.1 0.85
1975 78.3 8 18 48.2 0.90
1976 76.7 9 19 (=N) 36.7 0.95 1
Note: Probability P = m/(N+1): annual probability of occurrence or of exceedance of the discharge
indicated
Recurrence interval T= (N+1)/m (also called return period)
If the drain is to be designed for a return period of 5 years, the discharge is 85.1 m 3/s,
and for a return period of 10 years, the discharge is 90.2 m 3/s.
The observed discharges also give an idea relating to a suitable return period if the
information on damages relating to that event is also available.
Empirical Method
This is a simple method and has a practical applicability because of availability of the
value of drainage coefficients successfully used in various drainage projects in
Pakistan.
Empirical Equation Generally Used in Pakistan
Q = CM
where Q is discharge m3/s
C = Drainage Coefficient m3/s /km2
M = Catchment area km2
In the Fourth Drainage Project, drainage coefficient 0.04 m 3/s /km2 (4 cusecs per
square miles) indicated positive benefits. This value was applied on the understanding
that only restricted entry will be allowed to the surface drain through controlled and
liberally provided drainage inlet structures and with filed storage of 48 hours leading
to leveling off the peaks. Four cusecs per square miles has been extensively used in
Punjab with lower values for southern Punjab and Sind. Higher values can be used
384
for outfall drains if justified on the basis of economic analysis – optimizing annual
drainage cost compared with the benefit of reduction in losses.
Since all the sub drainage basins do not contribute runoff uniformly, a reduction factor
has to be applied as the catchment area increases. A reduction factor commonly used
is an exponent of 5/6 = 0.833. It was first used in Pakistan by Tipton and Kalmbach,
WAPDAs consultants in 1963. For large catchments, the Empirical equation is
Q = CM0.83.
To simplify the application of this method, the value M0.83 can be determined from the
graph of Fig. 11:
The range of drainage coefficients are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Range of Drainage Coefficients “C” for LOWER Indus Plain
C
(cusecs per square mile)
Region Crop & Mgt. Factor Minimum Maximum
North Punjab Bunded Rice Fields 4 10
& KPK Bunded Veg. & 6 15
Grain
South Punjab Bunded Rice Fields 2 8
& Baluchistan Bunded Veg. & 3 10
Grain
Sindh & Bunded Rice Fields 2 4
Baluchistan Bunded Veg. & 2 6
Grain
(Source: Surface Drainage Manual for Pakistan)
Within this range, the designer selects a value considering the local conditions, i.e.,
rainfall, irrigation, soil infiltration, crops, topography, flooding etc. For a varying land-
use, a composite value of drainage coefficient may be applied based on judgment and
performance of older drainage system in the areas.
385
Figure 11: Catchment Area (M) to 5/6 (o.833) power versus catchment area in square miles
386
Curve Number Method for Runoff

This method was developed by U.S Soil Conservation Services (SCS) in 1972
(subsequently revised in 1985). It has been adopted by United States Bureau of
Reclamation (USBR) and also extensively applied in Pakistan for various sizes of
catchments.
Figure 12: Curve Numbers for Determining Surface Runoff:

The basic inputs required for the application of this method are the soil infiltration rate
and the soil cover type. The soil infiltration rates further depends on the soil type and
the degree of saturation of soil, i.e., percentage field capacity. The availability of curves
prepared by SCS for various combination of infiltration and soil cover has made the
application of this method very simple.
The procedure for determining CN from Fig. 12 is as follows:
For a 2 inches (50 mm) infiltration rate (point 1 in the figure, draw vertically down to
the curve for pasture land and you get point 2 . Move horizontally to meet a graph for
the related degree of saturation (in this case field capacity) and we are at point 3 on
the chart. Read vertically downwards to obtain the Curve Number (CN), 68 in this
example. After having determined curve number from figure 12 direct runoff can also
be derived from the Fig. 13 for different rainfalls.
387
8
R
E
B
6 M
U 0
DIRECT RUNOFF (Q) IN INCHES
N 10
VE 95
R
U 90
C
5 85
80
75
4 70
65
60
55
3
50
45
40
2
35
30
1
25
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
RAINFALL (P) IN INCHES
Figure 13: Direct Runoff Based on Curve Number and Rainfall
A given catchment might have different soil types and soil covers. For these conditions
a weighted average number may be computed by multiplying respective CN by the
areas and dividing the summation by the total catchment area.
Procedure for Determining Runoff
After obtaining CN number for an area from Fig. 12, of 68 and the rainfall of 3 inches
(75 mm), the runoff for a given area is directly derived from Fig. 13 as 0.65 inches
(16mm) /per acre. For a catchment of 800 hectare (2000 acres), the runoff will be
2000 𝑥 0.65
= 108.3 acre ft.
12
If this is to be removed in two days (48 hours), the design discharge is 108/4 = 27
cusecs (one cusec running for 24 hours is equal to 2 acre ft).
3.7. Hydraulic Design
In general this part of the design is fairly straightforward, based on well-established
hydraulic engineering principles and practices. The hydraulic design of surface drains
is almost always based on steady uniform flow; discharge is constant in time and also
constant along the length of the drain. Under these conditions, the following formula
applies:
Q = VxA
388
V is the velocity based on Manning equation

A is area of drain section for any flow
1.486 2/3 1/2
V = R S
𝑛
V is velocity ft /s
𝑛 is the coefficient of roughness
R – Hydraulic radius in feet (area divided by wetted parameter)
S – Slope in ft /foot
Discharge
Computation of design discharge, Qd, has been discussed in the previous section.
These design discharges are a range but final selection of the discharge is left to the
designer. A slightly lower or higher value may be selected, depending on the costs,
risks and damages in each particular case.
The design discharge for structures are normally 25 to 50% higher than that used for
the drain section. This is done to avoid unacceptable high velocities at these sites
during high flows and to avoid backing-up of the flow. Also if the discharge capacity is
increased later, remodeling of structure is not needed.
Hydraulic Gradient and Water Levels
In general, hydraulic grade lines closely follow the slope of the land in the flow
direction. For steady, uniform flow; the energy line slope, the grade line, and the bed
𝑉2
slope are parallel. This is because the velocity head, (2𝑔), in a drainage channel is
normally negligible so that the hydraulic grade and energy lines and the water surface
level may be assumed to coincide. For given topographic and soil conditions,
maximum permissible gradient should be used provided the velocity is less than that
would cause significant scour and erosion for the design maximum runoff. Where
existing surface levels are steep, control structures must be provided to control
velocities.
The ideal minimum gradient is the one at which the flow velocities are sufficient to
prevent deposit of sediments and growth of aquatic weeds. If natural topography is too
flat and the total available head is partly expended in unavoidable head loss in the
structures, the head may be built by providing pumping stations.
Permissible Flow Velocities
Safe, non-erosive flow velocities limits may be established on the basis of particle size
distribution of the bed material. For cohesive material, encountered in most drainage
channels, there is no relationship between the erositivity and the size of the bed
material and limits are mostly based on experience. The maximum velocities for
different soils are listed in Table 4.
389
Table 4: Maximum Recommended Velocities for Earthen Channels

Soil Maximum
Velocity ft/s
Fine sand 1.5
Sand and sandy loam (noncolloidal) 2.5
Silt loam (also high lime clay) 3.0
Sandy clay loam 3.5
Clay loam 4.0
Stiff clay, fine gravel, graded loam to gravel 5.0
Graded silt to cobbles (colloidal) 5.5
Shale, hardpan, and coarse gravel 6.0
The minimum allowable velocities are:
For prevention of silt and fine sand deposition = 0.75 to 1.0 ft/s (0.2 to 0.3 m/s)
For prevention of weeds and grasses = 1.00 to 2.5 ft/s (0.3 to 0.7 m/s)
To inhibit growth of weed and grass = 2. 5 ft/s and above (0.7 m/s and more)
For normal flow conditions where ideal flow velocity cannot be obtained due to specific
site conditions, minimum velocity of 1 ft/s (0.3 m /s) may be used. Pumping stations
may be required if velocities are significantly less than 1.00 ft/s (0.3 m /s).
Higher velocities may be permitted for the large and deep channels since the actual
velocities along the bed areas are considerably less than the mean velocity. At curves,
the mean velocities may be reduced by 25 to 40% when no protection is provided on
slopes. Lower velocities require a wider section requiring more excavation and more
maintenance costs. Cost optimization studies may be necessary to determine the
benefit of a pumping station to reduce cross-section of the drain, the provision of lower
bed levels and hence more effective drainage.
Manning Roughness Coefficient, “n”
The roughness coefficient “n” in the Manning Equation depends on the bed roughness
and the shape of the channel. The bed roughness is the most influencing factor, and
depends on the bed material and bed vegetation.
Manning n is very important, since drain capacity and excavation costs depend directly
on this value. In spite of this, n can seldom be estimated objectively since there is little
assurance on drain maintenance. The “n” also depends on the depth of flow and the
hydraulic radius.
Table 5: Manning “n” for Earthen Channels
Hydraulic radius (m) “n”
Less than 0.7 (2.5 ft) 0.012 – 0.013
0.7 to 1.2 (2.5 to 4 ft) 0.010 – 0.012
1.2 to 1.5 (4 to 5 ft) 0.009 – 0.010
More than 1.5 (more than 5 ft) 0.025 – 0.030
390
The US Bureau of Reclamation recommends n = 0.030 for reasonably maintained

open drains.
Cross Section
The most efficient cross section has the smallest wetted parameter for a specified
area. Based on this, a semicircular section is the most efficient. It is, however,
impossible to construct a semi-semicircular earthen channel.
Trapezoidal cross section is commonly used for earthen channels. The stability of the
side slopes of this section depends on the soil characteristics and the angle of repose
of the saturated material. Unprotected side slopes in unstable soils should not be
steeper than 1:2. Side slopes generally become more stable once they are vegetated
but the design is based on the initial period after excavation. Factors other than the
soil type like seepage also warrants gentler side slopes. It is common practice to adopt
gentler side slope for a deeper channel and for fluctuating water table. Gentler slope
is also required to provide access to cattle for drinking water and in case there is a
mettled road along the drain.
As a compromise between hydraulic efficiency and other considerations, Table 6 lists
practical ratios between bed width “b” and water depth “d”.
Table 6: Recommended b/d Ratios
= 1 for clay
Small drains d<2 ft (d<0.60m)
2 for sand
Medium drains d=2 to 5 ft (d = 0.60m –
= 2 to 3
1.5m)
Large drains d>5 ft (d > 1.5m) = 3 to 4
Table 7: Recommended side slopes
Soil Side slopes (H:V)
Sand = 3:1
Loam = 2:1
Clay = 1.5:1
Peat and
= 1:1
Muck
H – horizontal
V - vertical
Freeboard
Freeboard provides a margin of safety in case the actual discharge exceeds the design
discharge capacity or actual roughness coefficient is higher than that used in design.
It has more significance for surface drains as compared to irrigation channels where
the discharge rates are controlled. Freeboard for drainage channel depends upon the
391
return period; less freeboard for higher return periods. Freeboard defines the bankfull
capacity of the channel. Alternate approach could be to specify bankfull capacity of
channel and determine the incremental capacity of the channel above Qd for the given
return period. The difference between the depths for bankfull capacity (say, for a
return period of 1 in 25 years) and the depth for Qd for return period 1 in 5 years is the
freeboard.
In practice, freeboard of 1 ft (0.3 m) may be used for small drains with discharge up to
70 cusecs (2 m3 /s) and freeboard of 2 ft (0.60 m) may be used for discharge for 70 to
130 cusecs (2 to 3.7 m3 /s). For larger capacity drains, 3 ft (1 m) freeboard is commonly
recommended.
Drain Intersections
The sub-drains should enter the branch drains with their water surface at the same
level or allow a fall in head of 0.25 to 0.5 ft (7.6 cm to 15 cm). If the discharge of sub-
drain is more than 15 cusecs (0.4 m3 /s), the bottom grade must be curved downstream
to make the flow lines of the drains nearly parallel at the point of junction. It is not
necessary for smaller drains but may be applied, as it could reduce maintenance costs
at the point of intersection.
Transition Sections
Variation of the drain depth or bed width should be gradual. A transition should be
designed for gradual widening or deepening. For the junction of a shallow and a
deeper drain, 10 to 100 ft (3 to 30 m) transition in the upstream shallow drain is
provided on a zero grade at the elevation of the deeper drain before the beginning of
the transition. The transition should have a non-erosive grade not to exceed 1 percent.
If the difference in the bed levels of two drains is significant, a fall structure may be
provided.
Berms
Berm is a setback between the cut section of the drain and the bank. This is provided
to meet various requirements. The depth and width of drain influence the decision
whether or not a berm is to be provided. For large sections, berms provide a track for
the excavator. But if the berms are eroded, they become a hurdle during maintenance
since distance increases between the service road the drain. For cut section deeper
drains, they prevent excavated material from falling back into the drains. They also
prevent sloughing of banks by shifting bank load away from the edge of the drain.
Banks
Banks are constructed to prevent sheet flow entering the drain and also to prevent the
flow going out of the drain. Depending upon the size of the drain, and the purpose
they serve, these can be classified as follows:
i. Inspection Road: Usually 15 to 20 ft (4.5 to 6 m) wide and maximum 3 ft
(1 m) above the natural ground level or 3 ft (1 m) above the design
discharge / water level whichever is higher,
392
ii. Dowel Embankment: It is the embankment constructed on the other side

of the inspection road, the excavated material is not sufficient to construct
full embankments on both sides. The minimum width for dowel
embankment is at least 5 ft (1.5 m) with height corresponding to the
inspection road. This should also be designed as water retaining
structure, properly compacted so that no sheet flow may enter the drain.
The dowel embankment should be placed away from the edge of the cut
section to allow for future widening of the drain and to accommodate the
track width of the excavator,
iii. Spoil Bank: Excavated material in excess of the requirement of the
inspection roads/dowel embankment is placed in the spoil bank which is
also roughly graded.
Design Capacities
The surface runoff from the catchment for the adopted return period determines the
capacity of the drains. The storm runoff is large enough to accommodate irrigation
excess flow. However, the base groundwater flow from seepage and the normal urban
flows are included in addition to the surface runoff. The depth of drain provides proper
outfall for incoming seepage flow from subsurface horizontal drains and become the
overriding consideration that governs the capacity of the drainage channel.
Temporary field storage up to 48 hours should be considered for the estimation of
drain capacity.
The drain capacity is increased to handle the escape discharge from irrigation canals
if the escape already exists. For a new escape in the irrigation network, the escape
discharge should consider the bankfull capacity of the existing drains.
Design Procedure
Steps for design are as follows:
i. Select the elevation of “outfall” water surface. This level is determined
considering the highest water level in the receiving channel and the natural
surface level along the alignment of the drain.
ii. Set the water surface levels with reference to the average natural surface
of the alignment and the control points. The control points may include
the following:
• natural ground elevation along the alignment,
• levels of critical low areas to be drained (to be obtained from topo
survey),
• the water surface level of sub drains at its junction with the main drain,
• bridge decks lower side levels, the hydraulic gradient should be at least
below this level,
• head losses in the structure,
393
Figure 14: Typical drain sections:

394
• elevations needed to protect buildings and properties within the

catchment.
iii. Connect the control point elevations to determine the upper limit of the
hydraulic gradient.
iv. Determine the drain discharge for runoff and base flow.
v. Select the drain section to carry the design discharge.
vi. Check for acceptable drain depths and permissible velocity.
vii. Compare the resulting bed levels and check subsurface water levels along
the alignment to determine if the excavation is possible.
viii. If not practical, raise the bed level and revise bed width.
ix. The drain should be designed in reaches between the adjacent control
points. Each reach is designed for the discharge at the lower end of the
reach. In this method the upper end of the reach might be slightly
overdesigned. Reaches should be selected to keep the overdesign within
reasonable limits.
3.8. Structures
Common structures in surface drains are culverts, bridges and inlets. For a
new surface drainages project, the alignment crosses roads, railways, roads,
irrigation canals and water courses.
Bridges
Railway bridges are always designed and built by the Railway Department as a deposit
work. In a drainage project, this is usually the most time consuming exercise and has
to be initiated at the earlier stages of project. Estimates are provided by the Railway
Department for transfer of funds. Railway bridges are relatively expensive structures.
To reduce cost, the drain section may be flumed, up to a maximum of 25% reduction
in the flow area. Road bridges have similar design parameters as that for the irrigation
canals, (refer to relevant section of the Manual of Irrigation Practice for dseign of road
bridges).
New roads usually block drainage flow. Drainage engineers should actively coordinate
with the Highway Authorities to design proper crossing structures, allowing reasonable
capacity for storm flows and suitable invert levels. On the Motorway, mostly pipe
crossings were provided, which in a few cases had inadequate capacity.
Foot bridges are not suitable since these do not serve farm machinery. The selection
of road width must include an allowance for subsequent upgradation of road.
Application of lower load classification for village roads/distt roads, may not be relevant
as most roads are likely to be subjected to excessive axle loadings due to grain and
sugar cane transportation from the rural areas.
395
For possible future deepening or widening the drain bed, the top of the open
foundation should be placed 2 ft (0.6 m) below the bed level. It is also a practice to
provide protected end piers rather than permanent abutments on both sides.
Culverts
Culverts usually consist of pipes when the discharge is small (Q <15 cusecs (0.4 m3
/s)). For larger discharges, more pipes may be installed. However, for the discharge
in the range of 30 to 70 cusecs (0.8 to 2 m 3 /s), box type culverts are generally
preferred. The invert of the culverts is usually laid flush with the drain bed and the top
of the culvert should have a minimum clearance of 4 inches (100 mm). The exit
velocities should be checked. If these are found to be too high, preferably the cross-
section should be increased rather than providing anti-scouring measures. In any case
it is a question of relative economy of the two options.
Syphons
In most cross drainage structures for irrigation channels, the levels permit free flows
in both cases. In a few situations, a syphon may be necessary. The drainage flow
should not be passed through a syphon because variable flow and low velocities may
cause sediment deposits, producing maintenance problems.
Drop structures
For a significant differential level at a control point, a drop structure, should be used.
Table 8 lists the design criteria.
Table 8: Design Criteria for Drop in Water Level
Drop in water
Structure
surface level
0 to 2 ft (0 to 0.6 m) No structure, but riprap protection
Rock cascade drop, with sheet
2 to 5 ft (0.6 to 1.5 m)
piles
5 ft and above (1.5 m Proper fall structure to be
and above) designed with baffled apron/chute
Drainage Inlets
Storm flows/excess water should enter the drain, not as a sheet flow, but through
drainage inlets. These should be liberally provided in irrigated cultivated areas. The
catchment should be subdivided into mini catchments, taking into consideration the
topography. The inlet is placed at the lower point of the catchment along the drains.
The capacity of the structure should be according to the flow generated from each sub
catchment. However, minimum diameter of the pipe should not be less than 1.5 ft (0.45
m). While the invent level of the pipe is at the lowest field level, its outlet in the drain
should be atleast 1.5 ft (0.45 m) above the normal water surface elevation and should
396
extend 1 ft (0.30 m) beyond. The velocity in the pipe should not exceed 10 ft/s (3m /s)
and the minimum pipe slope should be 0.01.
The concrete entry box of the drainage inlet should have orifices at three levels. The
first level is at the invent level of the pipe, the second about 1 ft (30 cm) above and the
third level, a few inches below the top of the box. The orifices should be 4 inches (100
mm) to 6 inches (150 mm) in diameter. The number varies according to its catchment
area. The purpose of control entry box is to restrict entry into the surface drains. The
total entry area of the orifices should be sized so that runoff from the catchment is
stored in the fields for about 48 hours.
Controlled entry through the entry box via orifices has the following advantages:
• erosion of top fertile soil is minimized,
• entry of sediments and debris in the surface drains is restricted, leading to
lower maintenance cost,
• it provides time lag for peak flows from different catchments, making it
possible to maintain design discharge within various reaches of the drain,
• flushing of salts in the field due to deep percolation,
• groundwater gets recharged.
If the groundwater table in a specific area is high, the evacuation should be within 24
hours. The area of the orifices and their levels are adjusted accordingly.
All drainage inlets should be inspected after a major rainfall event to check their
performance with respect to the catchment. If the storage in the field has been reported
to exceed 48 hours, additional orifices at appropriate level may be added or the
diameter of the orifices can be increased.
Head loss in Structures
The headloss for flow through structure may be calculated using the following formula:
Q = µ A √2𝑔ℎ
Where:
Q = discharge rate, in m3/s
A = wet cross section area, in m2
g = gravitational acceleration (= 9.8 m/s2)
h = headloss, in m
µ = coefficient
The value of “µ” depends on the entry and exit conditions for the water to flow
into and out of the structure under normal conditions. Typical values of
coefficient are:
- Short culverts length < 30 ft (10 m) µ =0.8
- Long culverts length 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30m) µ =0.7
- For bridges a value of 0.8-0.9 is commonly used
397
Figure 15: Longitudinal Section of a Typical Drainage Culvert

4. PUMPING STATIONS
4.1. Introduction
Pumping stations are required if the level of outfall does not permit gravity flow.
Individual pumps are required for discharging subsurface flows into the surface
drainages network via carrier drains.
The work performed by the pump is determined by the quantity of water discharged
and the lift involved and is termed as “Duty” of the pump. Lift is the difference between
the inlet and delivery levels. If pumping stations are required to operate for an
extended period during a year (a couple of months), the overall efficiency of the
pumping station is an important consideration for the selection of pump. On the other
hand, if the pumps are required to operate for a few days during a year, other
considerations might be more relevant, particularly the reliably of the equipment and
cost.
Location of the pump, drive unit and control box are shown in the Fig. 16. The drainage
water flows to the sump by gravity. Pump is placed close to the sump in pump house
with lifting mechanism installed close to the ceiling of the pump house. Pumps operate
in cycles, starting and stopping automatically in response to the water level in the
sump.
4.2. Type of Pumps
Several types of pumps are used for pumping drainage water. Site conditions and
pumping requirement determine the type of pump to be selected. Drainage engineers
need to acquaint themselves with various features of different type of pumps.
4.3. Archimedean Screw Pump
It consists of an inclined spindle with a surrounding spirally wound blade which rotates
within a fixed semicircular casing. Water trapped between the blades is lifted from
lower to higher levels.
398
Figure 16: Main Characteristics and Layout of a Land Drainage Pumping Station
Pump House

Figure 17: Archimedean Screw Pump

Rotation speeds normally vary between 20 to 120 RPM. The discharge increases
from zero, when the screw is wholly above the inlet water level to a maximum, when
the central spindle is fully submerged. The discharge then remains constant even
when the water level rises and the screw is further submerged. The outlet level
determines the size of the screw. The maximum level should coincide with the invert
level of casing. If the water level rises, there will be back flow or else expensive no-
return valve is needed. Since the screw outlet is fixed, the lift is wholly dependent upon
the variation in the inlet level. When the water level in the receiving channel remains
low most of the time in a year, extra pumping lift is applicable most of the time involving
more energy consumption. This pump is more suitable for a situation where the outlet
399
level is approximately constant. In case there is considerable variation in the levels of

receiving channel at outlet, the screw pump is not a suitable choice.
A single screw pump can raise discharges ranging from 2 to 200 cusecs (0.05 to 5
m3/s) through lift, ranging from 5 to 30 ft (1.5 to 9 m). However most commonly, it is
used for medium size pumping stations involving lift in the range of 1 to 15 ft (1.5 to
4.5 m). The drive unit designed for the pump can seldom be overloaded. The
efficiency ranges from 65-75%. It is sturdy and is able to raise weeds and debris
without requiring any screen. It is therefore very suitable for remote locations requiring
minimum O&M staff.
4.4. Rotodynamic Pumps (Impeller Type Pumps)
This type of pumps are more widely used in Pakistan. The pump consists of an impeller
which rotates within a totally enclosed casing. These are further categorized as
“Pedestal Pumps” and submersible pumps. In pedestal pumps, the prime-mover (the
motor) is installed above the water level while the pump, connected to the motor via a
shaft, remains submerged in water. In a submersible pump, the motor as well as the
pump remains submerged in water.
For pumping stations, following types of rotodynamic pumps are used:
a. Radial flows pumps
b. Axial flow pumps
c. Mixed flow pumps
Radial Flow Pumps
In radial pump the water flows radially outwards at right angle to the pump shaft. Its
efficiency increases with the increasing discharge. The power consumption increases
steadily with the discharge. These pumps are manufactured as monoblock or split unit.
In the latter case the pump remains submerged and is connected to the drive unit
through a shaft. It therefore remains always primed. This type of arrangement has
been used for sump pumps in the Fourth Drainage Project, Faisalabad. These pumps
are used in situations with low Q (discharge) and high head (H).
Figure 18: Types of Pumps
Types of Pumps
Water flows
Water flows spirally
outwards at right
along axis
angle to axis
(Axial Flow)
(Radial Flow)
Top Mounted
(Pump Submerged ) Mixed Flow
400
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Pump efficiency = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
It is affected by
• Hydraulic losses in the pump
• Mechanical losses in the bearing, seal
• Leakage of water
Figure 19: Shapes of Rotodynamic Pumps

Axial Flow Pumps
It is a compact pump with a small impeller operating at high speed. It requires
comparatively small electric motor. Axial flow / Mixed flow pumps are preferred for
situations with high Q and low H which is typical duty of land drainage pumps (the
discharge is usually more than 15 cusecs (0.42 m3/s) and head (H) is less than 15 ft
(4.5 m).
In both radial and axial pumps, the water is thrown out by centrifugal force only but it
depends upon which direction it is thrown out, that gives the two names “the radial
flows” and “the axial flows”. Mixed flow pump has some axial and some radial flow
characteristics. The “Centrifugal pump” includes a wide variety of pumps and may, by
definition, include axial flow pumps. However “centrifugal” does not accurately
describe the operation of an axial flow pump. The terminology is based on the historical
evolution of pumps which started as radial flow.
4.5. Pumping Head
The difference of water level in the sump and the delivery level is the “lift” or the total
head (Fig. 20). In addition to the static head, additional head is expended during
401
pumping. This additional head comprises friction losses in the suction pipe, and in the
delivery line.
𝑉𝑑2
H = Hs + Hfs + Hd + Hfd + 2𝑔
Where:
H = total dynamic head
Hs = suction head
Hd = delivering head
Hfs = friction loss in the suction
Hfd = friction loss in the delivery
Vd = flow velocity at the outlet of the delivery
Figure 20: Components of the Dynamic Head

4.6. Pump Selection
Pump selection should involve careful analysis of prevailing conditions including:
i. discharge Q (design) and Q (max) and the range of discharge during
the year as well as future discharges,
ii. head involved,
iii. water sediment load, nature and extent of weeds and debris,
iv. pump efficiency,
v. initial cost and annual maintenance costs,
vi. frequency of recurrence of peak flow.
Pumping station is designed for Q max as compared to Q design for drain section.
402
To simplify selection of a suitable pump for various discharges and head combinations,
selection chart of Fig. 21 should be helpful.
Figure 21: Selection Chart for Pumps

Other considerations include efficiency of the pump and the power consumption. The
following graphs of Fig. 22 can provide guidance.
Figure 22: Typical Pump Characteristics of the Major Types of Pumps
403

4.7. Sump Design for Subsurface Drainage
For subsurface drainage, individual sumps are designed to serve an area defined by
the maximum depth of a collector pipe. The number of units in each sump depends
upon the incoming flow. The pumping units are standardized for economy to stock
spare parts and for ease of replacement of pumps.
Each sump may have one, two or three pump sets. A circular sump of about 10 ft (3
m). internal diameter is cost effective. Depth of the sump is governed by the invert
level of the lowest collector pipe and the minimum volume of water in the sump needed
for a reasonable cycle time for automatic operation of the sump pumps.
For subsurface drainage sumps, operators are not needed and thus operator’s
quarters are not required. The presence of an operator is no guarantee to prevent
vandalism. The experience of SCARP I confirms that large number of transformers
were stolen despite the operators. But the added cost of the salaries of operators and
their pensions etc. are huge liabilities on the department.
4.8. Sump Design
The sumps of the pumping stations of surface drainage have different requirements.
The size of the pump house and the sump depends upon the number of pumps.
Generally 100 to 200 m of the approach channel should be straight and no flow from
sides should be allowed to enter the approach channel in this reach. This ensures
that the flow towards the sump remains uniform and undisturbed. Maximum approach
velocity towards the bellmouth in the sump should be 1 ft/s (0.3m /s) while maximum
velocity at the inlet should in the range of 3 to 10 ft/s (1 to 3 m /s).
If the pumps are installed above the water level in the sump, the pressure in this
section of the suction pipe is sub atmospheric, causing inefficient operation of the
pump due to partial vacuum and results in cavitation of the impellers, noise and
404
vibration. This limits the maximum height between the lowest invert level in the sump
and the pump. The limit for radial pump is 25 ft (7.5 m) and for an axial flow pump, 5
ft (1.5 m).
Figure 23: Principal Dimensions of a Well-Designed Intake Sump

Axial flows pumps are normally installed permanently submerged which has the
advantage that the pump is primed all the time (pump must be full of water to start).
The positioning of inlet level of the pump in the sump should be such as to prevent the
formation of air-entraining vortices and also exclude weed and debris. To exclude
weed and debris, a weed screen of flat bares (0.6cm wide, normal to the flow and 6
cm deep) should be installed at the entry to the sump. The clear space between bars
varies from 3 cm to 6 cm. The total area of the screen should be sufficient to maintain
a velocity of about 2.5 ft/s (0.7 m /s). The screen should be installed at an angle to
facilitate raking from a top platform.
4.9. Priming
Most rotodynamic pumps are not self-priming since they develop their head by
imparting kinetic energy to the flow. These pumps may be almost empty while
shutdown. To overcome this problem, following priming accessories may be
considered:
i. Foot valve
405
This is a non-return valve that allows the pump to be primed by filling

the system with any source of water. These are susceptible to leak
and clog.
ii. Vacuum priming
It requires a valve in the pump configuration outline to be closed. The
air is drawn into the pump by evacuating air from the highest point in
the pump. It is a complex system and not practical.
iii. Priming chamber
This is a tank that holds sufficient volume of water to keep the pump
filled until pumping is sustained.
Because of these practical problems, the pumps should be positioned so that they
remain submerged upon shutdown.
4.10. Power Calculation / Annual Cost Estimation
Power Requirement
The power requirement of Pump (E) can be calculated from the following equation.
9.8𝑄 𝑟ℎ𝑜 𝐻 𝑒1 𝑥 𝑒2
E= 𝑛1 𝑛𝑝
Where:
E = power consumption (kWh)
Q = discharge (m3/s)
H = total dynamic head (m)
rho = density of water (kg.1-1); normally p = 1.0 but values are higher when
the water is salty or dirty
e1 = site correction factor; equal to 1.0 at MSL and 15°C (reference)
increasing by 1% for each 100 m rise in elevation and by another 1% for
each 5°C rise in temperature
e2 = safe load factor, taking into account the fact that the engine should not
run fully loaded continuously; normally e2 is about 1.3-1.4 (engine 70-
75% loaded)
ᶯ1 = transmission efficiency, normally is of the order about 0.90 to 0.95
ᶯp = pump efficiency; for axial and mixed flow pumps, ᶯp= 0.65 for H~1.0 m,
increasing to ᶯp = 0.80 for H = 2.5-3.0 m and higher; for radial flow
pumps, ᶯp = 0.60 for H = 1.0 m increasing to ᶯp = 0-80-0.85 for H>4.0m.
Annual Operating Cost Estimation
Capital cost annuity:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
(equipment life range from 4 to 25 years; on the average take 10 years depreciation
period).
406
Energy cost:
i. For Electricity = E x N x P1
E = kWh (unit)
N = running hours per annum
P1 = Electricity unit rate (per KWH)
ii. For Gasoline / Diesel
Cost = E x N x P2 x U
P2 = Rate of fuel per liter
U = Fuel consumption; for gasoline 0.50 to 0.80 liter/KWH,
for diesel, 0.30 to 0.65 liter/KWH
5. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SURFACE DRAINS
5.1. Introduction
The performance of drainage systems depends on how the system is operated and
maintained. Even a best constructed system does not perform properly if not
maintained adequately. The O&M of drainage system is, however, more demanding
and challenging as compared to that of an irrigation network. In irrigation, the operation
is more demanding as compared with maintenance, in the case of drainage, it is the
other way around.
An effective maintenance program cannot be developed without regular monitoring of
the drainage network. Special monitoring is also warranted after major rainfall events.
Unfortunately this important aspect is commonly overlooked and O&M estimates are
prepared based on standard operation. The requirement for and maintenance of a
drainage system widely vary. Sub drains, in stable soils with low flow and low ground
water table may require desilting after 4 to 5 years. On the other hand, the surface
drains with seepage flow in unstable soil require different criteria and benchmarks for
O&M.
5.2. Maintenance Problems
The flow in the surface drains may be blocked due to one or more of the following
reasons:
• reduction in velocities and accumulation of sediments due to aquatic
weeds,
• sloughing of side slopes due to high water table,
• erosion of slope and soil bank during rainfall, particularly in freshly
constructed drains / or freshly rehabilitated drains,
• erosion of top soil from agricultural fields and its entry in the surface drains
via uncontrolled drainage inlets,
• malicious cutting of banks by farmers to dispose of their excess water due
to lack of availability of drainage inlets,
• blockage at cattle ghats due to raised bed level at these spots,
• entry of untreated sewerage/industrial waste that carries lot of debris,
407
• poor condition at the outfall that blocks the flows, causing backwater curve
and overtopping of banks,
• surface drains are commonly built in depressions which are waterlogged
and affected by salinity. The drainage structures are, therefore, subjected
to sever chemical attack and deteriorate faster.
5.3. Weed Control and Clearance
General
The aquatic weeds are broadly categorized as floating weeds (mainly Algaee and Gul
Bakaoli or water hyacinth) and weeds with roots (Gul Abbasi etc.). The flow is reduced
due to weeds and washed down material from the side slopes starts to accumulate in
the bed, further blocking the flow (Fig. 24).
Figure 24: Weed Growth
Manual Weed Clearance

Weeds can be most effectively controlled and removed manually provided this is done
in the early stages of growth. It is relatively easy and also cost effective. The manual
removal of weeds was a well-established practice when beldars worked responsibly.
However, when labour controls relaxed (or it became difficult to impose discipline due
to various reasons), it appears to be impossible to rely on the manual removal of
weeds. Inflow of untreated sewage in to surface drains eliminates the option of using
manual labour for health reasons. This problem can, however, be overcome by using
long, hand tools, which allow working from the banks.
408
Mechanical Removal
A wide variety of equipment is available to perform different functions, such as
mowers, weed rakes, weed harvesters and conventional excavators that clear the
weed and sediments in a single operation. It may not be feasible for the department
to keep an inventory of a wide variety of equipment and machinery. The weeds
clearing equipment should preferably be standardized on the basis of commonly
available and operated equipment in the country. The standardization is a compromise
solution for overall economy of operation.
Chemical Control
The use of herbicides is quite effective provided the appropriate chemicals for the
weeds are employed and their application is scheduled in accordance with the growth
cycle of the weeds. Fully grown weeds may not be easy to control with the chemicals.
The herbicide use has associated health hazards and they may also destroy the
vegetation on the slopes which is needed for slope stability. The dead weeds have, in
any case, to be removed and disposed off. Since the water in drains is consumed by
cattle and also recirculated to irrigation systems, its extensive use can be hazardous.
Because of these serious drawbacks, this option has limited applications.
Biological Weed Control
Grass carp (a fish variety) has been successfully utilized in many parts of the world.
Carp survives in conducive environment and die if the water level falls or dries. It may
not be possible to control fishing if the population in the adjoining areas start fishing
and eating the catch.
Burning Weeds
Channels which become dry during a part of the year, burning the weeds is the most
economical solution provided it is done with care. If should be done immediately after
harvesting of wheat crop and before the monsoon. Care should also be exercised that
the desirable vegetation on the side slope does not get burnt in the process.
5.4. Silt Clearance / Re-Sectioning
The silting of drainage channels is different as compared to the irrigation channels.
The material deposited in the drain bed is from the sloughing of side slopes, rain
washed material from the sides, berms and spoil banks. A substantial amount of earth
also enters the drains through the drainage inlet structures. The low velocities of
surface drains cannot carry and discharge sediment load.
Most of the sub-drains with relatively small sediment load can be desilted manually.
For large drains particularly those with regular flows, mechanized desilting is the only
option. A bucket attached with a large size 4x4 tractor preferably of local brand is
most suitable (Fig. 25). For heavy work, regular excavators or draglines are more
suitable. If resectioning is also involved, then the dragline that cuts groves in the side
slopes is unsuitable. The material on the side slope with groves is more prone to be
washed back into the drain during rainfall.
409
Figure 25: A Bucket Attached with a Large Size 4x4 Tractor
5.5. Sloughing of Side Slopes

In high water table areas, the part of drain side slope below the water level sloughs
down, partially blocking the flow. As the material from side slope fails due to piping
action (Fig. 26), the upper part of the bank above the water level also fails. If the
available land width within the Right-of-Way (R.O.W) permits, the drain section should
be redesigned with a compound slope; the part below the water table at a slope of 1:4
or 1:5 while the part above the water table may be steeper as originally designed. The
failure also occurs due to excessive load of the bank. In the redesigned section, the
road and spoil bank may be shifted away.
Staking to stabilize the bank is not feasible for surface drains. Large divots of berm
earth from nearby irrigation channels can be placed in the sloughed portion of the drain
banks. Filling the voids with these chunks of earth is termed as “Gatchie pitching”
Interceptor drains, comprising subsurface buried perforated PVC pipes, can be
manually placed along the drain at depth 1.5 to 2 ft (0.45 to 0.6 m) above the high flow
level in the drain. The perforated pipe is covered all around with gravel envelope. It is
designed at a suitable gradient so that it discharges under gravity back into surface
drain at internals ranging between 0.80 km to 1.6 km depending upon the bed slope
of surface drain and the gradient of subsurface pipe drain. Interceptor drain might be
expensive, but if well designed, it is a permanent solution.
410
Figure 26: Sloughing of Bank from Piping Action
5.6. Maintenance of Service Roads, Banks and Spoil Banks

Service road needs to be regularly and routinely maintained to keep it fit for inspection
purpose. It must be leveled and regraded, in case part of the bed excavated material
has to be placed on the road. Spoil banks should be leveled and planted with locally
growing grass varieties or shrubs as to stabilize the spoil material from washing back
into the drain. The side slope of the drain section above the water level should also
be planted and replanted after re-sectioning. Trees should not be planted on the drain
banks where they can hinder the mechanized clearing of the drain.
5.7. Performance O&M Contracts for Surface Drain
Possibility of performance O&M contract for weed control can be considered on a
yearly basis. Performance indicators may be specified for various levels of
performance. Contractor can use manual labour or machinery to ensure that no weed
grow in the first instance. If the objective can be achieved with preventive
maintenance, he could be entitled to full payment. Performance based contract can
help to achieve the objective for which the drains was designed. Removal of sediment
and obstructions can also be linked with performance without any quantitative
measurement.
5.8. Preventive Maintenance of Surface Drains
Preventive maintenance is a cost-effective approach to maintenance. It is based on
the analysis of the causes of siltation and includes measure to be taken right at the
design stage so that the need for special maintenance is minimized. Preventive
measures include:
• having sufficient design velocities that can carry sediments,
411
• providing liberal and controlled drainage inlets so that land erosion from
agricultural fields is minimized and the farmers do not have to cut drain
banks in order to dispose off excess rainfall runoff,
• planting grass and shrubs on side slope and spoil banks to stabilize
slopes,
• lowering the bed at cattle Ghatt sites,
• providing interceptor drains to avoid sloughing of slopes,
• cutting cunet to generate sufficient velocities during period of low flows,
• avoiding sheet flow entry of runoff by constructing banks on both sides as
water retaining structures.
5.9. Scheduling of Maintenance
The primary consideration from an operational point of view is that the system should
be able to carry the design runoff before the Monsoon. A drainage system comprising
the outfall/main drain, its branches and the sub drains should be considered as a
drainage unit. The priority in terms of scheduling is for the main drain, then the
branches and sub drains. Similarly, seepage drains have priority over storm water
drains, since seepage drains provide continuous relief by keeping the water table
down. Scheduling for silt and weed clearance is related to the depth of silt deposit.
The silt in seepage drains should be cleared as soon as it is about 6 inches (0.15 m)
deep. Historic record of the silt deposit is a good guide to schedule a maintenance
programme.
Those drains which receive the ground water effluent from subsurface drainage
projects are very important to remain capable to efficiently dispose off the excess flow.
If these are choked, the operational costs of sumps/tubewell will be a wasteful
expenditure.
5.10. Inspection Check List
Routine inspection by the sub-engineer should include collection and transmittal of
gauging station data, condition of the service road, sloughing of banks and silt
accumulation.
The sub-divisional officer should prepare inspection notes on the condition survey,
prior to annual or periodic maintenance including weed control, silt clearance, and
repair to structure. The executive engineer, on the basis of this report should inspect
and verify the extent of works involved in the maintenance before preparing final
estimates.
After Monsoon or any other major rainfall event, the following items need to be
specifically checked and recorded:
• the highest flood level marks at the structure site (this can also be checked
immediately after rainfall at road crossing structure sites),
• whether the main drain overflows in the outfall reaches or at any other
location,
412
• any breach in the banks by farmers (justifying the need for additional
drainage inlet),
• the ponded areas along the drain, particularly the depressions,
• the condition of drainage inlet, particularly the inlets with pipe diameter
smaller than 18 inches (46 cm) which can be choked with debris or brush
wood,
• rain cuts on the slopes and banks,
• any damage to structures, stone pitching in ghat sites/or drainage inlet
sites,
• any evidence of weeds and sediment cleared as a result of storm flow.
5.11. History of Drainage System
It is important to keep the original history of a drainage system updated. This can only
be done on the basis of a monitoring and evaluation data. The history should record
the following:
• remodeling of the system and the reasons for remodeling,
• notes on the design parameter and criteria used for the remodeling,
• drawings and plans of the revised section should be added as annexures,
• details of additional drainage inlets added in the system,
• any new sub drains added with design and details of new sub drain,
• remodeling or replacement of structure with detailed design,
• addition in the catchment area due to addition of a new sub drain,
• reduction in the catchment area (This happened with the construction of
Link Canals which are also serving as drainage channels and many
branch/sub drains are outfalling into them). The reduction in catchment
area reduces the design discharge of the existing main drains,
• notes on the blockages of flow as a result of construction of Motorways
and other highways projects,
• major changes in the catchment which have bearing on the runoff,
• data on the groundwater levels in the catchment area over the years,
• identification of areas which have not been provided with the drainage
relief and where new sub drains need to be provided,
• notes on any ON-Farm drains constructed by Agriculture Department and
their connection with the sub drains.
5.12. Performance Assessment of Surface Drainage Systems
The expenditure on O&M must be linked with its performance relating to the
achievement of the objective for which the system has been designed and
constructed. Performance indicators should be established to assess the
performance.
Performance Indicators for Surface Drainage
• flooding and ponding of agriculture land,
413
• frequency and duration of excess water on the land,

• seasonal and annual land-loss due to erosion,
• crop damages,
• removal of excess water within two days after the ending of rainfall of the
5 year return period,
• frequency of overtopping of the drains and embankments.
Monitoring and analysis of these indicators establish whether or not the system is
performing according to the design criteria. The causes of lack of performance can
be further analyzed and attributed to defective design or lack of adequate O&M. This
feedback should be helpful to establish the need for remodeling the existing surface
drainage network and also for the design of future projects.
6. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
6.1. Introduction
Subsurface drainage is required if the water table depth in an area remains within 0 to
5 ft (0 to 1.5 m) throughout the year and 0 to 3 ft (0 to 0.9 m) during the wet season.
Based on this criterion, project area is delineated. The aim of providing subsurface
drainage is to maintain groundwater 4 ft (1.2 m) below the natural ground level in the
post-monsoon period.
Pakistan has a long history of the problem of high water table and the associated
salinity of soils. Mostly this effort comprises success stories. Failures, if any, were not
failures as such but a part of the learning process. It started in late 40’s with the
installation of tubewells along the canals to intercept seepage flows. This was too
small a measure to check the rise of water table. Then a massive task was undertaken
by way of Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs) with the help of
International Community, both in terms of financing and sharing of technology. Early
SCARPs mainly comprised of tubewells, both in the saline and fresh water areas. The
effluent from saline water tubewells was disposed off to surface drains and, in certain
cases, to evaporation ponds. In both cases it involved environmental hazards for the
downstream water users. The fresh water tubewells, in addition to providing drainage
relief, also provided additional irrigation water which revolutionized agricultural
production. The O&M cost of tubewell operation (primarily the energy costs)
overburdened the normal O&M budget for Irrigation Departments.
Almost all the fresh water tubewells have been disinvested through the SCARP
transition programme which provided incentives to farmers to install their own
tubewells. The programme was well accepted and the objective of keeping water able
down is now being served by private tubewells without any cost to the Department.
Saline water tubewells, however, continue to drain the resources. Since late 70s and
early 80s, the installation of drainage tubewells has largely been abandoned in favour
of horizontal subsurface drainage, starting with a pilot project in Mirpur Khas in Sindh.
Groundwater drainage by means of buried horizontal pipes is probably the most
comprehensively studied subject in land drainage. The relationships between the
414
variables are well-established. The subsurface drainage manual covers only the
design and construction of horizontal subsurface pipe drainage which is conventionally
termed as “Tile-Drainage”. Tubewells in any case are covered under the chapter on
groundwater.
6.2. Subsurface Drainage Options
Groundwater can be controlled through: (a) deeper and extensive network of surface
drains, (b) tubewells i.e. vertical drainage (c) horizontal buried pipes (tile drainage), (d)
lining of irrigation conveyance channels including water courses and to some extent
by equitable distribution of irrigation supplies.
Open Surface Seepage Drains
Open-surface drains with field drains deep enough to intercept seepage flow can serve
the purpose. Following issues are involved in this option:
• land acquisition cost and the loss of agricultural benefits in perpetuity,
• severance of farm lands and restricted movement for farm operations,
• O&M issues; with choking of drains adversely affecting the efficiency of
drainage.
• surface drains are unsightly and involve environmental issues.
Tubewells
In fresh-water zones, tubewells are the best choice for groundwater drainage. The
benefit of drainage is a by-product of irrigation. In saline areas, the tubewell pumping
develops a cone of depression far below the desired water table level, as shown in
Fig. 27.
Figure 27: Cone of Depression

(Source: Fourth Drainage Project, Faisalabad Region, Pakistan)
415
Water is pumped from deeper aquifer which is usually more saline than the upper
layer. The poor-quality effluent deteriorates the water quality in surface drains which
ultimately inflows into irrigation network. In a few cases, this effluent was disposed off
in evaporation ponds. The accumulated salts in the evaporation ponds became a
serious environmental hazard for the adjoining areas. Evaporation ponds are,
therefore, no more an option. The deep tubewells require larger drive units and high
energy costs during operation.
Alternatively, a large number of shallow tubewells could be installed in order to
maintain the desired groundwater level. This could involve huge initial costs.
Unless a National Outfall Drain is available for disposal of saline and toxic effluent to
sea, saline tubewells are not feasible. Lower riparians have serious reservations
against any proposal of an outfall drain as they presume that it would destroy their
lands when the drain overflows in the outfall reaches. LBOD (Left Bank Outfall Drain)
is cited as having damaged lands in Badin Distt. of Sindh.
Lining of Irrigation Channels
Lining of irrigation channels definitely helps the affected lands to the extent of the
seepage. It does not however provide relief for the drainable surplus resulting from
rainfall or from the flooding of depressions. Rainfall events and flooding are by far the
most significant factors causing rise of water table on a larger scale. Inequity in
irrigation supplies is also a factor in groundwater recharge and discharge. It needs to
be improved but would help groundwater control marginally unless water allowances
in different canals are rationalized. There is little possibility of that because of political
expediencies.
Horizontal, Subsurface Pipe Drains
The buried pipe system receives groundwater which is above the pipe level. The
pumps in the sump operate only based on the incoming flow. The pumping costs are,
therefore, considerably less. Water quality of the pumped water also relatively
improves with the passage of time, which can then be locally used. The system in
buried and no acquisition is involved. These advantages make the tile drainage system
a preferred choice and the only technically viable option. It is, however, expensive and
involves foreign equipment and expertise.
Irrigation, surface drainage and subsurface drainage are all interlinked and
complimentary. Even a well-designed and a well-constructed subsurface drainage
system does not perform effectively in the absence of a properly functional irrigation
and surface drainage network. Project planning and design, therefore, require holistic
approach.
6.3. Hydrological Cycle
The design of subsurface drainage system requires a good understanding of the
occurrence, nature and movement of water in the soil (Fig. 28), illustrates the main
components of hydrological cycle related to drainage.
416
Figure 28: Main components of the hydrological cycle

Precipitation (mainly rainfall) and irrigation are the principal components of recharge.
Discharge components include evapotranspiration, surface runoff, infiltration and deep
percolation. Surface runoff occurs once the storage potential of soil (retention on the
soil in the field and soil moisture storage) is reached. It is then discharged through the
surface drainage system.
The water entering the soil and retained in the upper layers of the soil is termed as
“infiltration”, and the part that percolates through to the deeper layers is called “deep
percolation”. The deep percolation eventually reaching the groundwater is the
“groundwater recharge”.
The groundwater recharge will cause the water table to rise. Once it reaches the root
zone of crops the lands are categorized as “water logged”. In arid conditions the rising
water table brings salts within the root zone and in sever conditions salts appear on
the soil surface. This process is termed as “salinization” of soils.
As the groundwater level rises, a gradient is established which causes the
groundwater to flow to the drainage system (open deep channels or subsurface pipes).
Part of the water that has infiltrated also finds its way towards the drains as lateral flow
(interflow above the water table).
6.4. Subsurface Drainage Investigations
Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity (K value) is the rate at which water moves in the soil. It is
measured in cubic ft per square ft per day or cubic inch per square inch per hour. In
SI units, it is measured as cubic meter per square meter per day. For simplification,
unit of ft/day or meter per day is normally used. For subsurface drainage design, it is
direct input in the equation for the spacing of drains. The value of hydraulic conductivity
used is, therefore, very important for the effectiveness of the subsurface drainage.
Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
A variety of methods are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil. It can be
measured in the laboratory from field samples or in situ measurement, called the “Field
Method”. The main drawback of the laboratory method is that the value of K only
relates to a small part of the soil sample. If the sample is not representative, its
417
applicability may be limited. The laboratory procedure itself has many limitations.
Laboratory tests of hydraulic conductivity are not reliable for drainage design. For
design, in situ measurement is common.
Augerhole method is most common for field measurement provided the water column
in the bore hole is at least 0.6 m. In dry conditions, the shallow well pump-in test
(inverted well test) is used. In case there is piezometric pressure, the piezometer
method is considered practical.
Augerhole Method
The augerhole method (also described as bailout method) is used both for
homogeneous and layered soils if the layers being measured are thicker than 10 time
the diameter of the auger hole. The augerhole test measures the average horizontal
hydraulic conductivity of the saturated soil profile (from the static water table to bottom
of the hole).
Initially an auger of small diameter 3 inches (7.6 cm) is used and the hole is later
widened by 4 inches (10 cm) dia auger. The procedure is necessitated to remove
scaling of the sides of the hole. With a scaled hole, the measured hydraulic
conductivity is less than actual. This usually is the case with finer soils.
The hole should be augered vertically and as straight as possible. If the water table is
shallow, 10 ft (3 m) depth of hole should suffice. The augering should continue to
ensure a minimum of 2 ft (0.6 m) of static water in the whole subject of course to the
limit of hand augering.
Because of unstable nature of sandy soils, a well casing procedure is used. In this
procedure, a casing is inserted in the hole and the water and sand are removed from
the bottom of the casing. As the sand is removed, the casing sinks deeper and deeper
till the bottom depth is reached. At this point, some sand usually remains inside the
casing and is measured prior to final baling for the test run. When the water table is
stabilized (usually after 10 to 15 minutes), the final bailing of sand is made before the
start of the test. The depth of hole is measured before and after the test. The test
computation is based on the average of two holes.
Equipment used for borehole method comprises:
• hand Auger 3 inches and 4 inches (7.6 cm and 10 cm) with extension
handles for various depths,
• recording rod/tape and float apparatus,
• perforated casing for the hole, the diameter of the casing should be the
same or slightly larger than dia of the hole (the perforated area of the
screen should be at least 10%),
• bailer,
• stop watch,
• tripod.
418
After the water has stabilized in the hole, the water is bailed out as quickly as possible
and all reading are completed before the water level rises to half its original height.
One or two passes of the bailer are usually sufficient. The stop watch is started at the
moment of withdrawing the first bailer and continued till the test is completed.
Measurement are continued until the recovery of water in the hole equals about 0.2 to
0.25 of the depth initially bailed out. Rise of water level in the hole is measured using
equal time intervals as the recording board and float rises in the hole. A detailed record
of rising water level is maintained over an appropriate time period. Standard
nomenclature used in augerhole method, shown in Fig. 29, is as follow:
Figure 29: Standard Nomenclature Used in Augerhole Method

H= depth of hole below water table
S= depth to the impermeable substratum below the bottom of the hole
r= radius of the hole
W= depth of the water table below the reference level
ho = distance between water table level and elevation of the water level in the
hole at the time of the first reading
h = the same at any time after the first reading
hn = the same at the end of the period of the measurement
Δh = the rise of water level in the hole over a period of measure measurement
Δt
419
Calculations:
The following equation is used to calculate the value of hydraulic conductivity “k” from
the data observed from the auger hole:
∆ℎ
K = C ∆𝑡
where
K = hydraulic conductivity, m/day
∆ℎ
= rate of rise of water table, cm/day
∆𝑡
C = factor (dimensionless) which depends upon the radius of hole, the depth
of water in the hole and the depth to an impermeable layer. It can be
determined from Table 9:
Table 9: Values of C for Use in the Augerhole Method

** Ћ is the value of the mean head during the measurement period.
420
Example:
Use of Augerhole Method for Layered Soils

For layered soils below the water table, separate holes are made for different layers.
Fig. 30 shows a procedure for two layers. Augerhole 2 goes to the full depth while
second hole 1 is augered about 3 m away and covers the shallow layer.
Figure 30: Arrangement of Augerhole Method in Two Layer Profiles

If K value for deeper layer is Kab and the shallow layer 1 yields K value of K a, then K
can be determined from the equation:
𝐾𝑎𝑏−(𝐻𝑎 + 𝐻𝑏)− 𝐾 𝐻
𝑎 𝑎
Kb = 𝐻𝑏
421
Hydraulic Conductivity Tests Above Water Table

Hydraulic conductivity tests may have to be carried out where water levels of normally
water logged soils have fallen below the reach of an auger. In such cases shallow
well pump-in tests are performed. Water used should be free of sediments. It
measures the volume of water moving laterally from the well to the soil under a
constant head of water.
The hole is augered and screened in the same manner as that in the augerhole
method. The hole is filled with water from a tank in which water level is maintained by
adding measured amount of water. It essentially is the reverse of the augerhole
method. In the latter case, the water enters the hole and its rate of rise is measured.
In the pump-in method, the water moves from the hole into the soil and instead of rise
of water, its fall is measured. The measurement should be started after the
surrounding soil is well saturated. The procedure (also called inverted augerhole
method) is illustrated in Fig. 31.
Figure 31: The Inverted Augerhole Method

K may be calculated from the equation.
𝑟 𝑟
1.15𝑟 log (ℎ0 + )−log (ℎ1 + )
2 2
K = 𝑡
The recorded values of t and h may be plotted on a normal log paper, where they
should form a straight line. The value of “K” can be determined from the slope of line.
Piezometer Method
Augerhole method cannot be used if there is piezometeric pressure or where depths
exceed 3 m. For these situations, and for a layered soil, piezometeric method is used.
It is similar to augerhole method. A tube (ID=3-8cm) is installed inside the hole. A
cavity is formed below the tube as shown in Figure-32. It is simply an unlined part of
the hole. A series of tests can be carried out by deeping the holes and lowering the
tube to different levels.
422
Figure 32: Nomenclature for the Piezometer Method

Hydraulic conductivity may be computed from following equation:
ℎ
𝜋𝑟 2 𝐼𝑛 𝑜
ℎ𝑛
K = 𝐶 (𝑡𝑛− 𝑡𝑜 )
where
r = the radius of the cavity (cm)
ho,hn = the head at times to, tn, etc (cm)
to, tn = time (sec, minutes, etc.)
C = geometry factor (dimensions of length, cm)
The geometry factor C functionally depends upon H, r, W and S. In Table 10 values
𝐶
are presented as the ratio 𝑟 (dimensionless). This table may be extended beyond the
given range by graphical extrapolation.
The value of “C” may be worked out from Table 10.
Evaluation:
1. This method is particularly suited to determine the hydraulic conductivity of thin
discrete layers, up to great depths, for which the augerhole method is
unsuitable.
2. Errors may normally be expected to be of the same order of magnitude as that
for the augerhole method.
3. The shape of the cavity may be selected to mainly reflect the horizontal
hydraulic conductivity Kh (by using a long narrow cavity W/r = 8) or the vertical
Kv (by using a flat circular base W/r = 0) enabling meaningful estimates of the
anisotropy ratio to be obtained.
423
Table 10: Shape Factor C/r for Use with the Piezometer Method
Density of Hydraulic Conductivity Tests
The number of required in-situ tests depends on the soil variability in the project area.
In alluvial soils, normally there are two distant layers: the upper layers are fine textured
with lower hydraulic conductivity while deeper layers are coarse textured with high
hydraulic conductivity. The density of investigations for the two layers is different.
For large project areas, which usually is the case in Pakistan, a grid is established on
topo sheets and the tests are performed on the nodal points – usually two at each site.
In Fourth Drainage Project, Faisalabad, a topo sheet represented an area measuring
9000 ft by 6000 ft (2743 m by 1828 m) containing 1240 acres. A grid of 2000 ft by 6000
ft (609 m by 1828 m) was established with 27 nodal points, each point representing
46 acres. For deeper high permeability layers, six deep holes representing 200 acres
were analyzed for soil texture classification.
In-situ field investigation is expensive and time consuming. After some investigations,
a correlation may be established between the soil classification and hydraulic
424
conductivity. For deeper layers, deep well pumping tests may be used. In Fourth
Drainage Project, the hydraulic conductivity of deeper layer was conservatively taken
as 50 ft /day (15 m /day) although the pump test values were higher.
There is also a relationship between the number of tests required with expected drain
spacing. For wider spacing the test density can be reduced. Similarly if the soils tend
to be homogenous, the density of hydraulic conductivity tests is less as compared with
the heterogeneous soils. In all cases, however, benefitting from the correlation
between soil texture/structure with the hydraulic conductivity is indispensable as this
reduces the number of tests.
Depth to Barrier
The information relating to depth to barrier is used for locating subsurface pipe drains,
estimating quantity of groundwater flow and calculating drain spacing. If there is no
barrier up to a depth of 76 m, it has little impact on the design of subsurface drainage
system.
A barrier is characterized by a relatively low hydraulic conductivity compared to
𝐷
overlying soil or high resistance for vertical flow. This hydraulic conductivity, C = 𝑘𝑣 ,
where D is thickness of the layer, and Kv is its vertical hydraulic conductivity.
A layer constitutes a real barrier if C=250 or more. If C is = 50 or less, it can be
assumed that there is no barrier. For C values between 50 and 250, the barrier
significantly affect subsurface drainage flow. USBR has defined a barrier zone as a
layer which has a hydraulic conductivity one-fifth or less of the weighted hydraulic
conductivity of the strata above it. This simplified approach is satisfactory.
Groundwater Quality
Before deciding whether an intervention is required for groundwater control, a full
understanding of the water quality of the groundwater should be available to the
planner. If the water quality is such that its use for irrigation purpose is not hazardous
for the crops normally grown in the area, then its groundwater development control
should be left to the farmers.
The Revised Action Plan for fighting waterlogging and salinity provides general
guidelines to determine suitability of water supply for irrigation. The criteria (Table 11)
must, however, be adjusted to specific conditions, including cropping pattern, water
management practice, availability of canal/tubewell water and existing drainage
facilities.
Table 11: Water Quality Criteria
EC RSC
Quality SAR
mmhos /cm mg/l
Usable Directly 01 – 1,500 0 - 10 0 – 2.5
Usable after mixing with canal water* 15,00 – 2,700 10 – 18 2.5 – 5.0
Hazardous > 2,700 > 18 > 5.0
425
* Canal water delivered to agricultural lands is low in salt and alkali content with TDS
(Total Dissolved Salts) between 80 and 160 mg/liter and SAR of less than 5.0.
Different hazards related to water quality include:
Salinity hazard: Refers to the danger that the use of water for irrigation
(expressed as EC in will lead to osmotic problems in the soil/plants.
mmhos/s)
Sodicity hazard: The same with respect to sodic problem.
(expressed in term of
SAR)
Carbonate Problem: Appraised as residual sodium parameter (RSC)
Toxicity hazard: Refers to the danger with respect to toxic problem.
Toxicity is primarily appraised for chloride concentration
and boron concentration.
Water quality of drainage effluent affect the surface drain and eventually the water
quality of irrigation water. Project planning must take into consideration the safe
disposal of effluent.
Salt Balance and Leaching Requirements
For drainage design, the salt balance is considered as it relates to the leaching
requirement; the amount of water required to remove the salts out of the root zone. It
depends upon the electrical conductivity (EC) of irrigation water, EC of the deep
percolated drainage water and the sensitivity of individual crops grown in the project
area. The salt balance of soil profile can be upset, when the water table is at shallow
depth, water evaporates and the salts are left behind in the root zone. Eventually the
salt accumulation reaches a concentration level that is toxic to plant growth.
Soil salinity surveys identify and categorize the salt affected areas into saline, sodic
and saline sodic. Project planning include measures for reclamation of the affected
soils, including gypsum requirement for individual area depending upon the level of
sodicity.
The leaching requirement is the percentage of irrigation water (of known quality) that
must pass the root zone to maintain a favorable salt balance. Assuming the average
EC of irrigation water is 0.4 umhos and the maximum EC of saline water solvent
0.4
acceptable for most crops is 2, then the leaching requirement is 2.0 = 0.2 or 20%. In
the case of the Fourth Drainage Project, the leaching requirement was as 20%. The
leaching requirement defines the minimum parameter for design drainage rate (or
drainage coefficient).
Drainage Coefficient (Design Drainage Rate)
The drainage coefficient is used for calculating drain spacing and also for determining
the pipe size. The drainage coefficient is the excess flow to the groundwater that is
required to be removed. It comprises the following:
426
i. Irrigation system losses in:

a. main canals,
b. distributions and minors,
c. water courses
ii. deep percolation from irrigated fields.
iii. infiltration of excess rainfall
The seepage from main/branch canals, depends upon:
• the depth of flow,
• the wetted parameter,
• whether or not the canal is lined and the type of lining,
• the head difference between the full-supply level and adjoining soil and
the type of soil,
• the interceptor drain along the canal, (the contribution to subsurface pipes
will correspondingly reduce),
• the sediment load of the canal water, and
• the depth to groundwater table.
The deep percolation from fields is related to irrigations application efficiency, soil
texture, variation of surface levels in the fields and irrigation method (basin/flood,
furrows or sprinkler irrigation). Depending upon these considerations, the deep
percolation from irrigation can vary from 20 to 30%.
The level of losses from the irrigation system is different for different situations and the
designer has to consider average conditions and not the worst as this could lead to
excessively expensive design.
Degree of contribution by the rainfall is the most important consideration due to the
pattern of rainfall in Pakistan which is concentrated during the summer months and
also due to warabandi (supply driven) system of irrigation. The canal water application
continues even during rainfall.
A computer simulation model prepared at Mona Reclamation Project for cotton,
illustrates how the irrigation efficiency dramatically drops to 41% (between July 31 and
August 07) with added irrigation application of 3 inches (76 mm).
Table 12: Computer Irrigation Simulation Data for Cotton
Deep Drainage Irrigation
Time Rainfall Irrigation Time
percolation coefficient efficiency
period (in.) (in.) (days)
(in.) (ft/dy) (percent)
June 12 –
14.3 18 140 8.54 .0051 74
Oct 30
June 12 –
6.8 6 49 1.37 .0023 89
July 31
July 31 –
4.4 3 7 4.36 .0519 41
August 07
427
Aug 07 –
2.4 3 28 1.05 .0031 81
Sept 04
Sept 04 –
0.3 3 26 0.57 .0018 82
Sept 30
Sept 30 –
0.1 3 29 1.19 .0034 62
Oct 29
July 13 –
7.1 9 61 5.98 .0082 63
Sept 30
The irrigation efficiency can range from 41% to 89% for the same area. If the irrigation
application during monsoon was reduced, the deep percolation and the drainage
coefficient would be reduced considerably.
The deep percolation from privately owned irrigation tubewells have to be considered
in addition to canal water supplies. However, in areas where there are private
tubewells, high water table conditions do not exist.
The design rate, Qs may be computed from the following equation.
Qs = Rf + Sc + Si – Dn
where
Qs is the excess water to be removed by field subsurface pipe drains
Rf = Recharge to groundwater, including rainfall and deep percolation from
fields due to irrigation.
Sc = seepage from canal network
Si = in seepage (groundwater flow into the area including artesian inflow)
Dn = natural drainage i.e. groundwater flow out of the area.
In-seepage, Si, and natural drainage, Dn are related to water table depth and
groundwater salinity. High salinity and a shallow water table more likely indicate in-
seepage (from adjoining areas) and little natural drainage. A deep water table and low
salinity indicate good natural drainage. Topography is also a factor. In depressions,
water table close to the surface increases evapotranspiration, causing movement of
groundwater towards the depression. If in-seepage is suspected, more quantitative
investigations are needed. If natural drainage or in-seepage is negligible (which
usually is the case), the range of drainage coefficients listed in Table 13 are used.
The combined effect of irrigation on deep percolation is shown in Fig. 33.
428
Figure 33: Computer Simulation Showing Deep Percolation

Table 13: Range of Drainage Coefficient
Sr.
Soil Type Design Rate
No.
Less than 1.5
i. Soil with low infiltration rate
mm/day
For most soils with higher permeability and land under
ii. 1.5 – 3.0 mm/day
high cropping intensity
Poor irrigation practices combined with extreme
iii. 3.0 – 4.5 mm/day
climatic conditions
Special conditions like high delta crops in high More than 4.5
iv.
textured soil mm/day
429
6.5. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE DESIGN

Design parameters
The following main design variables are considered in the design of subsurface pipe
drainage systems:
• hydraulic conductivity of the soil,
• depth to barrier,
• depth of water table to be maintained below the soil surface,
• depths of pipe drains,
• size of pipe drains,
• drain spacing,
• options for the layout of the pipe system.
The objective of designing a subsurface system is to control the water table at least 4
ft (1.2 m) below the soil in the post monsoon period, thus providing an aerated root
zone to allow maximum plant and crop growth. The discharge capacity of the system
should ensure that the water table at the midpoint between the pipes does not exceed
the specified limit.
Design Criteria
Design criteria are generally based on science and experience. The scientific basis
includes the drain spacing formulas and computer model for computing various
parameters. The experience mainly guides the use of semi-empirical formulas and
engineering rules of thumb. These are based on the performance of completed
projects under comparable conditions. This should, however, be judiciously applied
particularly when the conditions are not fully comparable. A judicious combination of
theory, analysis and experience should help in establishing the important parameters,
such as the depth and size of pipe drain, the water table depth, the values of hydraulic
conductivity and drainage coefficient.
Planners should be conscious of the cost of investment, operation and maintenance.
In addition, the limitation of available material and plant (for the manufacture of PVC
pipes) and the availability and capacity of pipe laying machines must be taken into
consideration.
Deeper and larger pipes serve more area and reduce the number of sumps for
pumping. Pumping is by far the most expensive element of O&M. Reducing the
number of sumps should, therefore, be a desirable feature. On the other hand, deeper
and larger drains require expensive machines and the progress of installation gets
considerably reduced. A cost optimizing software will help determining the most
economical solution.
430
Table 14: Dain spacing criteria used in projects in Pakistan

East Drainage
Mardan Khushab
Description Khairpur IV
Project Project
Project Project
q (ft/day) 0.010 0.010 0.008 0.006
H (ft) 3.4 3.5 4.0 4.0
W (ft) 6.4 7.5 8.0 7.0
h (ft) 3.1 4.0 4.0 3.0
(Source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No.38)
q = drainage coefficient
H= the depth at which water table is to be maintained
W= depth of pipe center from the ground surface
h = water table head above the drainage base
Drain Spacing Equations
Both the steady state and transient state equations are equally applicable and the
drain spacing determined by the two methods are very close. Transient state
equations are used for soils where hydraulic conductivity can be represented by one
average value while the steady state equations are commonly used where different
layers of soil have different hydraulic conductivities. In the alluvial soils of Indus Plain,
there are distinct layers with the top few ft having lower HC and the lower sandy layers
with much higher HC values. The application of steady state equations is, therefore,
more appropriate.
In steady flow conditions, it is assumed that the hydraulic head does not change with
time while in the transient flow, the assumption is that the hydraulic head changes with
time. The irrigation practices and rainfall events suggest that recharge to ground water
is transient and non-steady. Due to high cropping intensities, there is year-round
irrigation. The fluctuations in hydraulic head, therefore, becomes less significant.
Donnan Equation
Symbols and diagram related to drain spacing using USBR modified Donnan formula
are shown in Fig. 34. The decision by the designer is based on which of the two
parameters (i.e. the layering of the soil profile or the fluctuation of head in response to
the recharge and discharge factors) is overriding.
431
GR OU N D SU R FA C E
DESIGN DEPTH = 4’ = 0.008 Ft. / DAY
WATER TABL E LEVEL
Y = H1 + H2 + H3
Pip e drain
H1 1
1 Gravel en velop e
head loss
1
3 K1
H3
BOUNDARY LAYER
H2
K2 = 50 FEET PER DAY
2 D
BARRIER
Figure 34: Symbols and Diagram Related to Donnan Formula

In the Fourth Drainage Project Faisalabad, Donnan’s steady state equation modified
by the United States Bureau of Reclamation for two layers and three head losses in
the system was applied.
Fig. 30 shows the notations used in the development of the modified Donnan
Equation.
L = Drain spacing
Y = height of water table above drain at mid spacing
H1 = headloss from top of water table to soil layer 2
H2 = headloss in layer 2
H3 = headloss from layer 2 back to drain
l1 = thickness of layer from top of water table to layer 2
l2 = thickness of layer 2
Q = constant recharge rate
r = radius of effective drain
K1 = hydraulic conductivity of layer 1
K2 = hydraulic conductivity of layer 2
A = (alpha) factor selected for use in computer program depending on
the ratio of L2/L3 as
compared to the finite element model
D’ = depth from Drain to barrier corrected for convergence
432
Y = H1+H2+H3 (1) results from conservation of energy

𝑄×𝑙1
H1 = (2) Darcy’s flow equation
𝐾1
H2 = Y – H1 – H3 (3) results from equation (1)
𝑙 +𝑟
𝑄(𝑙2 ( 3 )𝐿𝐴
𝑟
H3 = (4) radial flow to drain from layer 2
2𝜋𝐾2
Drain spacing “L” can be computed from Donnan equation (with correction for
convergence):
𝐻
8𝐾2 𝐻2 ( 2 +𝐷 ′ )
2
L2 = 𝑄
Hooghoudt Formula for Two Layers

This formula was developed by a Netherlands drainage researcher HOOGHOUDT.
Because of its relatively simple structure, Hooghoudt formula has a wide applicability.
Steps determining drain spacing by using this formula are as follows:
i. For formulation of the basic design criteria q (drainage coefficient) and H
(the depth at which water table is to be maintained).
ii. Establishment of field drainage base W (depth of pipe center from the
ground surface)
iii. Compute h (W-H)
iv. Select soil parameters, (Hc (k1 and k2), D depth to barrier, k1 and k2
v. Compute drain spacing by applying the Hooghoudt equation.
Hooghoudt Equation
8𝐾 𝑑ℎ
2 1 4𝐾 ℎ2
q = + 𝐿2
𝐿2
where
q = the drainage rate (Drainage coefficient)
L = spacing between two parallel drains, m
K1 = Hydraulic conductivity above the drainage base
K2 = Hydraulic conductivity below the drainage base
h = water table head above the drainage base, m
D = depth to barrier, m
d = Reduced/depth to barrier. It represents average thickness of flow
below the pipe drain, in m. “d” can be selected from Table 15.
Table-7.1: Equivalent depth “d” for commonly used pipe drains (ro = 4-10cm; u ~ 0.3 m)
L (m)
D(m)
5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 75 80 85 90 100 150 200 250
0.50 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
0.75 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
1.00 0.65 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.25 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15
1.50 0.90 0.95 1.10 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.35 1.35
1.75 1.00 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.50 1.55 1.55
2.00 1.10 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.70 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
2.25 1.15 1.35 1.50 1.70 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.85
2.50 1.40 1.55 1.70 1.80 1.85 1.95 2.00 2.00

2.75 1.40 1.65 1.75 1.90 2.00 2.05 2.10 2.20
3.00 1.50 1.65 1.85 1.95 2.10 2.15 2.25 2.30 2.50 2.50 2.55 2.55 2.60 2.70 2.80 2.85
3.25 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.05 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.40
3.50 1.50 1.75 1.95 2.10 2.25 2.35 2.45 2.55
3.75 1.80 1.95 2.15 2.30 2.45 2.55 2.65
4.00 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.35 2.50 2.60 2.70 3.05 3.10 3.10 3.15 3.25 3.45 3.10 3.65
4.50 1.85 2.10 2.30 2.50 2.65 2.75 2.85
5.00 1.90 2.15 2.40 2.60 2.75 2.90 3.00 3.50 3.55 3.60 3.65 3.80 4.10 4.30 4.45
5.50 2.20 2.45 2.65 2.85 3.00 3.15
6.00 2.50 2.70 2.90 3.10 3.25 3.85 3.95 4.00 4.10 4.25 4.70 4.95 5.15
7.00 2.55 2.80 3.05 3.25 3.45 4.15 4.25 4.35 4.40 4.60 5.20 5.55 5.80
8.00 2.55 2.85 3.15 3.35 3.55 4.40 4.50 4.60 4.70 4.95 5.70 6.15 6.45
9.00 2.90 3.20 3.45 3.65 4.55 4.70 4.80 4.95 5.25 6.10 6.65 7.00
10.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.75 4.90 5.05 5.20 5.45 6.45 7.10 7.55
12.50 5.00 5.20 5.40 5.55 5.90 7.20 8.05 8.70
15.00 5.20 5.40 5.60 5.80 6.25 7.75 8.85 9.65
17.50 5.30 5.55 5.75 6.00 6.45 8.20 9.45 10.40
20.00 5.60 5.85 6.10 6.60 8.55 9.95 11.10
25.00 5.75 5.95 6.20 6.80 9.00 10.70 12.10
30.00 9.25 11.30 12.90

35.00 9.45 11.60 13.40

40.00 11.80 13.80
Table 15: Equivalent depth “d” for commonly used pipe drains
45.00 12.00 13.80
50.00 12.10 14.30
60.00 14.60
~ 0.70 0.95 1.15 1.55 1.90 2.25 2.60 2.90 3.25 3.55 3.90 5.40 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.80 9.55 12.20 14.70
433
434
Use of Hooghoudt Formula

Since L depends on d and d depends on L, the Hooghoudt formula is not explicit in L
which is determined by trail and error. This is illustrated in following example:
Example: Determine the required drain spacing for the basic design criteria q = 7
mm/day, H = 0.6m.
Trial and error solution:

For the first trial, assume L = 40 m. For D = 3.0 m, u = 0.3 m and L = 40 m, read from Table 15
that d = 2.15 m
For second trial, assume L = 32 m. From Table 15, d = 2.0 m.
If the drainage flow from above the drain base is insignificant as compared to the flow
from below the drainage base, then the following simplified version of Hooghoudt
Equation may be used:
8𝐾𝑑ℎ
L2 = 𝑞
Depth of Drains
Depth of pipe drains is to be determined taking into consideration topography, level of
the outlet, layering of the soils, and their respective hydraulic conductivities and the
capability of available machinery. The deeper drains mean wider drain spacing and
consequently an economical layout. If the H.C of the lower layers is higher (which is
usually the case in most of Indus Plains), installing deeper drains lets the drains be
placed farther apart. However, at deeper depths, the progress of installation is slow
and consequently the cost increases. The decision essentially is based on the cost
optimization studies. In large projects, it is advisable to place drains as deep as
435
possible and arrange the pipe-laying machines taking into consideration the depth and
size of the pipes. Deeper drains are also safe from clogging by roots of plants and
trees and also safe from rodent attack.
For lateral drain, the outlet is its junction with the collector pipe and for the collector
pipe the outlet is the surface drain or the sump. In case the collector drain discharges
into the sump, the collector pipe should be as deep as possible, subject to the capacity
of the trenching machine. If the labour costs are high as in the United States and
Europe, the rate of installation by the trencher might become the overriding
consideration. In Pakistan, the high material costs favour deeper drains.
Determination of Pipe Diameter
The objective of subsurface drainage is to remove excess groundwater so that water
table stays deep enough from the root zone. The pipe capacity has to be sufficient for
this purpose. If the lateral pipe line is long, its capacity increases due to incoming flow
along its length. If a pipe drain serves an area of say 200 acres, all of it is not irrigated
at one time. A reduction factor may be applied to account for this. On the other hand
if a drain is placed parallel to an irrigation channel, its capacity is increased to
accommodate seepage flow from the channel.
In practice, a pipe drain starts with the smallest pipe size 4 inches (100 mm), placed
at the shallowest required depth, (about 1.8 m for our conditions), and then
progressively increase the pipe diameter in steps at minimum slope (ranging between
0.001 to 0.005) till the pipe is running full or the maximum depth is reached. Pipe size
must have about 33% additional capacity to allow for partial siltation due to low flow.
The hydraulic design of pipe is based on the standard pipe flow formulas which relate
to discharge “Q” as a function of hydraulic gradient (i), the pipe diameter (d) and the
wall roughness. For corrugated pipes, the diameter can be determined from the
flowing equation for steady sate flow:
Q = 22 d2.67, i0.5
where:
Q = the discharge along the pipe, in m3/s
d = internal diameter of pipe, in m
i = the hydraulic gradient, m.m-1
However, if discharge increases along the length of the pipe (non-uniform flow) as is
the case of most field drains, the equation is modified as follows:
Q = 38 d2.67 i0.5
The inside diameter of pipe can be more conventionally determined from the
nomographs for corrugated pipes (Fig. 35) in mm or from nomograph (Fig. 36), in
inches
436
Figure 35: Pipe Diameter Nomograph for Corrugated Pipes (Plastics)

(Reference: ILRI 1974)

Changing the pipe size too frequently along the length may not be advisable. If
changing to different pipe size involves change of machinery, a trade-in for larger pipe
size might be preferable.
Pipe Slope and Alignment
The minimum slope for corrugated pipe should be 1 in 1000. To avoid siltation, steeper
slopes are desirable. With low flows that normally occur in most pipe drains, departure
from design slope results in sediments entering the pipe and clogging it. This
requirement is less desirable for steeper slopes. The maximum allowable departure
from the specified grade should not exceed 0.1 ft (0.03 m). Where difference is more,
the rate of return to the established grade should not exceed 2 percent of the pipe
diameter.
In Fourth Drainage Project, Faisalabad, following slopes were used:
• For 4, 6 and 8 inches (100, 150 and 200 mm) drainage pipe, the slope was
0.001
• For 10, 12 and 15 inches (250, 300 and 380 mm) drainage pipe, a slope
of 0.005 (one-half foot per thousand foot was used)
Length of Pipe Drain
The pipe drain lines should be as long as possible for the given physical and economic
considerations. The factors that limit the line length include:
437
• land slope,
• the design pipe slope,
• the level in the disposal channel (in case the pipe drains directly flow into
surface drains.),
• capacity of the trenching machine,
• maximum depth at the outlet in the sump,
• physical constraint of infrastructure boundaries.
Figure 36: Flow in Drains of Various Diameter Based on Slope
SLOPE IN FEE PER FOOT
0.0002
0.0003
0.0004
0.0005
0.0006
0.0007
0.0008
0.0009
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.001
0.002
0.0001
0.01
N = 0.015
0.03
0.05 0.07 0.09
V = VELOCITY IN FEET PER SECOND

DISCHARGE (Q) IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
0.3
0.5 0.7 0.91
D = PIPE DIA. IN INCHES

3
5
7 9 10

438
If the land slope is favourable, it is possible to have long pipe lines up to 3000 ft (0.9
km) or more. However in flat areas, the usual length of pipe drains ranges between
800 to 1500 ft (240 to 460 m). If the drains are placed against the slope, the drains
become deeper at a faster rate, and the length is much shorter. Maintenance of pipe
drainage also influences the pipe length to a certain extent as pressure jets of flushing
machines can handle pipes upto 1000 ft (300m). This limitation can, however, be
overcome by constructing manholes at suitable locations.
Pipe Layout
The layout of the subsurface pipe system is site specific. The primary consideration is
the location of the sump which is sited at the lowest spot within the area to be drained.
The sump should be close to an existing surface drain so that the length of carrier
drain is as short as possible. It should also be close to a metalled road for convenience
of operation and maintenance and inspection by senior staff.
The layout is then plotted on the reverse of the top sheet (which is on a tracing paper).
Various layout configurations are tried and adjusted for the average drain spacing.
General layout requirements are:
• avoid built up property,
• avoid tender lands,
• minimize interference with surface drains, irrigation channels and other
infrastructure, such as roads and railways,
• avoid large ponds (trenching will not be possible in such locations without
expensive dewatering).
Collector pipes generally follow the slope towards the sump. Lateral pipes are then
added to the collector. Manholes are established at all major junctions between the
collector and lateral. Additional manholes are placed no further apart than 3000 ft (0.9
km) on main collectors and 4000 ft (1.2 km) on lateral. The office design is then laid
out at site and changes are marked in consultation with the design team.
If high H.C layer is available at the minimum pipe depth of 6 ft (1.8 m), then a singular
pipe as collector without any need of lateral can directly be taken to the sump by
stepping up pipe sizes along its length.
Singular Layout System
In certain situations (like Mardan SCARP) deep open surface drains serve as
collectors. Here the lateral pipes directly discharge into the surface drains. This is
called a “Singular System”. Length of laterals as well as their depths are controlled by
the water level in the surface drain. The singular system has the advantage that the
outlet of the pipe can be conveniently inspected and evaluated from the out flow of
each lateral. The system as such is economical to install. However, it has the
disadvantage that pipes could get damaged during desilting of drains by excavators.
If land is flat, the lateral pipes can be aligned in a “grid pattern”. In the “herringbone
pattern” the collector pipes are aligned along the main slope while the lateral are
aligned across the slope but at a slight angle. If the drain is placed along the contours,
439
then the pipe slopes downwards to the collector but remains at a constant depth below
the surface. The depth uniformity is not, however, a major consideration in favour of
herringbone pattern. The choice of layout configuration is essentially dictated by the
site condition.
wet spots
NATURAL SYSTEM
co
in
lle
f ield d ra
ct
)
(L ateral
ro
HERRINGBONE SYSTEM
natural stream
Figure 37: Field Drainage Layout Patterns

Figure 38: Schematic Layouts of Singular and Composite Pipe Drain Systems
440
Figure 39: Layout Pattern Based on Sump Location

(Source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No.38)
The Drain Pipe
Subsurface drainage for agricultural purpose has a history of about 200 to 300 years.
Regular underground drainage systems were constructed using clay pipes (the so
called Tile drainage) starting from the turn of the twentieth century. Later unreinforced
concrete pipes were used and are still being used for shallow drains in stable soils.
Plastic pipes were introduced around 1960 and are the preferred choice for unstable
soils and for large scale projects. Plastic may be made from PE (Polyethylene) or
from PVC (Polyvinylchloride). PVC is most commonly used for lower costs and higher
bearing capacity. PVC pipes have very long life after they are buried. However, when
exposed to ultra violet radiation of strong sunlight, they deteriorate rapidly. Plastic
pipes are supplied as corrugated for flexibility in laying by trenching machines. Inside
diameter of the pipe (ID) is 0.9 x OD (outside diameter). Small-size pipes are supplied
as coils. The water enters the pipes through slots cut in the valley portion of the
corrugations. The openings, which are evenly spaced around the circumference of the
pipe, must provide a minimum of one square inch per foot of the pipe.
One of the drawbacks of corrugated pipe is that it could get stretched during the
installation process causing the slots to widen which could result in the filter material
to enter the pipes. The stretching also reduces the strength of the pipe that could lead
to its collapse. Installation process should be rigorously monitored to make sure that
there is no stretching. Maximum allowable stretch for plastic tubing should not exceed
5%. Non perforated pipe is used in crossing structures with water courses and other
water conveying channels. Successive lengths of pipe can be connected by splitting
a length of the pipe and pulling it over the other pipe of the same diameter and
wrapping it with plastic tape. The slots in the pipe should be smooth with tabs
441
completely removed during manufacturing. Tabs provide high entry resistance and
increased head loss at the entry.
Figure 40: PVC Corrugated Pipes Showing Perforations as Slots

The following are standard specification for plastic drain pipes,
USBR standard for Polyethylene Pipe, 1974
USBR standard for PVC Pipe, 1975
Pipe Envelope
A pipe envelope is placed around the pipe for one or more of the following functions:
• the envelope serves the hydraulic purpose by providing more permeable
path for the water to move into the pipe,
• it provides a large circumference around the pipe, thus reducing
convergence losses at the entry point,
• it serves as a filter by preventing entry of fines from the base material
entering the pipe. The filtration purpose is particularly important during the
early period after the installation, as the disturbed material immediately
starts moving towards the pipe,
• in the case of gravel, the envelope provides a bedding for the pipe and
additional strength against pressure from sides.
The most suitable envelope material that serves all the above functions is gravel with
a thickness of around 4”. Other materials, such as peat litter, coconut fiber, straw or
442
thick synthetic materials, i.e., polypropylene mats or polystyrene granules are also
used. Organic materials have limited life while synethetic materials are reported to
have varying degree of success and are still being tested. Gravel envelope although
slightly more expensive due to transportation and handling costs, is suitable for most
soils and has been successfully tested in Pakistan. Design criteria for granular
envelope has been developed by the United States Bureau of Reclamation (1978) by
US Soil Conservation Services (1973) and by FAO (1975). All have important
restrictions on the quantity of fine material in the filter material.
The envelope should be well graded, free of vegetation matter, clays and other
deleterious substance which could in time change the hydraulic conductivity of the
envelope. For sieve analysis of the material 100% should pass the 1.5 inches (38
mm) clear square sieve opening and not more than 5 percent should pass the No.50
US standard sieve. An envelope material is considered well-graded when all particle
from the largest size to the smallest (within the specified range) are available.
Coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of curvature define whether a material is well
graded or not.
𝐷
Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu = D 60
10
(𝐷30 )2
Coefficient of Curvature, Cv = D
10 x D60
D10, D30 and D60 = diameter of particles in millimeters passing the 10, 30, 60 percent
points on the base material gradation curve. The Cu must be greater than 4 for gravel
and greater than 6 for sands and Cv must be between 1 and 3 for both gravel and
sands.
Gravel envelope has to be designed considering the texture of the base material. It is
not, however, advisable to change the gradation frequently unless there are distinct
classification of soils covering large areas.
Table 16 lists the gradation relationship between the base material and the gravel
material for most soils.
Table 16: Gradation Relationship Between Base Material
and diameters of graded envelope material
(diameter of particles in millimeters)
Base material, Lower limits, percent passing
60 percent
100 60 30 10 5 0
passing
0.02 – 0.05 9.52 2.0 0.81 0.33 0.3 0.074
0.05 – 0.10 9.52 3.0 1.07 0.38 0.3 0.074
0.10 – 0.25 9.52 4.0 1.30 0.40 0.3 0.074
0.25 – 1.00 9.52 5.0 1.45 0.42 0.3 0.074
It is also specified that carbonate content of the envelope material should not exceed
5 percent and the material should have a minimum permeability of 50 ft /day (15
443
m/day). Table 17 shows the gradation used in the Fourth Drainage Project,
Faisalabad.
Table 17: Gravel Envelope Gradation
Percent by weight passing given
Screen size screen sizes
Minimum Maximum
1 to 1.5
inches (25 to 100 --
38 mm)
0.75 inches
75 100
(19 mm)
#4 20 60
#8 10 35
#30 0 15
#50 0 5
#200 0 3
The crushed rock envelope even though meeting the gradation requirement was not
found suitable. This material was tested in the Fourth Drainage Project and did not
perform well in the field trial as sediments moved in the pipe. The hydraulic
conductivity of this material exceeds 8000 ft /day (2438 m /day). In contrast the
hydraulic conductivity of natural or river run gravel ranges between 400 to 700 ft /day
(120 to 210 m /day). If sink holes develop in the envelope with natural material, they
tend to heal themselves after a relatively short time after placement as against crush
material. While specifying gradation of the envelope materially, it must also be
mentioned that the material will be from natural sources only.
Sump Design
In flat areas, the surface drains are shallow and direct disposal into surface drains
benefit a small area along the drain. Pumping despite being costly is the best option
in relatively flat areas. Flow via collector buried pipes is collected in a sump from
where it is pumped to the surface drains, through a carrier open channel or buried
concrete pipe.
Location and Size
The sumps is sited close to the surface drain, power transmission line and road. The
site selection is done by comparing estimated costs.
The capacity of the sump is determined by the incoming flows. If an area that is
drained with the sump is 1000 acres (404 hectares) and the drainage rate is 0.008 ft 3
per square foot per day, the discharge coming into the sump will be:
1000 × 43560 × 0.008
= 4.03 cusecs
24 × 60 × 60
444
This inflow into the sump is through a number of collector drains carrying varying
discharges depending upon area served by each collector drain. The collector pipe
diameters range from 10, 12 and 15 inches (254, 304 and 380 mm) and they enter the
sump at different levels. The sump bottom is determined by the minimum volume of
water required for reasonable cycle time by pumps. A circular sump structure is
preferred for its strength against side pressure and for the method of construction if
well sinking method is used.
Even though the inflow into each sump is different, a standardized size is normally
specified. A sump of internal diameter of 10 ft (3 m) and depth of 7 ft (2 m). below the
invert of the lowest collector pipe, provides a reasonable volume of water for pumps
to operate with a reasonable cycle time. The cutoff level for pumping is 2 ft (0.6 m).
above the bottom slab so that the impellers of the pumps always remain submerged
and self-primed. The effective volume of water for pumping is a column of water 5 ft
(1.5 m) deep and 10 ft (3 m) in diameter.
Pump Design and Operation
Depending upon the number of collectors discharging into the sump, the incoming flow
could vary from 1.5 cusecs (0.04 m3/s) to 6.5 cusecs (0.18 m3/s). Because of flow
variation there could be one, two or three pumps each with a discharge of
approximately 2 cusecs (0.05 m3/s) or there could be three different types of pumps
of 2, 4, 6 cusecs (0.05 m3/s, 0.11 m3/s, 0.16 m3/s) each, so that only one pump is
installed in each sump matching the incoming flows. Having pumps of different
capacities would require much larger inventory of spare parts and a large number of
spare pumps and motors. To avoid this, a single pump is designed which can be
installed in combination of one, two or three to suit different discharges.
In the Fourth Drainage Project the initial plan was to install 1.5, 2 and 2.5 ft /s (0.45,
0.60 and 0.76 m/s) capacity so that pump combination could exactly match with the
incoming flows. Scarifying some efficiency of sump operation, a standardized sump
of 2.25 cusecs (0.06 m3/s) capacity was selected and installed in combinations of 2.25,
4.5 or 6.75 cusecs (0.06, 0.12 or 0.19 m3/s).
When the water rises above the level of the incoming pipe, a float activities one of the
pumps to start. The other pumps (in case there are more than one pump) start in
sequence with a time lag of 1 minute so as to avoid electrical surge on the electrical
system. As the water level in the sump drains to 2 ft (.6 m) above the sump flow,
another float switches off the pump. In the case of load shedding, the water level in
the sump keeps on rising till it reaches normal groundwater level in the area. This
situation does not arise if the load shedding is scheduled on hourly basis.
Power Requirement
The horsepower requirement for the pump can be worked out from the following
equation:
gpm x H x S.G
Bhp = 3960 x pump efficiency
445
where
Bhp = brake horsepower required at the pump
gpm = gallon per minute pumped
H = head (lift in ft)
S.G = specific gravity of fluid (in case of water = 1)
Brake horsepower calculated from this equation is used to compute requirement of the
electric horsepower of the Motor (HP).
Bhp
HP = Motor efficiency
Electrical demand in kilowatt is determined from the following equation:
Bhp x 0.746
kW = Motor efficiency
Example: Compute electrical demand for 2.25 cusec pump

2.25 ft3/s = 1009.8 gallon/min
Assuming an average pumping head of 12 ft and a pump efficiency of 80
percent.
1009.8 x 21 x 1.0
Bhp = = 6.7
3960 x 0.8
Assuming a motor efficiency of 90 percent, motor horsepower HP.
6.7
HP = = 7.4
0.90
6.7 x 0.746
kW = = 5.5
0.90
The pumps selected for Fourth Drainage Project are centrifugal pumps. The motor is
installed above the ground level in the sump and is connected to the pump via a shaft.
The pump remains submerged all the time and is thus self-primed.
The sump design includes a baffle wall (an inner ring) to eliminate turbulence and the
resulting air entrainment due to cascading flow from the pipe as the water level falls.
The entrained air reduces pump efficiency, causes additional vibration of the pump
system and increases wear and tear. The baffle wall directs the flow vertically
downwards from the annular space between the sump wall and the baffle wall, and
enables its entry to the sump from openings in the baffle wall near the bottom of the
sump. In addition to the bottom slots on the baffle wall, 5 inches (127 mm) diameter
holes are provided on the baffle wall slightly above each incoming collector to provided
convenient access for the nozzle of the drain clearing jet.
Normally in a multi pump installation, vortex or rotational flow occurs at the entry of the
impeller. This causes the water to enter the pump impeller at different angle than the
designed requirement resulting in undue loading on the impeller and bearings, excess
noise and vibration. To minimize the rotational flow around the pump, flow vanes are
attached to the impellers of the pump.
The sump design is shown in Fig. 41.
446
Figure 41: Sump Design
(Source: Fourth Drainage Project, Faisalabad, Pakistan)

447
Manholes
Manholes are required to serve as:
• sediment trap,
• access point for the monitoring of discharge and sediments,
• access point for the clearing of drains with jetting machine.
Manholes are normally located at each junction point but not necessarily at all junction
points if these are too closely spaced (less than 700 ft (210 m)). These are installed at
major changes of alignment and also in between a single long line of drain if the length
exceed 3000 ft (910 m). They need not be installed at the start of the drain (the end
point). However these points should be identifiable with reference to any landmarks in
the vicinity. Manholes are also not required to be installed at the changes in the pipe
gradient. Manholes should be minimum 3 ft (0.9 m) internal diameter, extending 1 to
2 ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) above the ground surface and about 18 inches (0.45 m) below the
invert level of the pipes. Sediments trapped inside the manholes should be periodically
cleaned.
Figure 42: Design of a Typical Manhole
(Source: Fourth Drainage Project, Faisalabad, Pakistan)

448
6.6. Construction of Pipe Drain Systems

For small scale singular systems, the drains can be installed manually provided the
soil is stable and water table is below the drain depth. Depending upon the depth of
the drain, excavation may be done manually or with a backhoe. In either case, the
placing of pipe and gravel envelope is done manually. It is a cost effective arrangement
but grade control has to be rigidly observed. The progress of installation is relatively
slow. In unstable soil and for large projects, drainage pipes are installed by using
different type of equipment and machinery.
Drainage machinery
Fig. 43 shows two types of commonly used pipe laying machine. The trenchless
crawler and the continuous trencher.
Figure 43: Two Types of Commonly Used Pipe Laying Machines

The trenchless machine installs the pipe by shearing soil like a deep plough. It can
install pipe at shallow depths (upto 2.5 m) with pipe diameter from 60 to 150 mm.
There is minimum soil disturbance and it has the advantage of rapid installation. As
449
the depth increases, it requires huge draught force. Trenchless machines can also
simultaneously place the gravel envelope like the trenching machines.
However, due to its operational methodology, the soil around the pipe is compacted,
resulting in increased entry resistance. Although some machines have been designed
to lift and crack the soil around the pipe to reduce entry resistance, this cracking also
increases the possibility of piping. Other drawbacks are that the filter cannot be
inspected and due to its faster installation, the grade and alignment are more difficult
to control. The available information is not sufficient to make general recommendation
about its use.
Trenching Machines
Trenching machines have wide range of capacities. A combination of different sizes
of trenchers can be procured for various sizes of pipes and depth of drains. Even for
large machines, various sizes of pipe boxes can be arranged to make them more
versatile. The trenchers have laser receivers attached to the hydraulic system for
laying the pipe according to the designed grade. The continuous trencher can lay the
pipe in saturated and unstable soil. Besides the trenchers, other support equipment
including gravel trailers with tractors, front-end loaders, scrapers, backhoes and laser
equipment, are also required for pipe installation.
Figure 44: Trencher in Operation

450
Construction Method
The installation of pipe drains starts from the sump and progresses upstream. The
collector pipes are the first to be installed. Immediately after the installation the
groundwater starts to flow into the sump and pumped out to the surface drains.
Lowering of water table with the installation of collector helps pipe laying in the rest of
the area by improving conditions for the movement of machinery. Lateral pipe drains
are then installed and connected with the collectors through a manhole. End of each
pipe is properly plugged and marked on ground. Where the pipe drains pass under the
open drains and water courses, unperforated pipe, slightly longer than the length of
the crossing, should be used to avoid entry of excess flow into the pipe drains.
Grade and Depth Control
The laser transmitter is installed along the side of the drain alignment. It is set to
transmit laser beam at a plane parallel to designed grade of the pipe. As a counter
check, the pipe box is also marked with a depth scale. The depth at which the trench
box should be at a particular distance can be manually checked by the inspector. The
operation should proceed smoothly with constant speed avoiding sudden changes in
the grade. The inspector must constantly move along the trencher and watch the
marks on the pipe box.
Gravel and Pipe Installation
Gravel is continuously placed through a conveyor belt of the gravel trailer that moves
alongside the trencher (Fig. 45 shows gravel trailer conveying gravel through a
conveyor belt). The gravel is placed on the bed before the pipe is laid and then it
covers the pipe all around to a minimum thickness of 4 inches (100 mm). For laying a
10 inches (250 mm) pipe, the width of the pipe box is 10+4+4 = 18 inches (250 + 100
+ 100 = 450 mm). This needs to be checked prior to the start of the operations. At
times, due to handling and transportation, the graded gravel gets segregated. Samples
from the hopper need to be checked to ensure that these meet the gradation
requirement. Gravel placement can be checked visually immediately after placement.
Figure 45: Gravel Trailer Conveying Gravel Through a Conveyor Belt
451
Pipes should be rechecked before installation. Weak or damaged portions should be

removed and cut portion should be jointed with a coupler. (Fig. 46 shows pipe
damaged due to radiation). Tags if any should also be removed. The flow of the pipe
in the machine should be smooth so that there is no stretch on the pipe. Maximum
allowable stretch is 5%. Excess stretch weakens the pipe, leading to its collapse under
the load of backfilled material. The inspector should keep a written account of the
activities of each day, including length of each size of pipe laid, record of sampling and
testing, shifts of grades and soil type excavated. These inspection reports provide
valuable information for future projects and help O and M staff to track the source of
problems. In suspected reaches with problem during installation, the inspector may
also want to expose the drain for visual inspection. This can be done several days
after the installation to allow the water level to drop.
Figure 46: Pipe Damaged due to Radiation
Pipe Drain Testing

To check any sag in the pipe or blockage due to siltation, a float or an air filled ball 1
inch (25 mm) smaller than the pipe diameter can be passed through the pipe. The float
is connected with a string and its movement may be facilitated with mild jetting. The
point where the ball is stopped may be measured from the string. The affected spot is
then excavated to rectify the defect. A rope string for pulling the float is shown
in Fig. 47.
Backfilling
The trench should be backfilled immediately after the pipe installation. The initial
backfilling should be done with the top soil since this is more stable than the sub soil.
Farmers, however, prefer that their top fertile soil should be replaced as it is. About 1
452
ft (300 mm) of fill should be carefully placed over the envelope before starting the
general backfilling operation. During backfilling, care should be taken that the drain is
not disturbed either vertically or horizontally.
Figure 47: Clearing of Silt with Float from Manhole
No more than 1000 ft (300 m) of trench should be open at any time. In unstable
conditions, this limit may be reduced to 25 ft (7 m) or less. Special compaction of the
backfill is not required except under structures. In these cases, the backfill needs to
be properly compacted to a depth of 3 ft (1 m) below the level of the structure. In case
the excavated material has dried, careful puddling can be allowed. The excess
excavated material should be mounded above the trench to prevent irrigation or rainfall
runoff entering the trench.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Immediate monitoring of the newly installed system is required to get the defects
rectified while the construction contractor is still at site. Water samples from the
manholes give a good idea of the sediment content in the water. After a couple of
days, it should be clear water. If not, there could be gaps in the placement of filter or
filter gradation during placement was not proper. The variation in the quantity of water
flowing from different drains with similar water table level, can indicate blockage.
Long-term monitoring during O and M has a different intent. The main objective of
subsurface drainage is to see that water table midway between two parallel drains,
should remain below 4 ft (1.2 m) except where there are intense rainfall events
exceeding the design frequency rainfall. If water table is not under control, then either
453
the design assumption was wrong or the system is not being operated adequately.
This monitoring data is very valuable feedback for future design of the projects.
7. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SUBSURFACE PIPE
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
7.1. Monitoring of Pipe Drains
A well-designed and well-constructed subsurface drainage system generally requires
little maintenance after the system has stabilized. However, newly installed system
requires strict monitoring and vigilance, starting immediately after installation and
extending over a couple of years. Performance of each drain can be checked at the
manhole by checking the quality and quantity of flow. Some fines do move into the
pipe after initial installation but water should be clear of silt after a couple of days. The
quantity of flow at the outlet in the manhole can be quickly assessed with respect to
the catchment of the drain and the depth of water table.
The flow can also be assessed by comparing the flows of the incoming pipes into the
manhole. In case of problem, the entire lengths of the pipes have to be inspected.
7.2. Inspection of Pipe Drains
In case of any problem observed in the manhole, the respective buried pipe alignment
should be thoroughly inspected to check the following:
• Sinkholes,
• wet spots,
• trees growing along the alignment,
• sugarcane planted over the alignment,
• vandalization of manholes.
Sinkholes are indication of fines/ or soil entering into the pipe either through pulled
joint broken pipe or from the gap in the placement of filter. Sink holes usually develop
after initial installation. Wet spots indicate partially or completely blocked drain due to
collapsed pipe or due to accumulation of sediments. Clogging of pipe by tree roots
and iron ochre, also results in wet spots.
7.3. Repair and Clearing of Pipe Drains
If the sinkholes are not massive, these should be filled and re-inspected to check if the
problem persists. In case it does, the spot should be excavated and the pulled joint
replaced by a coupler or with a piece of same pipe size replacing the damaged part
and connected to the two ends. The gravel envelope is replaced with fresh envelope
material. This operation is usually possible after the water table has dropped below
the pipe bed. Alternatively localized dewatering is required to replace the pipe.
Pipe Clearing
The partial blockage can be removed by pulling plugs of floats of different diameters,
but smaller than the pipe dia. Initially a relatively smaller dia plug is passed and pulled
454
up and down through strings on both sides to dislodge the accumulated sediments.
The same process can be repeated with larger plugs to completely clear the drains.
Clearing by Jetting Nozzle
Self-propelling jetting nozzles under varying pressures and lengths may be used to
flush silt and remove the blockage. Water pressure should be gradually increased.
High pressure can disturb the gravel envelop and even the surrounding soil causing
further movement of soil in the pipe. Jetting is normally started from the downstream
end but can be done from both upstream and downstream due to length limitation of
the jetting pipe. The effective reach of the flushing machine ranges
between 250 to 300 m.
Apart from clearing the troubled spots, the drain should be regularly cleared with a
flushing machine at interval of one to two years after installation and 5 to 10 years
after the system has stabilized.
7.4. Root Management and Clearance
The best management practice is to disallow tree plantation along the alignment.
Trees in farms sometime grow randomly. These and other aquatic shrubs should be
destroyed by spraying with appropriate chemicals after the crops have been
harvested. If for certain reasons this cannot be done and the roots are penetrating into
the pipes through perforations, the young roots can be removed with regular pipe
clearing operation using medium pressure jetting.
For mature roots which have formed into bundles, copper sulphate injected into the
drain system usually kill the roots. These can then be removed by jetting. Chemical
treatment with copper sulphate is required to be repeated annually, if trees are growing
all over or near the drains.
7.5. Clearing of Manholes
Manholes should be inspected periodically. If sediments have deposited in the bed,
these should be regularly cleared. The accumulation of sediments can be checked by
taking soundings. Manholes should be inspected each week after initial installation. If
neglected, the accumulated sediments in the manholes can plug the downstream pipe.
Manholes should also be cleared after each drain clearing operation. Manholes are
also a trouble spot if the top cover is not properly secure. They can be vandalized by
farmer who have been found dumping unwanted waste material into the manholes.
For those systems which have been well constructed and there is no evidence of
sinkholes or blockage, it might be worthwhile to bury the manholes.
7.6. Chemical Clogging (Iron Ochre, Gypsum)
In soils holding iron sulphide (Fe S2), water soluble ferrous sulphate (Fe S4) may form
after the soils are drained and oxidized. At low pH, the ferrous sulphate may enter the
drains, where it may oxidize to more soluble ferric hydroxide Fe (OH)3 which is
deposited in and around the pipe. With aging and drying, the ferric hydroxide
455
eventually turns into ferric oxide deposits which clog the pipe perforations and, in
extreme conditions, may totally clog the envelop and the pipe. The problem usually
appears some two to three years after the pipe installation, subsequently falling off
and eventually ceases to be a problem.
7.7. Outlet Condition
In a singular system, the pipes directly outlet into surface drains and each pipe may
be inspected at these locations. During high floods, there is a possibility of back flow
into the subsurface drains pipes. If feasible, flap values should be installed at the
outlets to stop backflow. Singular outflowing drains are also access point for the
rodents, which cut holes into the PVC pipes. If suspected, rodent screens should be
installed at the outlets.
7.8. Sump Operation
Pumps in the sump operate automatically and should take care of the incoming flow.
Although no operators are required, yet the sumps should be regularly inspected to
check and note the operation of electrical/mechanical system. Sound and vibration
indicate of problems with the bearings on the shaft which need to be timely replaced
before other components of the pumping system are damaged.
Control panels should also be inspected particularly the protective relays that protect
against low and high voltage. Vandalism of the transformers is a serious problem, as
is the stealing of conductors. This unfortunately is a problem, specific to Pakistani
conditions. When this happens, the drainage gets suspended for sometimes unless
there are spare transformers.
7.9. Performance Assessment of Subsurface Drainage System
The primary objective of sub-surface drainage is to keep the groundwater below the
root zone of the crops and to reduce soil salinity. It is, therefore, essential to know
whether or not this objective is being achieved. Following indicators and benchmarks
may be specified:
• average seasonal water table depth does not rise about 4 ft (1.2 m) for
more than two days after the design rainfall event,
• water table fluctuation over time,
• occurrence of perched water table,
• soil salinity in the root zone during critical growing stages of the crops.
• overall salt balance in the project area,
• effluent quality,
• overall and seasonal cropping intensities.
These indicators establish the state of performance of subsurface drainage system
and may be applied to determine the cause of underperformance. At the operational
level, following maintenance indicators can be useful to know the standard of
maintenance:
• water level in the manholes,
456
• discharge of individual drains,

• sediment in the pipes,
• sediment in the manholes,
• number of non-operational sumps,
• number of out of order pumps/motors,
• extent of water logged area.
If performance assessment reports are made essential part of the O&M estimates, it
may help in prioritizing funding between operation and maintenance.
8. SALINITY CONTROL AND SOIL RECLAMATION
8.1. Introduction
Salinity control is one of the major objectives of drainage, the other being removal of
excess water. Poor drainage condition causes groundwater to rise. Rise of
groundwater is almost always associated with salinization of soil.
Soil salinity may be defined as accumulation of soluble salts which are harmful to
plants. Salinity is not a problem in humid regions as rain water is practically salt free
with a salt content of 10mg / liter. On the other hand, irrigation water always contains
salt of varying concentration. Although irrigation water originates as rain water which
percolates through the soil towards the groundwater and onwards to the river,
collecting salts on the way. When irrigation water contains 735mg / liter of salts, a ton
of salt is added with each acre ft (1230 m3) of water applied for irrigation.
Irrigation with groundwater which contains considerable salt load, excessively
increases salt concentration in soil, particularly in arid conditions.
Salinization is the basic process underlying the development of all salty soils whether
saline or sodic: solidification almost never occures in isolation but is triggered off by
salinization. Sodicity (also referred to as alkalinity) and salinity are associated with
irrigated Agriculture.
8.2. Occurrence of Salts in Soil
Salts originate from rocks as they weather. Part of the salts are leached with
percolating water, and part are transported in solution and end up in sea. Some salinity
of soil is of geological origin. It is residual salinity resulting from marine soil. This type
of salinity is termed as “primary salinity”. The extent of this salinity depends upon the
climatic conditions, quantity of leaching water percolating through soil and
effectiveness of drainage.
But the most common cause of occurrence of salts in the upper layers is due to outside
sources. Since all water for irrigation contains salts, irrigation is the main source of
accumulation of salt in soil profile. Capillary salinization from groundwater is by far the
most serious component of the salinization process. Salinization from irrigation and
from groundwater is termed as “secondary salinization”.
457
The salinity level in soil varies in time and in vertical and horizontal directions. This
variation is due to highly dynamic nature of soil water regime. The upward movement
(due to capillary action) and downward movement (irrigation and rainfall) frequently
changes the vertical distribution of salts. Changes in salt distributions are more
pronounced at shallow depths. At greater depths, the salt content remains more or
less constant due to slight changes in the soil moisture conditions.
Horizontal distribution of salts is influenced by the field levels, the crop, the irrigation
application and the soil texture. In fields, this variation of salt distribution shows up as
patchy growth of crop. In case of furrow irrigated fields, the salt concentration on top
of the ridges will be much higher as compared with the valleys. At regional level the
topography, cropping pattern irrigation water allowance in a canal command will affect
the spatial salt distribution.
8.3. Salinity Effects
The salinity problems can be diagnosed and assessed by relating these to the
following aspects of soil salinity:
Osmatic Problems
High total salt concentration of the soil solution raises the osmotic pressures that can
be exerted by soil solution. This makes it more difficult for the plant roots to withdraw
water from the soil.
Salt concentrations are normally expressed in mg/liter. Indirectly, soil concentrations
are commonly expressed as electrical conductivity value (EC-value) of the soil
solution. The osmotic forces increase linearly with the soil concentration. A linear
relationship between the osmotic forces and EC value was developed by US
Department of Agriculture (Fig. 48).
Figure 48: ECe-value of the soil and yields of crops

Following relationship has been established between EC-value and yields of many
crops.
458
Figure 49: Relationship between EC-Value and Yields of Crops

EC mmhos/cm Effect on yields
0–2 Negligible effect on all crops
2–4 Slight effect on sensitive crops
4–8 Significant effect on many common crops
8 – 16 Only salt tolerant crops can be grown
> 16 Only highly salt resistant plants can survive
(Source: Land Drainage BT Batsford Ltd. London)
Figure 50: Salt Tolerance for Field, Vegetable, and Forage Crops

459
How to Measure EC-Value

Figure 51: Outline of the ECe Measurement

Toxicity Problems
Toxicity problem is caused by high concentration in the soil solution of some particular
ion or the imbalance between two or more ions. Common salts such as sodium,
bicarbonates, chloride and boron are toxic to some plants when present in higher than
normal concentration. The toxic effect is usually critical during the germination period.
The occurrence of toxicity is often linked with high salt concentration in the soil solution
thus occurring concurrently with osmotic effects.
Fruit trees and other woody plants are particularly sensitive to toxicity.
Dispersion Problems
Low salt concentrations dominated by sodium cations cause dispersion of clay
particles in soil. If sodium is leached without replacing it with calcium, magnesium or
aluminum, the soil remains dispersed after leaching. This destroys soil structure and
460
affects the hydraulic conductivity. Even an impervious layer can be formed due to
downward movement of clay particles.
For successful farming, the salt must be changed chemically be replacing excessive
sodium with calcium. The replaced sodium has to be removed through the subsurface
drainage system. The dispersion problem generally increases with ESP
(Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) value. In general problems are not experienced
in soil with ESP value <15%.
Determination of SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio) and ESP (Exchangeable
Sodium Percentage)
Soils have the capacity to adsorb cations (ads). This capacity is possessed by the
negatively charged surfaces of the soil colloids which attract cations from the soil
solution. The cation exchange is a complicated process. Following equilibrium
relationships have been developed for salty soil.
CEC (cation exchange capacity) = Ca + Mg++ads + Na+ads
𝑁𝑎+ 𝑎𝑑𝑠
ESP (exchange sodium percentage) = 𝑥 100%
𝐶𝐸𝐶
𝑁𝑎+ 𝑠𝑜𝑙 +
SAR (sodium adsorption ration) = + +
√(𝐶𝑎+𝑀𝑔 )𝑠𝑜𝑙
2
100 (0.015 𝑆𝐴𝑅)
ESP = 1+0.015 𝑆𝐴𝑅
Figure 52: The monograph for determination of SAR/ESP

* Soluble cations
461
8.4. Classification of Saline and Sodic Soils

For an integrated planning approach, the drainage engineers are required to keep the
objective of soil reclamation in view. The knowledge of soil classification will guide
them in selecting the right techniques and maintaining salt balance. The following
classification has been developed by US salinity laboratory of US Department of
Agriculture (USDA).
Table 18: Classification of Saline and Sodic Soils
ESP
(exchangeable
Soil Ec x 103 pH
sodium
percentage)
Saline * >4 < 15 < 8.5
Saline – Sodic >4 > 15 ± 8.5
Non Saline –
Sodic (sodic soils) < 4 > 15 8.5 to 10
**
* the term “salinity” in general sense sometimes includes salinity as well as
alkalinity like in salinity control and reclamation project (SCARP).
** instead of sodic the term alkali is also used
The soil classification limits are also of interest to drainage engineer as they may
indicate potential construction problems.
Field Appearance
Many salty soils have a normal field appearance. The salt content must be quite high
before salinity become observable in the field. Powdery, crystalline salt deposits and
sometimes damp oily surface indicate saline soil. Dark film on the soil surface indicates
sodicity.
At low salinity level the effects are overlooked although crop yields remain depressd.
8.5. Salt Balance and Leaching Requirement
In arid climates like Pakistan, salts keep accumulating in the root zone due to lack of
availability of water in excess of the crop water requirement that should deep percolate
and leach the salts. Efficient irrigation as such cannot, therefore, be practiced in these
conditions. Leaching on continuous basis is, therefore, required to keep a favorable
salt balance in the root zone. The underlying principle that is, that an equal or greater
amount of salt must be leached from the soil by the drainage water than is added by
irrigation water. It requires that the subsurface drainage has to be installed with
adequate capacity to remove excess water as well as salts from the soil.
For new project the initial leaching requirement is more than the future normal
requirement. Installing the drainage system for initial leaching requirement will be very
462
expensive. In practice the system is designed for the normal leaching needs. Crops
with large amount of foliage also tend to remove salts. Leaching requirement is also
related to the salt tolerance limit of the crop. Formally stated, leaching requirement is
inversely proportional to the salt tolerance of the crop.
𝐸𝐶 𝑖𝑤
LR = 𝐸𝐶 𝑑𝑤
Where
EC iw is of irrigated water and EC dw is the maximum permissible salinity of
drainage water or soil water.
8.6. Determination of Leaching Requirement (LR)
The leaching requirement may be defined as the percentage of irrigation water that
must pass through the root zone to maintain the desired salt balance. Many factors
affect its requirement. Some of the assumptions made in the determination are not
always strictly valid. For example, the salt tolerance of different crops widely vary.
Similarly, if appreciable amounts of carbonate and sulphate salts precipitate in the soil,
less leaching will be required. Other factors that affect the leaching requirement
include the frequency of irrigation, irrigation efficiency, the aerial uniformity of irrigation
application, the losses from irrigation conveyances system and the soil stratification.
Because of these variables, there is little justification to do overly precise estimation
of LR values. For planning purpose the leaching requirement may be estimated from
the following equation:
𝐸𝐶 𝑖𝑤
LR = 𝐸𝐶 𝑑𝑤 𝑥 100
Where
LR = is leaching requirement in percentage
EC iw = electrical conductivity of irrigation water in mmhos per centimeter
EC dw = electrical conductivity of drainage water in mmhos per centimeter
The value of EC dw is based on the least salt tolerance crop
Illustration for rice – wheat cropping pattern.
Assuming we allow 10% reduction in crop yield.
EC for wheat = 10 (taken from figure 50)
EC for paddy rice = 6 (taken from figure 50)
Rice in this case is less salt tolerant crop. Therefore, the EC of the saturated extract
should not exceed 6 mmhos /centimeter.
Assuming that groundwater of 1200 ppm is used for irrigation. The EC value of this
water can be reasonably assessed by dividing the ppm value by 640.
There
1200
EC iw = 640
1200/640
LR = 𝑥 100 = 31%
6
463
In case, both groundwater and canal supplies are used for irrigation, an average
electrical conductivity value can be used applying weightage for the proportion for
each source of irrigation.
Determination of Infiltration Rate
Apart from the determination of leaching requirement (LR), it is also required to
estimate the minimum infiltration rate (INF) to achieve proper leaching.
Total infiltration is the sum of the Total Readily Available Moisture (TRAM) and the
deep percolation (DP).
INF = TRAM + DP
The DP is product of LR and INF
Therefore
INF = TRAM + LR x INF
𝑇𝑅𝐴𝑀
INF = 𝐼−𝐿𝑅 (𝐿𝑅 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
From the previous example, in case of paddy crop, the TRAM can be 3 to 4
inches (75 to 100 mm) depending upon the puddling practices. Taking an
average value of TRAM as 85 mm,
85
INF = 1−0.31 = 123 𝑚𝑚 (4.86 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠)
Deep percolation for salt balance,
DP = INF – TRAM
= 123 – 85 = 38 mm = 1.5 inches
Therefore, 1.5 inches (38mm) water must percolate below root zone as drainable
surplus for maintaining salt balance.
Salt Balance
Salt balance may be considered at farm, project or regional level. On the whole, in
Punjab, the salt balance is in the negative. Following the “project approach” salts were
evacuated from different projects and transported to the downstream regions via
surface drains, rivers, headworks, irrigation system and back to farms. Regional
balance is rather difficult to achieve in the absence of a Trans Basic Drain which is no
more feasible for various reasons. The local management of salt has to be the target
of drainage engineers.
The salt balance in the root zone is more seriously affected when a shallow water table
exists. Therefore keeping the water table below the capillary fringe should be, by far
the most important consideration for salt balance. Effective drainage both surface and
subsurface is a perquisite for the salt balance.
The other important factor that helps in controlling salinity and maintaining salt
balance, is ensuring a net downward flux – for example through drip irrigation or
ponding water as in the case of paddy.
Salt balance is essentially a relationship of salt input to salt output for the area. If the
mass of the salt input exceeds the mass of salt output the salt balance is regarded as
464
adverse. The basic design approach for salt balance is to provide for removal of salt
from the root zone that is added by irrigation water.
Operationally, a salt balance evaluation involves measuring the amount and
composition of irrigation water directed into the project and the amount, composition
of drainage discharge from the project. Such measurements should continue to be
made even after the project completion with a view to taking corrective steps and for
feedback for future planning.
While the salt balance concept can provide valuable information, its general
applicability is limited. The limitations include the following:
• Limited availability of adequate data,
• It indicates the total net salt balance in a project with regard to internal
distribution, absolute salinity levels or salt constituents. A satisfactory
project salt balance on an average basis does not guarantee a favourable
salt balance for any one given tract of land. Individual farmers may suffer
yield depression due to local salt accumulation,
• A positive salt balance value, supposedly an indication of satisfactory
conditions, can result from addition to salt load in the drainage water from
that stored in groundwater,
• While the overall salt balance may be satisfactory, sodium and chloride
concentrations in the soil water may be increasing relative to calcium,
magnesium, bicarbonate and sulphate. Specific toxicities will cause different
effects.
The salt balance cannot therefore be taken as a meaningful criterion for designing
drainage facilities for large project.
8.7. Reclamation of Salty Soils
Reclamation of Saline Soil
Saline soils can be reclaimed with relative ease by leaching. The quantity of water
needed to reclaim saline soil is different from what is required for maintaining salt
balance. That is the reason reclamation chutes are required to be sanctioned in highly
saline soils to achieve initial leaching: (usually 30 cm of good quality water for each
30 cm depth of soil will provide enough ponded leaching).
Depending upon the depth of water table, soil texture and drainage facilities,
reclamation supplies for one season will reduce salinity by 70 to 80%. In case of
subsurface drainage system, the leaching of salts is more effective and fast in the
vicinity of subsurface of pipes than midway between the pipes. The depth of
subsurface pipe drain also govern to what depth the soil profile will be leached.
Reclamation of Sodic Soil
Sodic soils (sodium affected soils) are more difficult to reclaim than saline soil because
they require replacing sodium with calcium. The calcium needed for replacing
exchangeable sodium is supplied by adding a chemical amendment.
465
Gypsum is the most commonly used amendment for reclamation. High quality gypsum
is readily available in Punjab at low cost.
The rate of reaction of gypsum in replacing sodium is affected by its solubility in water
and the permeability of sodic soils.
Approximately 1 meter of irrigation water is sufficient to dissolve 7.34 metric tons /ha
of gypsum having a fineness such that 85% will pass a 100 mesh sieve. On this basis,
it will require 12.5 metric tons of gypsum /ha-m of soil to replace 1 mg/100g
exchangeable sodium.
Initially the soil permeability is too low to allow reclamation to be achieved in a single
leaching. Normally 4.5 metric tons of gypsum is applied as first application with about
1.5m depth of water for leaching. Subsequently repeated yearly applications are made
for a period of 4 to 5 years with normal irrigation to reclaim the complete soil profile.
Reclamation of poorly permeable soil is more difficult to achieve. In such cases, crop
rotation including shallow rooted crops like vegetables rotated with rice can help.
The drainage system should have sufficient capacity to take care of the leachant and
to keep the water table below the capillary fringe.
466
References:
1. American Society of Agronomy, publication No17, 1974: Drainage for Agriculture
2. Bureau of Reclamation, 1984: Drainage Manual, U.S. Department of Agriculture
3. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 38, 1979: Drainage Design Factors, Paper 38
4. Government of Pakistan 1993: Surface Drainage Manual for Pakistan
5. Irrigation Department 1943: Drains Chapter 12, Manual of Irrigation Practice
6. Smedema, Lambert K and Rycraft, David W, 1983: Land Drainage, Planning and
Design of Agricultural Drainage System
7. WAPDA and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1989: Subsurface Drainage Design

Memorandum, Fourth Drainage Project
8. Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), 2005: Drainage Master Plan
of Pakistan
9. Water & Power Development Authority, NESPAK and Euroconsult: Design of Pipe
Drainage Systems
10. World Bank November 178, 1992: Developing and Improving Irrigation and
Drainage System, Technical Paper
i
MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL WORKS & SCADA

Table of Contents
1. GATES, HOISTS AND SCADA .................................................................................. 467
1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 467
1.2. Different Types of Gates and their Principle of Operation: ...................................... 469
1.2.1. Slide Gate: .......................................................................................................... 469
1.2.2. Stoney Gate: ....................................................................................................... 469
1.2.3. Fixed Wheel Gate: .............................................................................................. 469
1.2.4. Radial Gates/Segment Gate: .............................................................................. 470
1.2.5. Flap Gate or Walton Gate: .................................................................................. 470
1.2.6. Stop Logs: .......................................................................................................... 470
1.3. Hoists and their Types: ........................................................................................... 471
1.3.1. Screw Hoists: ...................................................................................................... 471
1.3.2. Rope Drum Hoists:.............................................................................................. 471
1.3.3. Oil Hydraulic Hoist: ............................................................................................. 472
1.3.4. Movable Hoists: .................................................................................................. 472
1.4. Gate Seals: ............................................................................................................ 472
1.4.1. Metal Seal Plates: ............................................................................................... 472
1.4.2. Rubber seals:...................................................................................................... 472
1.5. Hand Operation of Gates: ....................................................................................... 473
1.6. Wire Rope: ............................................................................................................. 473
1.6.1. Corrosion: ........................................................................................................... 475
1.6.2. Core: ................................................................................................................... 475
1.7. Design of Gates:..................................................................................................... 475
1.7.1. Materials used in Gates: ..................................................................................... 476
1.8. Maintenance of Gates: ........................................................................................... 477
1.8.1. Causes of Malfunctioning Resulting Defects in Gates, and Preventive Steps ...... 477
1.8.2. Maintenance of Wire Ropes: ............................................................................... 482
1.8.2.1. Rope failures: .................................................................................................. 482
1.8.2.2. Lubrication of Wire Ropes: .............................................................................. 482
1.9. Painting: ................................................................................................................. 483
1.10. Instructions for Smooth Operation and Maintenance of Gates ............................ 484
1.11. Lubrication .......................................................................................................... 485
1.11.1. Lubricants list .................................................................................................. 485
ii
1.12. Inspection and Maintenance Checklist ................................................................ 486

1.12.1. Mechanical items............................................................................................. 486
1.12.2. Electric System for hoist control & SCADA ...................................................... 491
1.12.3. Electric Control Panel for Hoist System ........................................................... 492
1.13. SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA) SYSTEM ...... 494
1.13.1. Modernization of Barrages .............................................................................. 495
1.13.2. SCADA System at Barrages ............................................................................ 495
1.13.3. The SCADA Works can be divided into the following sub-system: ................... 495
1.13.4. Functional Description ..................................................................................... 497
1.13.5. Barrage Wide CAN (Campus Area Network) ................................................... 501
1.13.6. Control Room Facilities ................................................................................... 501
1.13.7. SCADA and HMI Software .............................................................................. 502
1.13.8. Human Machine Interface (HMI) ...................................................................... 503
1.13.9. Gate Control Function ..................................................................................... 503
1.13.10. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) ................................................................ 504
1.13.11. Maintenance of SCADA System ...................................................................... 504
1.14. Duties and Responsibilities of Staff at Barrage for Mechanical/Electrical Works: 506
2. EARTHMOVING MACHINERY .................................................................................. 511
2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 511
2.1.1. Types of Earthmoving Machinery Used In Irrigation Department......................... 511
2.1.2. Fundamental Terminology Used For Estimating Production: ............................... 514
2.2. Estimating Production of Machines......................................................................... 515
2.2.1. Dozer Production: ............................................................................................... 515
2.2.2. Excavator Production: ......................................................................................... 517
2.3. Guidelines for Preparing Annual Estimate for Excavator/Dragline (Rate per Hour and
Rate per Cft): .................................................................................................................... 517
2.3.1. Owning Charges: ................................................................................................ 517
2.3.2. Operation charges: ............................................................................................. 517
2.3.3. Machine Out-Turn: .............................................................................................. 521
2.4. Maintenance of Earthmoving Equipment ................................................................ 524
2.5. Instructions to be followed By Machinery Operators ............................................... 524
2.5.1. General Safety Instructions for Operator: ............................................................ 524
2.5.2. Machine Operation:............................................................................................. 524
2.5.3. Parking: .............................................................................................................. 525
2.5.4. Loading and unloading ........................................................................................ 525
iii
2.5.5. Lifting of works: ................................................................................................... 526

2.5.6. Working near electric lines: ................................................................................. 526
2.5.7. Batteries Maintenance: ....................................................................................... 526
2.5.8. Removing cap of Hydraulic oil tank: .................................................................... 526
2.5.9. Removing cap of Radiator:.................................................................................. 526
2.6. Essential Checks by Machine Operator: ................................................................. 526
2.7. Standard Operating Procedure for Management of Earthmoving Equipment .......... 528
Annexure-I- DOZER (Track Mounted) - Maintenance Interval Schedule ........................... 531
Annexure-II- DOZER (Tire Mounted) - Maintenance Interval Schedule ............................. 533
Annexure- III- EXCAVATOR - Maintenance Interval Schedule .......................................... 535
Annexure-IV- Motor Grader - Maintenance Interval Schedule ........................................... 536
Annexure- V-Trouble Shooting Hydraulic Excavators ........................................................ 539
3. PUMPS ...................................................................................................................... 543
3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 543
3.2. Centrifugal Pump: ................................................................................................... 543
3.3. Pump Terminology ................................................................................................. 544
3.4. Pump Horsepower: ................................................................................................. 545
3.5. Pump Performance Curve ...................................................................................... 545
3.6. Important Tips in the Use of Centrifugal Pump ....................................................... 546
3.6.1. Installation: ......................................................................................................... 546
3.6.2. Starting, Operating and Maintenance Instructions ............................................... 547
3.6.3. Trouble Shooting ................................................................................................ 548
3.7. Deep Well Turbine Pumps: ..................................................................................... 549
3.7.1. Starting Instructions: ........................................................................................... 549
3.7.2. Troubles and their causes: .................................................................................. 550
3.7.3. Trouble Shooting: ............................................................................................... 552
3.8. Vertical Tubular Casing Pumps: ............................................................................. 553
3.9. Split Casing Centrifugal Pump: ............................................................................... 553
4. IRRIGATION WORKSHOPS...................................................................................... 557
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 557
4.2. Mughalpura Irrigation Workshop (MIW): ................................................................. 557
4.2.1. Accounting System of MIW: ................................................................................ 558
4.3. Bhalwal irrigation Workshop (BIW): ........................................................................ 560
4.3.1. Accounting System: ............................................................................................ 560
iv
List of Tables
TABLE 1: DATA OF PUNJAB BARRAGES GATES ........................................................................................ 468
TABLE 2: GENERAL CHECK .................................................................................................................... 505
TABLE 3: JOB CORRECTION FACTORS .................................................................................................... 515
TABLE 4: LOAD FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS OF WORK .......................................................... 518
TABLE 5: HOURLY FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR CATERPILLAR EXCAVATORS M315D ...................................... 519
TABLE 6: APPROXIMATE TIRE LIFE IN HOURS ........................................................................................... 521
TABLE 7: OPTIMUM DEPTH OF CUT & IDEAL PRODUCTION OF SHORT BOOM DRAGLINES ........................... 522
TABLE 8: EFFECT OF DEPTH OF CUT & ANGLE OF SWING ON THE PRODUCTIVITY OF DRAGLINES............... 523
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: J TYPE AND ANGLE SHAPED RUBBER SEALS ........................................................................... 473
FIGURE 2: STEM DEFLECTION AT PROPER INSTALLATION OF J SEAL .......................................................... 473
FIGURE 3: LAY OF WIRE ROPES – FROM LEFT TO RIGHT: (A) RIGHT-REGULAR LAY; ..................................... 474
FIGURE 4: EFFICIENCY OF FITTINGS ........................................................................................................ 474
FIGURE 5: USE OF CLIPS ........................................................................................................................ 475
FIGURE 6: SCADA SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE FOR JINNAH BARRAGE ......................................................... 496
FIGURE 7: CENTRIFUGAL PUMP PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ....................................................................... 543
FIGURE 8: HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMP .......................................................................................... 544
FIGURE 9: TYPICAL PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVE .................................................................................... 546
FIGURE 10: A VIEW OF DEEP W ELL TURBINE PUMP ................................................................................. 551
FIGURE 11: VERTICAL TUBULAR CASING PUMP ....................................................................................... 554
FIGURE 12: HORIZONTAL SPLIT CASING PUMP ........................................................................................ 554
467
1. GATES, HOISTS AND SCADA

1.1. Introduction
Gates are used in hydraulic engineering to control the level, head & flow of water over
a wide range of applications such as, in reservoirs and dams, flow regulation in
barrages and canal system, and flood control. Different types of hydraulic gates and
hoists working on different principles and mechanism are used for controlled release
of water through different engineering structures.
Punjab Irrigation system comprises of 12 Barrages, 6430 Km length of main canals
and 31,220 km length of distribution channels consisting of Branch canals,
Distributaries and Minors. Besides, there are storm water and seepage drains, Small
Dams and Hill Torrents. In all these systems the flow of water is regulated /controlled
through structures fitted with gates and hoist systems.
A Table showing the types of gates and relevant data, installed at barrages in Punjab
is given as Table 1 which shows that old barrages were constructed 80 to 120 years
back and consisted of gates of Stony type. However when new barrages were
constructed during 1965-68 at (i) Marala, (ii) Rasool,(iii) Qadirabad, and (iv) Sidhnai
under Indus Water Treaty, radial gates were installed at first three barrages while fixed
wheel type gates were installed at Sidhnai Barrage. Taunsa Barrage was constructed
during 1957-60 and its gates were manufactured by Bhalwal Irrigation Workshop
which were of Stony type. During 2006-08 Taunsa Barrage was rehabilitated and its
eleven (11) Under Sluice gates were replaced with the same type (Stony Type) as
previously installed. Jinnah Barrage has been rehabilitated from 2010-2015 and its
gates have also been replaced with the same type (Stony Type) as originally installed,
but riveted structures have been replaced with plate girder type welded structures
instead of riveted structures.
At present New Khanki Barrage is under construction on river Chenab, to replace the
120 year old Khanki Head Works. The new barrage is being provided radial gates
operated by hydraulic system. Rehabilitation and modernization of Balloki, Suleimanki,
Trimmu and Panjnad barrages is also under process which also includes rehabilitation
of gates and hoist system and electrification of gate operation in addition to manual
operation. At Balloki Barrage, a new flood spillway with sixteen (16) gates each 40 ft
wide has been constructed to enhance flood carrying capacity of barrage. These gates
have been manufactured by Mughalpura Irrigation Workshop (MIW) and Bhalwal
Irrigation Workshop (BIW) of Irrigation Department.
In main canals and branches, gates are installed at falls and head regulators. These
gates are either fixed wheel type or slide type, depending upon the size of spans and
water head. In a similar manner, gates are also installed at the drainage outfalls and
at the submerged outlets of Small Dams.
468
DATA OF PUNJAB BARRAGES GATES

Types of Size of Types of
Under Sluice Names of canals off Size of gates Hoisting
Name of Barrage Year of No. of gates gates of Gates of Hoisting System Gates of No. of gates
/ Main Weir taking of canals System
commissionin Barrage Barrage Canal
g & updation
Motorized Head Motorized
Under sluice 13 Stony 60’x20’ Fixed Wheel 7 24’x11-9’’
Mechanical Regulator Mechanical
Thal
Jinnah Barrage
Motorized Canal Cross Motorized
Main Weir 42 Stony 60’x17’ Fixed Wheel 7 24’x9’-9”
Mechanical Regulator Mechanical
1946/2015
Motorized
Under sluice 11 Stony 60’x23’ Muzaffar garh Canal Stony 5 24'X13,5'
Mechanical
Motorized
Taunsa Barrage
T.P Link Canal Fixed Wheel 7 24'X13,5' Mechanical
Motorized
Main Weir 53 Stony 60’x20’
Mechanical D.G Khan Canal Fixed Wheel 7 24'X13,5'
1958/2008
Undersluice 6 Radial 60' x 22.5' Motorized R.Q Link Canal 6 Motorized
Rasul Barrage Radial 40' x 12'
1901/1967 Main Weir 42 Radial 60' x18' Mechanical Lower Jehlum Canal 2 Mechanical
Undersluice 10 Radial 16.5x60’ Hydraulic
Khanki Barrage Lower Chenab Canal Radial 6 10'x30' Hydraulic
1892/2016 Main Weir 55 Radial 14.0x60’ Hydraulic
Undersluice 20 Radial 60'x19' Motorized MR Link Canal 8 40'x14' Motorized
Marala Barrage Radial
1910/1968 Main Weir 46 Radial 60'x14' Mechanical Upper Chenab Canal 6 40'x14' Mechanical
Motorized
Undersluice 5 Radial 60'x23'
Mechanical Motorized
Qadirabad Barrage QB Link Radial 6 40'x13'
Motorized Mechanical
Main Weir 45 Radial 60'x18.5'
1967 Mechanical
Stony / 33'x21' Motorized
Undersluice 16 T.S Link Fixed Wheel 10 24'x12'
F.Wheel 30'x21.5' Mechanical
Motorized Motorized
Trimmu Barrage Main Weir 37 Stony 60'x15' Haveli Canal Fixed Wheel 5 24'x8'-9''
Mechanical Mechanical
Depressed Motorized
11 Fixed wheel 60'x21.5' Rangpur Canal Fixed Wheel 2 24'x6.25'
1938/2015 bays Mechanical
26'x6'
Main Weir 37 Stony 60'x13.5' Panjnad canal Radial 12
Motorized 18'x6' Motorized
Panjnad Barrage
Annex Weir 14 Stony 60'x13.5' Mechanical Abbasia Canal Fixed Wheel 2 20'x8.5' Mechanical
1932/2015 New bays 4 Fixed wheel 54.5'x15.5' Abbasia Link Canal Fixed Wheel 6 20'x12'
Undersluice 16 Stony 30'x18' Pakpattan Canal Fixed Wheel 8 20.6x10'-7''
Motorized Motorized
Table 1: Data of Punjab Barrages Gates

Suleimanki Barrage Eastern Sadiqia Fixed Wheel 7 20.6x10'-7''
Main Weir 24 Stony 60'x10' Mechanical Mechanical
1926/1930 Fordwah Canal Fixed Wheel 5 20'x8'

Double Leaf
Undersluice 11 29'x10.5' Bahawal Canal Walton 7 20'x9.5'
Stony
Islam Head Works Manual Manual
Slide double
Main Weir 18 Stony 60'x15' Qaim Canal 2 9'x3'&9'x3.5'
1927/1954 leaf
F.Wheel doubl 20'x3'
Main Weir 35 Stony 40'x11.25' LBDC 5
Motorized e leaf 20'x8' Motorized
Balloki Barrage
Mechanical B.S.Link Old HR Fixed Wheel 11 24'x9' Mechanical
Spill way 16 Stony 40'x11.25'
1913/2015 B. S Link New HR Fixed Wheel 8 24'x9'
Undersluice 4 Fixed wheel 40'x20' Motorized Sidhnai Canal Fixed Wheel 4 40'x11' Motorized
Sidhnai Barrage
1965 Main Weir Fixed wheel 40'x15' Mechanical S.M Link Fixed Wheel 10 40'x11' Mechanical
469
1.2. Different Types of Gates and their Principle of Operation:

1.2.1. Slide Gate:
Slide gate is the simplest type of vertical lift gate and consists basically of a gate leaf
which slides alongside vertical guides embedded to the concrete under tight contact
at the bearing surfaces which act as seals. The slide gate uniformly transmits the
hydrostatic load to the concrete structure without vibrations. These types of gates are
fitted on small channels as well as at submerged intake/outlet of dams with high heads.
Main features for durability and efficiency should be as under:
• The bearing surfaces of the guides and slide bearings must be machined to
tight tolerances to maintain a seal for the gate.
• Sealing is provided by bronze /brass machined bars attached to the
downstream side of skin plate face. The metallic seal material should be
slightly softer than that of the seats so as to avoid seizing of mating surfaces.
• On gates fitted with metal seals, transmission of hydrostatic load to the
embedded parts is carried through the seals.
• The lifting mechanism (stem rod) is made strong enough to withstand the
weight of the gate as well as to overcome the friction developed due to water
pressure and the movement of gate.
1.2.2. Stoney Gate:
The Stoney gate is named after its inventor, Mr. FGM Stoney. These gates have been
installed on barrages constructed before partition of India. The load is transferred from
the gate, through a roller train on either side of gate frame placed between the gate
leaf and the wheel tracks. The roller train is lifted by a steel cable running over a loose
pulley installed on top of the vertical plates, with one end attached to an elevated fixed
point on the pier and the other end being attached to the gate. The roller train moves
only one-half of the distance covered by the gate during raising or lowering operations.
The main disadvantage of the Stoney gate is that when the gate is raised, the rollers
get exposed to the full impact of water flow, leading to appreciable wear of rollers by
erosion due to the sediment content in water. Moreover, the effect of accumulated
debris/mud results in increased resistance to roller movement which may result in non-
rolling or jamming of rollers and tilt of gate and struck in the groove. Where ever Stoney
gates are installed 3-4 rollers in the bottom portion of roller train are generally found
worn out or missing due to high velocity of flowing water with silt content, when the
roller train is opened for annual maintenance. This type of gate is no longer used since
1960s.
The span of barrage gates in Punjab is 60 ft (except Balloki and Sidhnai) therefore the
gates are quite heavy and need enormous force to lift them, thus a counterweight is
used to reduce operating force required for lifting/lowering the gate.
1.2.3. Fixed Wheel Gate:
It is the most common type of gate and consists basically of wheels fitted to the vertical
girders welded at the extreme end of gate leaf. Due to rolling contact between the gate
470
and fixed path, the frictional resistance during movement of gate is low requiring fewer
loads for the hoist. Fixed wheel gates are therefore the appropriate choice for the
larger gates. Other important characteristics of these gates are as under:
• Seals are provided at sides and at sill to avoid leakages.
• The gate height is kept 1 – 1.5 ft more than pond level to prevent discharge
of splash over the gate due to waves created by wind in the pond/ reservoir.
• Gate guides are extended above the operating deck in order to allow the
gate to be lifted above the pond/reservoir maximum level.
• A service bridge is installed at the top of the guides for housing the hoist
system.
• For high depth of water (at barrage ponds), gates installed at canal head
regulators are split into two gates one above the other. In this way the dead
load for movement of gate and consequently the required forces to move
the gate are divided into two parts and both gates are lifted separately with
less effort.
1.2.4. Radial Gates/Segment Gate:
In the simplest form it consists of a curved skin plate formed to a cylinder segment,
supported by radial compressed arms which transfer the hydraulic forces to fixed
bearings. The radial gate rotates about a horizontal axis, which passes through the
bearing centre and usually coincides with the centre of the skin plate curvature radius.
By this arrangement, the resultant thrust from the water pressure passes through the
point of rotation and has no tendency to open the gate. In some cases, the centre of
curvature of the skin plate is located above the bearing axis so as to provide a lifting
moment, which helps the winch in the opening of the gate. The curved surface, long
radial arms and trunnion bearings allow the gate to close with less effort than a flat
gate. Radial type gates become a viable option when the heads are comparatively
much higher. In Punjab Irrigation Department, Radial Gates are fitted at Marala,
Rasool and Qadirabad barrages and the newly constructed New Khanki Barrage.
1.2.5. Flap Gate or Walton Gate:
This type of gate consists of a straight or curved retaining surface, pivoted on a fixed
axis at the sill. The bearings are rigidly anchored to the sill and spaced from 2.5 m to
4 m. In its fully raised position, the flap gate makes an angle from 60 to 70 degrees
with the horizontal. In the fully lowered position, the skin plate forms a continuous
surface with the weir bottom, presenting no obstacle to the water flow. These gates
were fitted at the canal head regulators of Suleimanki Barrage and have now been
replaced (in 2016) with Fixed Wheel Gates during rehabilitation of Suleimanki Barrage.
1.2.6. Stop Logs:
Stop logs are primarily used for maintenance and repair of main equipment or gates
by placing them on upstream of the gates/equipment to be repaired. The construction
of stop logs is similar to that of the slide gate. Depending on the height to be sealed,
the stoplog may comprise of more than one element called stoplog panels. Stoplog
471
panels are placed and removed by means of cranes, travelling hoists or gantry cranes,
with the help of lifting beams. Stop logs are provided with seals on their sides, sill and
between the panels.
In case a gate of barrage or tunnel gate of a reservoir is damaged or stuck due to
some defect, then the stoplog gate can be lowered up stream of this gate to isolate it
and the defective gate can be repaired. In Punjab Irrigation Department there is no
such provision for using stoplog gates at any barrage except New Khanki Barrage
under construction.
1.3. Hoists and their Types:
The hoisting arrangement is the part of the gate system that provides the necessary
movement to the gate, and the operating platform provides access to the operating
mechanism of the hoist. Hoists can be broadly be divided into four types namely,
1. Screw hoists
2. Rope drum hoists
3. Hydraulic pressure hoists
4. Movable hoists
1.3.1. Screw Hoists:
The hand operated screw lift has its use confined to small slide or fixed wheel gates
subjected to low head, and usually comprises a vertical threaded stem connected to
the gate leaf and prevented from rotating, a stem lift nut and a mechanism that permits
nut rotation in the desired direction. The nut is operated directly by a hand wheel or
indirectly by means of a worm gear system. The nut has also a strut function and is
usually supported on roller bearings. In general nuts are made of aluminum bronze
which presents good mechanical strength and a low friction coefficient. This
mechanism is normally installed within a frame and mounted on a cast iron pedestal
screwed to the operating deck.
1.3.2. Rope Drum Hoists:
Rope drum hoists are suitable for gates that would close under their own weight with
sufficient force to effectively press the bottom seal to prevent leakage. Their use is
very common in barrage gates in which the friction forces to be overcome are always
less than the gate weight.
On each side of the gate a drum with helical grooves (where the steel wire rope
connected to the gate leaf is wound) is installed and operated by gear box/speed
reducer and/or electric motor/manually operated handle. The number of grooves on
drum should be such that it can accommodate wire rope for total lifting of gate in a
single layer plus two holding turns. In addition, with the gate closed, two turns of the
wire rope should remain coiled on the drum. Drum grooves are machined with radius
equal to 0.53 times the wire diameter. As a thumb rule, a diameter not less than 25
times the wire diameter is adopted for drums and pulleys.
472
1.3.3. Oil Hydraulic Hoist:

A hydraulic hoist comprises a hydraulic cylinder operated by oil pressure supplied by
a pumping unit. Hydraulic cylinder hoist may be either of single or double-action.
Hydraulic cylinder hoists are driven either by individual hydraulic power units or jointly,
by a single pumping unit. The oil used in the hydraulic systems is mineral oil, which
should have good resistance to the formation of rust, oxidation and foam. Oils having
a viscosity of 150 SSU (Saybolt Seconds universal) at 38◦C and a minimum viscosity
index equal to 90 are used. Hydraulic systems are also provided with a hand pump to
supply oil under pressure and allow the gate opening in case of power failure. For
hoists with a manual back-up, it is important that the manual system be periodically
operated and verified to be in a working condition. At new Khanki Barrage an oil
hydraulic hoist system is being installed for operation of Radial Gates.
1.3.4. Movable Hoists:
Movable hoisting devices are used mainly for operation of stoplog and diversion gates.
Among the most common are the electric traveling hoist, overhead cranes, gantry
cranes and wheel or tractor/truck-mounted cranes.
1.4. Gate Seals:
Seals are provided for controlling leakage of water through the sides and bottom of
gates and may be metal or synthetic rubber. The seals are fixed to the gate leaf by
seal clamps and bolts/stainless steel screws.
1.4.1. Metal Seal Plates:
The metal seal plates are of either brass or bronze and fixed to the gate leaf by
countersunk screws made of stainless steel or of the same material. These transmit
the entire water load on the gate leaf to the embedded parts and the width of the
sealing strips should be sufficient so as to keep the maximum bearing stress within
the prescribed limits. Metal seals have the advantage over the rubber seals that they
have a low coefficient of friction during gate movement and the metal on the sealing
or contact face eliminates the tendency of the seal to extrude between the seal plate
and the clamp bar. The principal objection to metal clad seals is that they are so rigid
that some of the most apparent advantages of the rubber portion, such as its flexibility
and resistance to wear, are lost. Moreover, metal clad seals will cost from 3 to 5 times
more than rubber seals.
1.4.2. Rubber seals:
Rubber seals may be of music-note type (J shape), flat or angle shaped. The edge of
seal clamp adjacent to the seal bulb is rounded. The rubber seal for the bottom should
be wedge type and should project 5 mm below the gate leaf. J type seals are available
both in solid and hollow bulb shapes. Hollow bulb seal provides a greater contact area
with seats thus aiding water tightness, however this type of seal can be used for heads
up to 50 ft while solid bulb type seal may be used up to 100 ft head of water.
473
Figure 1: J type and Angle Shaped Rubber Seals

Proper seal installation of J type seals should utilize stem deflection as shown
in Fig: 2.
Figure 2: Stem deflection at proper installation of J seal

1.5. Hand Operation of Gates:
Mechanical and hydraulic hosting systems should be provided with hand drives to
permit the gate closure or opening, in case of power failure. In cable and chain hoists,
the supply of power to the electrical circuit must be switched off before the hand drive
is engaged to prevent accidents upon power return. Also, the brake should be released
only after engaging the hand drive. Hand operation is made through hand wheels or
cranks, with a radius of 30 to 40 cm, attached to the speed reducer input shaft .The
average speed of crank operation should not exceed 1 m/s. Also, the power developed
by the operator should be limited to:
- 100N-m/s, in continuous operation;
- 150 N-m/s, in operations upto five minutes of duration.
1.6. Wire Rope:
Most gate hoist wire ropes are 6×19 or 6×37-class of construction. The construction
is indicated by two numbers, the first giving the number of strands and the second
being the number of wires in each strand. A small number of large outer wires result
in better resistance to wear and corrosion. A large number of small wires result in
better flexibility and resistance to fatigue. Thus, comparing 6×19 and 6×37 wire ropes
of the same diameter, the first has greater resistance to abrasion, while the latter is
474
more flexible. The strands are wrapped in spirals about a central element, usually fiber
or steel wire. Fiber core gives greater flexibility to the cable; steel core have high
resistance to permanent deformation and increases the tensile strength. Wire ropes
are classified either Regular lay or Lang lay, as illustrated in Figure below. In regular
lay, the wires in the strand are laid in the opposite direction to the lay of the strands in
the rope. In Lang lay, the wires and strands are laid in the same direction.
Figure 3: Lay of wire ropes – from left to right: (a) right-regular lay;
(b) left-regular lay; (c) right Langlay; (d) left Lang lay.
Lang lay ropes have greater flexibility than regular lay ropes and are more resistant to
abrasion. Regular lay rope has fewer tendencies to spin. Lang lay ropes with fiber core
should not be used as they present little stability and low resistance to permanent
deformation. The German DIN 19705 standard recommends the use of regular lay,
heavily galvanized cables with a steel core covered with artificial fibers.
The rope ends are fastened by means of loops with clips or cast in sockets. The
strength of a clip fastening is usually 80 per cent of the strength of the rope. When
properly prepared, the strength of a socket fastening is approximately equal to that of
the rope itself. Figure below shows the correct application of clip fastening.
Figure 4: Efficiency of fittings

475
Figure 5: Use of clips

1.6.1. Corrosion:
A steel wire rope will corrode by the interaction of moisture, the presence of pollution
in the air, during use and sometimes even during storage. By galvanizing of ropes and
by good lubrication at frequent intervals the corrosion can be put off for a long or short
period, but cannot be avoided forever. If corrosion has already appeared, it cannot be
stopped by external greasing.
1.6.2. Core:
The central part of a wire rope or a strand is called the core of rope or strand core
respectively. This may be of fiber, wire or synthetic material. Fiber cores are made of
vegetable fiber ropes, namely, sisal, jute, hemp, phormium or cotton. The fiber core is
very flexible and very suitable for all conditions except those in which the rope is
subjected to severe crushing. The Wire core may be of a single straight strand of fairly
soft wires (wire main core or WMC) or even a small wire rope made up of strands of
very small wires. Wire cores are specified where the wire rope has to stand severe
heat or crushing conditions. Plastic cores are also used in the special purpose wire
ropes. It may be a plastic impregnated fiber core, plastic covered fiber core or a solid
plastic core.
1.7. Design of Gates:
The Mechanical Circle Lahore under Chief Engineer Development Zone, maintains a
design office for design of gates wherever required in the Irrigation Department. Both
Mughalpura Irrigation Workshop (MIW) and BIW manufacture install gates and hoist
system on various irrigation channels/drains within and outside the Punjab Irrigation
Department according to the design finalized by Mechanical Circle. Thus the field
formation of Irrigation department should approach Mechanical Circle Lahore,
whenever they need replacement of existing gates or new gates on irrigation channels.
476
1.7.1. Materials used in Gates:

Sr. Description of
Gate items Materials Specifications
No.
Skin plate, Girders, Lateral Rolled steel/ ASTM A 36, ASTM A 283 Grade D;
Guides, and Wheel Track Structural steel, DIN17100R St 37.2 and R St 42.2
supports. For high strength & weld-able
1
structural quality DIN17100 RR St
52.3 ASTM A441 and NTU-SAR-50
and 55
Seal seats, servomotors Stainless steels AISI 304, 304L and 316
2 stems, wheel tracks etc.
3 Hydraulic Cylinder Stem Stainless steels AISI 410 and 416

Bulky high loaded parts, such Cast steels ASTM A 27
as wheels, trunnions hubs, ASTM A 148
4 head of hydraulic cylinders,
hook eyes of cylinder stems
etc.
Forged steels ASTM A105, A236 and A668
Heavy loaded parts such as
steels.
wheels of fixed wheel gates,
5
main pins of segment gates
and lifting eyes.
Bearing supports, Rope Gray cast iron ASTM A48, A126
drums, gears, sheaves,
6 pedestals, small guide
wheels, embedded parts of
small slide gate
Bushings, Guide shoes and Bronzes
slide gate seals. a. High-Lead tin a. ASTMB-584-937
Corrosion resistance for Bronzes. b. ASTMB-584-862 ASTMB-
7 worm gears. Self lubricating b. Manganese 22-863
bushing. bronzes
c. Aluminum c. (ASTM B-148)
For stem lift nuts. Bronzes
Bolts Carbon
a. Common bolts steels a. AISI1020, 1030 ,1035 and ASTM
A307
b. Heavy duty bolts e.g. b. AISI 4130 and 4820

Heads of hydraulic cylinders.
8
c. High strength connection
bolts c. ASTM A325
d. Seal bolts
d. AISI 304, ASTM A-193-B6 or
Brass
477
1.8. Maintenance of Gates:

Although gate and the allied equipment generally form a very small component of the
system, they play a crucial role in determining the success of the system on account
of their performance. To ensure reliable performance of gates and their operating
equipment, periodic preventive maintenance is essential.
The Executive In-charge of Barrage should ensure that
- Comprehensive periodical maintenance schedules are systemically prepared,
- Preventive maintenance charts are developed and repairs and lubrication
activities carried out are recorded on the charts
- Counter checking/ surprise checking by SDO and Executive Engineer should
be done to verify that maintenance schedules are being followed
- Test the working of gates personally at the start of flood season.
1.8.1. Causes of Malfunctioning Resulting Defects in Gates, and
Preventive Steps
i. Accumulated Debris/mud or Slush:
The accumulated debris/mud on the gate leaf, structural members, roller cage, guide
rollers, etc if not flushed, would cause not only operational problems but also
accelerate corrosion which results in loss of strength of structural components. Debris
accumulated between rubber seal and its contact surface affect the sealing action,
increases the sealing friction and causes higher operational loads. In radial gates such
accumulation of mud/debris at the joint between the arms and trunnion and, arms and
horizontal girders result in severe corrosion and weaken the joints.
ii. Floating logs/debris:
During floods, the gushing inflows sometimes carry branched trees or other floating
debris in large quantities. In partial openings of gates it enters into the vent opening
and grooves, which cause damage to gate components. This may also lead to non
closure of gates, excess transverse movement of gate and struck in groove.
iii. Missing oil caps and grease cups:
In many installations, grease cups or caps of grease nipples, are found missing or kept
loose. Water and foreign materials enter into the narrow passages meant for forcing
down the lubricant and block the flow of lubricant. Non supply of lubricant to the
bearings, increases friction and also damage the bearing and make the system non-
operable. In case the lubricant is dried or polluted, the groove must be cleaned,
residual materials flushed out and fresh recommended lubricant applied.
iv. Missing and Loose fasteners:
The fasteners (bolts, Screws, studs, nuts, etc,) which are missing or not properly
tightened to the required torque are vulnerable areas in maintenance of joints. The
bolted joints, lock nuts, pins, if missing or loosely fixed may result failure of adjoining
components or gate itself, due to insufficient strength of joint. This aspect also applies
478
in respect of joints between roller cages and gates, Guide rollers and gates, shaftlocks,
etc. The splice joints of bridge girders and joints between main and cross members,
foundation bolts and base plates of hoist bridges, gear box to frames, Plummer boxes
holding down bolts to frame, Gear shaft keys, flexible or rigid coupling bolts of shafts
are some critical areas.
v. Oversize/Additional holes/undersize bolts:
During maintenance if oversize holes or undersize fasteners are provided or holes
made unplugged after completions of process, water/moisture or trash enters in the
gaps and damage the joints and structural members.
vi. Drain holes:
Accumulated water on girders, joints etc, due to non-provision of adequate number
and size of drain holes or jammed holes due to trash intrusion, particularly on the
horizontal girders or at the joint areas between trunnion and radial arms and radial
arms to horizontal girders and also between the cross ribs on the web of horizontal
girders is an item of concern It results in corrosion and loss of load bearing capacity
.In certain gates where large quantity of water is accumulated on the horizontal girders,
due to leakages or overflow and if cannot be drained off through holes, the self-weight
of gate increases and overload the hoist capacity which may lead to failure of gate.
vii. Short projection of bolts:
While providing threaded bolts at various load bearing or load transmission joints, if
the projection is insufficient, the main or locknuts cannot be properly fastened to the
required depths. This will reduce bearing strength and weaken the joint which may
ultimately result in joint failure.
viii. Welds:
All weld joints made shall be checked for cracks, rusting and aging factors and
maintained. The strength of a welded joint gets affected due to many factors. Weld
defects, cracks, residual stresses, metallurgical transformations, stress concentration
due to abrupt change in weld geometry are the critical factors which lead to weld
failure.
ix. Rollers and lubrication:
Effective function of all the rollers should be ensured by proper lubrication and
checking the condition of bearings and other components. The rolling action could be
simply checked by rotating with one or two hands when the gate is above waters or
when there is no water thrust. If they are not freely moving, immediate action is
required to repair or replace the damaged components. It may be noted that the
rollers if jammed, offer sliding friction in gate operation which is 10-15 times higher
than the rolling friction.
479
x. Roller contact with Track face:

Ensure that all rollers are in contact with track face in the closed position of vertical
gate and its travel. In such contingency, adjust the gaps with the eccentric pins
provided generally in gates having more than two rollers on each side. The collars of
rollers should be checked for overriding on track.
xi. Rubber Seals:
Excessive seal interference (preferably 3-4 mm, or as specified) between seal and its
track, uneven seal contact, back folded or damaged seals, intrusion of foreign
materials between the seal and track etc, create additional frictional forces and have
adverse effect on function of gate . Temporary closing of seal gaps with grass, gunny
bags and other materials to arrest leakage at any stage, should not be resorted to.
Instead we should adjust the seal gap with fasteners provided to the back plate.
xii. Suspension System:
The following checks should be made for the suspension system.
Check for equal tensions of ropes. It could be checked by physical inspection and
preferably using strain gauges. Use turnbuckles to adjust for equal tensions, only after
releasing the load (gate in closed position).
Check for any broken/damaged or rusted/corroded strands. If the damaged strands
are beyond permissible limits, replace the rope releasing the load totally. Ensure
proper lubrication.
Check for kinks, distortion of the ropes and proper riding in the grooves of drums and
pulley sheaves
Check for proper fixing of rope clamps on drum for grip.
Check for the rope winding and ensure ropes are not out of groove and riding over
the ridge of groove.
Check for position of rope pulleys and angle of contact. Also check for any damages
to pulleys, sheaves and ensure its proper movement
Check Corrosion on the wire ropes; clean these with recommended chemical and
apply the recommended grease.
xiii. Counter weight and ropes:
If vertical gates are provided with counterweights, no attempt should be made to adjust
rope tensions with turn buckles, unless ropes totally released from load. The
counterweight should be properly rested on the props and ropes adjusted for equal
tensions. While doing so, the horizontality of counterweight should always be
maintained.
xiv. Opening of covers of Plummer blocks:
It is dangerous to attempt to open the covers of Plummer blocks or adjust parallel
distance of gear shafts or mating of gears, unless the gate is rested on sill and rope
480
tensions released totally. The gear system even after release of load may be locked,
as sometimes the self weight of ropes and attachments may allow down ward rotation
of drum gear unit.
xv. Meshing of Gears:
Check for the full face width contact of teeth of gears and pinions and their uniform
meshing. The meshing of teeth forits full contact could easily be checked by observing
area of wear. The clearances between the meshing teeth should be within specified
limits. Necessary adjustments should be made only on release offload and locking the
gear and pinion. The broken teeth, if any, have to be rectified by adopting proper
methods in shop. If the damages are beyond economical repairs, replace the gears.
xvi. Bearings:
Check for the function of antifriction bearings and rectify/replace, if not working
properly. In case of excess gap between bush and shaft or oval shape of bush
diameter or damaged pin, the reasons should be probed and immediate action is
required to rectify the deficiency. This phenomenon is complex if the wearing trunnion
bush or pin is not uniform and necessary rectification/replacement should be taken up
under expert guidance. For all types of anti-friction bearings, effective supply of
lubricant should be ensured.
xvii. Hose Couplings:
In hydraulic control hoist systems only use standard hoses and couplings. Mixing and
matching couplings from one manufacturer with hoses from another manufacturer can
lead to premature or catastrophic assembly failure. That’s because hoses, couplings,
assembly equipment and crimping tolerances vary from one manufacturer to another,
and they’re not interchangeable.
Drive Unit components: The following important checks should be made
xviii. Electro-magnetic/Thruster brake:
Check for, clearance between brake shoe and drum, wear of brake shoes and function
of solenoid/magnetic coil. Ensure that the Brake drum and liners are free from grease
/ oil. Check the solenoid/magnetic coil for its rating.
xix. Worm Reducer:
Check for oil level and smooth operation, examine the oil in the sump for any metal
particles, which establishes that there is wear of teeth of worm wheel and remedial
action taken immediately.
Check function of safety switch and ensure the cranking handles are removed, before
operating the gate on power.
Ensure condition of chain links and its meshing with sprockets provided for manual
operation.
481
xx. Line Shafts:

Check the line shaft for its alignment and float. The line shaft couplings
connecting drive unit and gear boxes should be checked for its proper fastening
and parallelism of faces. Also ensure proper supports to line shafts and its
bearings to avoid possible float. Any deformation of shafting and rusting of
components should be inspected and maintenance taken up.
xxi. Gate Position Indicators:
The function of gate lift indicators/ dial gages is to be checked and adjusted as per
requirements. Their failure, if unnoticed and the gate is lifted beyond the full opening,
it may hit the hoist bridge in case of vertical gates or overturn in case of radial gates.
In slide gate hoists, the screw rods may bend on further lowering beyond the gate seat
on sill. In addition to gate lift indicators, water level markings may be made on the piers
and at important places to monitor gate travel in case of contingency and as a cross
check.
xxii. Repairs to Painted Areas:
The painted surfaces are damaged due to many reasons including, improper surface
preparation, type and quality of paints and application methodology, water quality etc.
The damaged painted surfaces result in corrosion of the material which is a dangerous
phenomenon to the structure. If the damage occurs to the primary coat, the corrosion
effect is worse and such areas should be clearly marked and the surfaces cleaned
and painted as per standards.
xxiii. Electrical cables and connections:
Check the cables, connections, junction boxes, kit-Kats etc, in each circuit to ensure
continuity and proper earthling. Avoid loose contacts in the main switch, starters,
motors and brakes etc. During the test operation or regular operation of gates,
measure the torque taken by motor and compare with the rated range. If excess, stop
operation, probe the reason and rectify. It is safe not to operate the gate till the
deficiency is rectified.
xxiv. The Roller Trains:
The Roller Trains should be examined at least once a year. Partially jammed rollers
should be cleaned, freed and greased but totally jammed rollers should be replaced.
The bolts of roller guard should be checked and tightened. The sliding/fixed rollers
should be extracted at the time of closure, cleaned and greased properly. Spare rollers
should be kept in stores for ready replacement. The bushes of rollers in the lower part
of roller train become loose due to excessive wear on account of silt water entering
into bushes. These should be replaced with new bushes. The Roller trains should be
removed from groove in every closure and following actions should be taken without
fail;
1. Roller trains should be cleaned properly.
2. Movements of all the rollers should be checked by hand.
482
3. In case of jammed rollers, roller train should be dismantled, all the rollers,
their pins and bushes should be examined carefully and be replaced
immediately.
4. Thickness of roller train/side plates should be checked each year and if
found less than permissible limits should be replaced.
5. It is strongly recommended to replace the whole roller trains after continuous
use of maximum 20 years.
6. Roller trains should be repaired in each closure, under the direct supervision
of XEN incharge.
xxv. Seals:
Seals of the gate should be checked for wear and tear as well as deterioration. These
should be adjusted/replaced, as necessary. Few sets of spare seals should be kept in
stock and stored for emergency in such a way that these seals do not get damaged
during storage with the passage of time.
1.8.2. Maintenance of Wire Ropes:
The life of a steel wire rope is solely dependent on its construction, grade, the
surroundings in which it is being used and the manner of application, along with
maintenance procedure being adopted. It is possible by means of periodical inspection
to increase ‘the effective life span’ of a steel wire rope. The wire ropes should be
inspected at regular intervals which should include not only visual examination but
also non-destructive examinations like electromagnetic testing. Close examination will
not only indicate when it is time to put on a new rope but it will also reveal many other
things about the way the rope does its work and whether it is suited to the job. For
instance, wires breaking without showing wear indicate excessive bending, that is,
sheave and drums are too small or rope construction is too coarse. Whenever rope is
cut for recapping, the cut off portion of the rope should be specially examined.
1.8.2.1. Rope failures:
The diameter of wire rope reduces as it degrades due to continuous use. It may be
due to abrasion, corrosion, inner wire breakage, stretch etc. Before installation the
diameter of new wire rope should be measured and recorded for reference. During
installation there is some stretch in wire which reduces the diameter but this decrease
is nominal. During constant use, the diameter should be measured periodically and
recorded for historical reference. A small amount of stretch takes place over an
extended use; however, if a marked stretch is noticed then it is a signal of degradation
of rope from wear and fatigue. The rope should then be replaced.
1.8.2.2. Lubrication of Wire Ropes:
During manufacture, wire ropes are fully lubricated (including fiber core and layers) to
reduce internal abrasion, to exclude external moisture and delay corrosion. In service,
the initial lubricant will tend to dry out and, therefore, it is desirable to lubricate all ropes
at regular intervals. There are many methods of applying lubricant, such as vertical or
horizontal grease boxes through which the rope runs, application by brush, leather
483
gloves, drip or by spraying. Regular lubrication plays important role in prolonging the
life of a wire rope. The lubricant should preferably be of mineral origin rather than
animal or vegetable origin and should be of a light grade that may penetrate between
the wires and the strands of the rope before being wiped off or absorbed by surface
dirt. It is very desirable that the rope must be cleaned and dry before application of
lubricant. A jet of air or wire brushing is some of the cleaning methods used
preparatory to apply the lubricant.
1.9. Painting:
Hydraulic gates, embedded parts, hoists and super structures are required to be
protected against corrosion due to climatic conditions, biochemical reaction and
abrasion due to different forces acting on these items. For this purpose all the
equipment is painted after certain interval depending upon the working conditions to
which they subjected to (contact with water, weather exposure, aggressiveness of the
environment, mechanical friction and so on). Stainless steel parts, non-ferrous metal
or galvanized parts do not need any protective treatment.
Painting is carried out either in the workshop after manufacture or in the field. In the
latter case, the metal surfaces protected at the workshop with a coat of shop primer,
are removed by sandblast before painting. All surfaces to be painted should be free
from dust, grease, mill scale, oxides and foreign matter. Surface preparation may be
either manual or mechanical, through wire brushes, sand blasting machines.
Up till recently gates at barrages and canal regulators were painted annually with
Khanki Mixture which has the following composition:
100 Wt of Khanki Mixture includes:
84 lbs of Bitumen Asphalt
10 lbs Mineral Pitch
9 lbs Kerosene oil
9 lbs slacked lime
Total = 112 lbs
100 wt Khanki Mixture covers 2500 ft2 area in 2 coats and applying temperature is 35o
– 45oF. The old Khanki Mixture should be removed before painting new. In view of
practical limitations for surface preparation and temperature control during application,
the alternative way is to use epoxy paint. Interseal 670HS is an epoxy paint
internationally known and manufactured in Pakistan by ICI and Burger Paints. It is a
two component epoxy paint suitable for use in both maintenance and new construction
of structural steel immersed in alkali and acidic waters, and provides excellent anti-
corrosive protection. The two parts consist of an epoxy resin and a co-reactant or
hardener that are mixed prior to application
The most accepted standard in steel surface preparation is the Swedish standard SIS-
05-5900-1967 ‘Pictorial Surface Preparation Standards for painting steel surfaces.
484
Therefore surfaces to be coated should be free from all weld spatters, sharp edges
and free from contamination. Grease and oil should be completely removed by solvent
wiping. Sand blast cleaning should be applied 4 to 6 hours before painting. The old
paint should be removed before repainting an old surface.
1.10. Instructions for Smooth Operation and Maintenance of Gates
1 Authorized Personnel should be allowed near Control Panel for operation of

gates.
2 Technically qualified or trained operators should be allowed to operate gates.
3 Operate the gates only when the required power supply is available as per
design
4 Adjust the brakes when the gate is lowered fully and at rest on sill.
5 Attend maintenance checking before start of flood season
6 Maintain cleanliness of hoist platform, trunnion platforms
7 Insulate damaged electrical wiring, which are exposed to atmosphere
8 Protect hoist gear box and motors from rains
9 Ensure wire rope tightness on either side equally before operating gate
10 Safety precautions should be taken during maintenance works
11 Cut off power supply after operation of gates
12 Check connections and functioning of limit switches before operation
13 Check tightness of Plummer block, drive unit, line shaft, coupling bolts
14 Ensure no foreign particles stuck up in between roller and roller track/ wall
plate and rubber seals etc
15 Maintain oil as per level indicator in the gear box.
16 Check tightness of wire rope clamps before operation
17 Operate gate only when grooves are clean without any obstructions
18 Provide proper approaches for attending maintenance of trunnion bushes,
pins, girders etc.,
485
1.11. Lubrication
1.11.1. Lubricants list
Lubrication
Sr.# Item Recommended Lubricants Replacement Time
Methods
1st replace after 3
1 Reducer Pouring 1. SHELL – Omala S2 G 220 months afterwards
2. MOBIL – Mobilgear 600 XP annually
220
Manual 1st replace after 3
3. CHEVRON – Meropa 220
2 Machine Pouring months afterwards
4. CASTROL – Alpha SP 220
(Clutch） annually
1. SHELL – Albida EP2
2. CHEVRON – Starplex EP2
3. CHEVRON – Multifak EP 2
4. TOTAL – Epexa 2
6 Months
Open-type 5. MOBIL – Mobilith SHC PM 460
3 Coating (Annual closure and
gear 6. SHELL – GADUS S3 V220C 2
before flood season)
7. SHELL – Cardium Compound
EP200
8. SHELL – Retinax Grease
CMX2
1. SHELL – Alvania EP 1
Gear 2. MOBIL – Mobilux EP 1
4 Grease gun Annually
coupling 3. CALTEX – Multifax EP 1
4. TOTAL – Multia EP 1
1. SHELL – Malleus Grease GL
300
6 Months
2. MOBIL – Mobilta C-LL
5 Wire rope Coating (Annual closure and
3. CALTEX – Crater 10R 1X
before flood season)
4. TOTAL – Compound B
5. CASTROL – Grippa – 33
2. MOBIL – Mobilux EP 1
6 Chain Coating Annually
3. CALTEX – Multifax EP 1
1. SHELL – Albida EP2
2. TOTAL – Epexa 2
Bearing
3. CHEVRON – Starplex EP2
7 seat & Grease gun Annually
4. CHEVRON – Multifak EP 2
Shaft
5. MOBIL – Mobilith SHC PM 460
6. SHELL – GADUS S3 V220C 2
Roller 2. MOBIL – Mobilux EP 1
8 Grease gun Annually
Train 3. CALTEX – Multifax EP 1
486
1.12. Inspection and Maintenance Checklist

1.12.1. Mechanical items
Check Elements to Criteria for Acceptance /
Item Action to be Taken
Points be Checked Rejection
At Each Operation
The lever should be shifted
smoothly and clutch should
Clutch should be
Operation be engaged/disengaged
operated properly.
satisfactorily (good clutch
Clutch performance is assured)
Overheat
These should not vary If their levels are too
abnormal
significantly from their levels high disassemble
sound
Hoist in normal position and adjust.
vibration
Overheat
These should not vary If their levels are too
abnormal
significantly from their levels high disassemble
sound
in normal position and adjust.
Reducer vibration
The amount of lubricant If the level is below
Amount of
should be within range of oil the specified level,
lubricant
level gauge refill
Interval: Monthly
There should be no drift, soil,
or sand in the sealed section,
Cleaning roller section, and gate
General Clean up
status groove or inside the gate leaf.
No dirt of foreign matter
should be attached
Repair or check in
Vibration, There should be no abnormal
detail (check after
Gate abnormal, vibration or sound during the
Gate leaves occurrence of earth
sound gate operation
(overall quake)
structure) Nothing should interfere with
Angled Adjust or check in
opening or closing of the
hanging detail
gate.
Drainage
Main and
hole and air There should be no clogging. Clean up
End girders
vent
Gates with Sealed Repair or check in
Accept water oozing out but
Roller section Water detail (check after
not spouting out of the
Trains/Wheel (Rubber leakage occurrence of earth
sealing surfaces
Tracks seals) quake)
There should be no obstacle
(bars, plates, tools etc.) on
Clear away any
Cleaning the pier or hoist or in the
General obstacle or clean
status winch room. There should be
up.
no severe dirt and no foreign
Hoist
matter should be visible.
Tighten additionally
Clutch
There should be no loose or or install new bolts if
mounting Looseness
missing bolts. any bolts are
bolts
missing.
487
using Toque
Reducer Wrench upto
There should be no loose or
mounting Looseness specified tightening
missing bolts.
bolts torque or install new
bolts if any bolts are
missing.
The drum bearing and
Identify the cause
Operation intermediate gear bearing
Winding and repair.
should move smoothly.
drum
Bearings should be free from
bearing and
severe stains of discoloration
intermediate
Lubrication from lubricant but may be Refill
gear bearing
slightly stained with lubricant
at their ends.
After cleaning with a
wiping cloth apply
new lubricant. The
Visible dirt lubricant should be
No dirt or dust should be
foreign wiped clean with
visible on wire rope
matter cleaning oil once
Wire Rope every two years and
replaced with fresh
lubricant
the wire rope surface should Apply lubricant
be slightly wet with lubricant using a brush or a
Lubrication
(to the extent that the surface wiping clot (wire
feels sticky when touched) rope oil grease)
Loose lock There should be no loose
Tighten and secure.
nuts double nuts
Adjust. When the
When the gate is at its lower gate is at its lower
Wire rope position, the right and left position, swing the
Rope and
length wire ropes should have rope with a width of
clamp
proper slack of equal length. approximately 200
to 300 mm.
Install new cotter
Cotter pins are properly
Socket pins if any cotter
installed.
pins are missing
Remove the see-
through cover,
clean the indicator
The see-through front cover face with a wiping
Position Mist on
should have good cloth and dry the
indicator indicator face
transparency. internal parts on a
fine day. If
necessary replace
the packing.
Repair if the
Plain The temperature should be
Over heating temperature gets
bearing around 70°C
high often.
488
Bearing should be free from

Wear or severe stains or discoloration
abrasion on from lubricant but may be Refill.
the metal slightly stained with lubricant
at their ends
Interval: Half Yearly
Gate Leaves Deflection, There should be no abnormal Reduce the load
Gate (overall deformation deflection, deformation or immediately and
structure) damage damage. check in detail.
Tap bolts Looseness, There should be no loose or
or install new bolts
and nuts detachment mossing bolts and nuts
For Roller or nuts
Trains of Damage Repair or check in
There should be no damage
Gates deformation, detail (check after
Track plate or deformation wear or
wear or occurrence of earth
abrasion
abrasion quake
Wear or
There should have no wear
abrasion,
or abrasion or damage, and
Gate with Wheel and damage,
no abnormal condition during
Wheel Allied Cradle operation, Check in details
the gate operation. Wheels
Tracks Assembly abnormal
should move smoothly on the
sound,
Wheel Tracks.
movement
The amount of lubricant If the level is below
Amount of
should be within range of oil the specified level,
lubrication
level guage refill
Change the
lubricant if it is
contaminated.
There should be no large Change the full
Clutch
amount of metal power or amount of lubricant
Quality of
moisture and lubricant should at first year’s
lubrication
have high level of turbidity or maintenance. Note
discoloration. that the
contaminant is
deposited at bottom
of the clutch
Change the
Hoist
lubricant if it is
contaminated.
Change the full
There should be no large amount of lubricant
amount of metal power or at first year’s
Quality of
Reducer moisture and lubricant should maintenance. After
lubricant
have high level of turbidity or that change the
discoloration lubricant every 2 to
3 years. Note that
the contaminant is
deposited at bottom
of the reducer.
The indicated position should
Position
Operation matich the actual lifting Adjust
indicator
height.
489
Interval: Annually
There should be no Repair by painting
General Painting corrosion, blister, peeling or or point the entire
cracks surface
Bolts and Looseness, There should be no loose or or supply new bolts
nuts detachment missing bolts and nuts. and nuts to replace
the detached
Deflection, There should be no abnormal
Check in detail
deformed deflection or deformation
Main and
Main and side girders have a Repair or check in
End girders Decrease in
Gate thickness greater than the detail (check after
thickness
design thickness earth quake)
If no specific tolerance is
given, any deformation
should be at a low level and
Deformation Check in detail
distributed over a broad
Skin plates zone, its and height shoult be
with ½ of the thickness
Skin plates should have a
Decrease in
thickness greater than the Check in detail
thickness
design thickness
Wear or
abrasion,
Roller Train, damage, There should have no wear
Rollers and operation, or abrasion or damage, and
Check in detail
Spacer and abnormal no abnormal condition during
Side Pates sound and the gate operation
jamming of
rollers
Apply
Roller train The bearing nshould be
Lubrication recommended
Bearing properly lubricated
lubricant
Roller Trains Aging,
Sealed
of Gates derange
section There should not be any Repair / replace
deformation,
(Rubber abnormal condition after check in detail
wear or
seals)
abrasion
Damage, There should be no damage Repair or check in
deformation or deformation detail
Sill beam
Water There should be no water Repair or check in
leakage leakage detail
Damage, There should be no damage Repair or check in
deformation or deformation detail
Seal plate
Water There should be no water Repair or check in
leakage leakage detail
Aging,
Sealed
derange
Gate with section There should not be any Repair / replace
deformation,
Wheel Track (Rubber abnormal condition after check in detail
wear or
seals)
abrasion
490
Conform the straightness of Repair / adjust or

Damage / the track using suitable check in detail
Wheel
pitting instrument. Visually check (check after
Tracks
deformation the pitting on the bearing occurrence of earth
surface of rail track quake)
Rubber rings should not be
Misalignment Perform alignment
heavily worn out.
Wear or Replace any heavily
Shaft There should be no
abrasion on worn out rubber
coupling significant misalignment
rubber rings rings.
Gear tooth surface should be
Lubrication Refill
lubricated sufficiently
The total number of visible
broken wires should not
Wire
exceed 10% of the total Replace
breakage
number of wire in on one
stand in one day.
Loss in diameter should
Wire or
within 7% of normal diameter Replace
Wire Rope abrasion
of wire rope
The wire rope should have no
irregularity protruding wires
Deformation or strands. Partially cage
Replace
corrosion shaped strands, kinked
strands or broken or corroded
wires
The cover should be free
from deformation or damage
Hoist and should be clear of any
Machine
Deformation parts, particularly rotating Repair
cover
parts or there should be no
possibility of its contacting
nay rotating parts.
Machine Tighten additionally
When shaken by hands, the
cover Looseness, or install new bolts if
cover should not move and
mounting detachment any bolts are
make any ratting sound
bolts missing
The table should remain in
the same location as installed
Machine (carefully check the winch Perform centering
Shifting
frame with a horizontal strung wire adjustment
rope because it can move
easily)
There should be no damage
Damage such as cracks. (Carefully Repair
check the welded areas)
When the shaft is misaligned
by 0.3mm or less proper
Wear or
Plain tooth bearing and gear Replace the bearing
abrasion on
bearing bearing and gear meshing metal
the metal
should be maintained during
the gate operation
491
Bearing
Damage There should be no cracks Repair or replace
housing
Bearing
There should be no loose
mounting Looseness Tighten additionally
bolts
bolts
1.12.2. Electric System for hoist control & SCADA
Elements Control
Check Criteria for acceptance
to be (Inspection) Action
Points or rejection
controlled method
At each Operation
Check and identify what
There should be no causes the overloading of
considerable variation the winch, and remove
from the normal current. the cause.
The current values Foreign object attached to
Current Use of a should not exceed the a gate leaf roller.
values ammeter rated current shown on Damaged gear
the motor nameplate. Seized bearing
(they should not exceed Insufficient lubrication
+20% of the current in Open-Phase operation
normal operation.) Freezing
Brake failure
The voltage values
Voltage Use of a should be within a range
Check the power source.
Values voltmeter of + 10% of the rated
voltage.
Overheat, These should not
Visual check
abnormal significantly differ from Check the cause and
and check by
sound, their levels in normal perform maintenance
touch
vibration operation.
Motors The gate should stop
Performanc
0.1-0.5 seconds after the
e (Breaking Visual Check Adjust
“STOP” button is
efficiency)
pressed.
There should be no dirt,
Dirt build- such as oil stains and
Visual Check Clean Up.
up dust (particularly in the
braking section.)
Interval: Monthly
There should be no
cracks or other damage
Wear or in the lining, and dust Clean up or replace any
Visual Check
abrasion from a worn-out lining heavily worn-out linings.
should not be widely
scattered.
Visual Check
Tighten additionally, or
and There should be no loose
Looseness install new bolts if any
hammering or missing bolts.
bolts are missing.
test
492
Interval: Annually
Use of a
Insulation
insulation The values should be 5
resistance Check the cause.
resistance M ohm or greater.
values
tester
The values should be 10
ohm or less for motor
Use of a with a rated voltage of
Ground
ground 300 V or greater. The
resistance Check the cause.
resistance values should be 100
values
tester ohm or less for motor
with a rated voltage of
300 V or less.
There should be no
uneven contact, and the
Use of a Adjust or replace the
Clearance limits specified in the
feeler gauge linings.
brake operation manual
should be observed.
1.12.3. Electric Control Panel for Hoist System

Controlled
Elements (inspected) Control
Check Criteria for acceptance or
to be at the (Inspection) Action
Points rejection
controlled following method
intervals
There should be no dirt, Wipe off with a

stains or damage on the wiping cloth, or
voltmeter, ammeter, replace.
Cleaning
Visual position indicator and other Wipe them clean with
Status Monthly
Check instruments. There should a removing brush or
be no excessive forces on a wiping cloth.
the gate hinge should be in Apply lubricant for
perfect condition. smooth.
(General Replace any
) defective dust
packings. Open the
Dry Visual Open the cover and inspect
cover, and dry the
condition Check and the internal parts visually
Monthly internal parts on a
of internal check by and by touch. They should
fine day. If hearts
parts touch be dry.
are installed,
replace any
defective heaters.
Visual There should be no rust, Touch up or paint
Painting Annually
Check blisters; peelings or cracks. the entire surface.
Replace any
When an indicator lamp is burned out lamps. If
activated, it should light up. there no burned out
Indicator Indicator At each Visual All indicator lams should lamps, it is either
lamps lamps operation Check light up when the LAMP the indicator lamp
TEST push button switch is device or the circuit
turned ON. that has failed.
Repair or replace.
493
Adjust so that the

indicator readings
match the actual
gate position.
Visual The actual gate position (or
1) Replace
Position At each Check and the position signal
Operation any broken
Indicator operation measurem transmitted) should match
power
ent the indicated position.
fuses.
2) Repair any
detached
wires
The push button switches
should properly function
when operated to open, Replace any
Push
At each Visual stop or close the gate. The defective push
button Operation
operation Check push button switches button switches
switch
should also function with new ones.
properly when operated to
open or close the rest hook.
As dirt and dust
There should be no build up inside the
booming sound generated magnet, remove
during operation or other them or replace the
abnormal sound (buzzer- magnet with a new
Electrom like sound) if the contractor, one. This is mainly
Operating Semi- Contractor
agnetic when switched on, starts due to an abnormal
Status Annually activation
contactors vibrating, during which it drop of power
turns on and off several source voltage
times before going into caused b y the
operation, it has a problem starting current of
. the motor. Check
the detail.
There should be no
Check to make sure
booming sound generated
that the wires and
during operation or other
relay unit are
abnormal sound (buzzer-
secured firmly. If the
like sound) if the relay,
Auxiliary Operating Semi- Relay control circuit
when switched on, starts
relays Status Annually activation voltage is normal,
vibrating, during which it
the relay unit must
turns on and off several
be defective.
times before going into
Replace it with a
operation, it has a problem
new one.
.
There should be no
Molded booming sound generated
case during operation or other Replace any
Operating Semi- Breaker
circuit abnormal sound (buzzer- defective MCCBS
Status Annually activation
breakers like sound). There should with new ones.
(MCCBs) be no smell like something
is burning.
Use of a
Loosenes There should be no loose Tighten
Bolts Annually test
s bolts. additionally.
hammer
Open the cover, push the Replace any
3E Operating Semi- Visual
green test button to activate defective relays
relays Status Annually Check
the relay. The relay should with new ones.
494
function properly. Push the

orange button to reset.
Compariso
n with Compare the
Voltage values measurements with those
Voltmeter Replace with a new
values measured by reference instruments
Ammete Annually voltmeter or an
current by (with accuracy of class 1.).
r ammeter.
values reference Measurement errors should
instrument not exceed 2.
s
There should be no loose
terminals. There should be
Visual
Connectio no broken wires at the
check and Replace with a new
n status of Annually terminal end due to
check by wire.
Wiring terminals vibration or corrosion.
touch
Check by pulling the wires
lightly.
Wiring Visual The sheath should be free Replace with a new
Annually
Status Check from any damage by heat. wire.
Insulation Remove any visible
Measurem The values should be 5M
resistance Annually dirt or dust. If this
ent ohm greater.
values fails to cure the
problem, remove
and adjust
The values should be 10
equipment that
ohms or less for motors
Insulation appears to be fault,
Ground with a rated voltage of 300
Measurem and repair or
resistance Annually V or greater. The values
ent replace it. Wipe
values should be 100 ohms or less
clean the external
for motors with a rated
lead-out terminal
voltage of 300V or less.
block. Re-terminate
the cables.
Visual
check by If the lighting does not turn
Lighting Operating opening on the fluorescent lamp is Replace with new
Annually
inside Status and dosing not installed securely or the lighting.
the main glow lamp is defective.
door
If the heater is operating Replace the heater
Visual when the outdoor if the heater wire is
Space Operating check by temperature set by the broken. If the
Annually
heater Status switching thermostat, the thermostat thermostat is
ON/OFF is also in good working defective, replace it
order. too.
1.13. SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)

SYSTEM
SCADA is an automation control system for remote monitoring and control that
operates with coded signals over communication channels (using typically one
communication channel per remote station). In simple terms SCADA receives
information through sensors from remote terminal units and sends to computers
loaded with SCADA software, which process, analyze and display the data in order to
help operators to monitor the working and improve the efficiency of the system.
495
1.13.1. Modernization of Barrages

Barrages in Punjab were constructed in the period almost 70-120 years back. The
Irrigation Department has started rehabilitation and modernization projects of
Barrages which involve replacement of old mechanical operation of barrage gates with
electrification and installation of control system for gate operation in addition to the
civil works.
Before rehabilitation and modernization of the barrages, the gate lifting mechanism
was manual by rotating the hoisting shaft with a lever which was a slow and time taking
activity. In rehabilitation, electrical motor assisted operation of barrage and canal gates
system is provided which is controlled through an electrical control panel (LCP). In
addition, a fully automated, intelligent control system is also provided such that the
gates can be remotely opened/ closed through commands initiated from an HMI
(Human Machine Interface) terminal placed in a central control room at the barrage.
Moreover, a sophisticated software and hardware is also installed for acquiring water
discharge data through barrage and canal gates including data transmission to the
designated remote offices.
Control Room operation at barrages is now very sophisticated and sensitive in nature
due to provisioning of SCADA system for automation of barrage and canal gates,
water discharge monitoring, automated data collection and transmission etc.
A schematic of the SCADA system at Barrages is shown in Fig-6.
1.13.2. SCADA System at Barrages
The scope of SCADA system at Barrages includes the following:
• Control, Monitoring and Telecommunication equipment in the central control
room.
• Necessary hardware and software for:
i. Human machine interface (HMI) for SCADA.
ii. Remote, intelligent control of gates from the control room through the HMI
iii. Determination and display on HMI of gate positions of barrage and off taking
canals.
iv. Acquisition of water level and discharges of barrage& off taking canal.
v. CCTV surveillance system to remotely control, and transmit information
regarding status of each camera from the Site to the Control Room.
vi. Two Way Radio Dispatch / Wireless Communication System covering entire
barrage area (i.e. approx. 4 Km)
vii. Establishment of data monitoring Workstations at designated remote
office(s)of Punjab Irrigation Department.
1.13.3. The SCADA Works can be divided into the following sub-system:
1. Instrumentation control and monitoring system
2. Video Surveillance system
3. Three node barrage data WAN for monitoring at different remote office.
Description about each sub-system is given below:
496
Figure 6: SCADA System Architecture for Jinnah Barrage

1. Instrumentation Control and Monitoring
The different sensors under the control of the PLCs (programmable logic controllers),
acquire information from the field mounted sensors and after processing, transfer the
same to the various servers for further processing, display and archiving in the desired
format.
497
i. Motor Current Sensors

Current sensors are provided for motor protection in case of locked rotor or over
current because of excessive mechanical loads. Current sensors are inductive current
transformers type.
ii. Water Level Sensors
The water level sensors are non-invasive ultrasonic type. These are deployed at key
locations for measurement of pond levels.
iii. Gate Position Sensors
The gate position sensors are based on linear or angular measurement technique.
Optical technique for measuring gate opening is generally deployed. The sensors
retain their count or position information in case of removal of electrical power.
iv. Through hardwired inputs necessary data from Local Control Pavel is also
connected to PLC for monitoring.
2. Video Surveillance System
The Video surveillance system comprises PTZ (Pan, Tilt, Zoom) IP cameras, power
supplies and video recording equipment enabling selected locations on the barrage
and on ground within the premises to be monitored remotely from the barrage control
building.
Video archives for past seven days can be maintained to facilitate post facto analyses
of any untoward incidents. Video surveillance system will also serve as a security tool
to focus nuisance action of Barrage site.
3. Three Node barrage data WAN
This sub-system is responsible for acquiring data about water levels, gate positions
and water discharges and transferring the same upon demand to the different remote
nodes located at respective office of Chief Engineer Irrigation and Superintending
Engineer Irrigation etc .as per requirement.
1.13.4. Functional Description
Functions of the each sub-system listed above have following key features.
I. Instrumentation Control & Monitoring Sub-System
This sub system enables operation and monitoring of the Barrage and Canal Head
Regulators Gates in a pattern described below:
➢ Gate Operation / Control
The gate lifting mechanism for gates on the barrage and the canal is manual/ motor
assisted operation. A fully automated, intelligent control system is deployed such that
the gates can be remotely opened/closed through commands initiated from an HMI
(Human Machine Interface) terminal provided in the Central Control Room located at
barrage. The mode of control is adaptable to any error conditions including jammed
498
gates and include built in intelligence to prevent damage to the gates, the gate hoisting
mechanism and associated structure by shutting down the gate hoist motors and
raising appropriate alarms in case of abnormal situations. In addition to the remote
control, local control of gates is also provided whereby electrical control panels located
on the barrage in close proximity to the gates which can enable switching on and off
of gate control motors by staff stationed at the gate itself. Interlocks (safety and
administrative) is built in to prevent unauthorized operation of gates from both the
control building and the local control panels.
The key features of the gate control system are as under:
• Successive Gate Opening
Standard operating procedure dictates that a particular gate is not operated in
isolation, but rather openings of neighboring gates are successively adjusted in
relation to the opening of a particular gate. This successive gate opening is determined
by the regulation staff present at the site. This practice is adopted to prevent abnormal
hydraulic stresses from developing which can cause damage to the barrage structure.
This existing practice has been built into the control algorithm so that the degree of
adjacent gate openings are determined and implemented automatically based on the
primary gate opening. The procedure of determination of adjacent gate openings is
implemented into the control software.
• Incremental Gate Operation
Under this mode of operation, a gate raise or lower command shall restrict the
movement of gates to no more than one foot at a time. Accordingly a command issued
at the HMI to raise a gate by three feet shall cause the gate to be raised by one foot
and then pause for an adjustable duration ranging from one to five minutes followed
by two subsequent cycles for raising one foot and pausing till the desired gate
movement has been achieved. Under local control gates shall move by no more than
one foot at a time upon pushing of the gate raise or lower button by the operator.
• Switching between Local/Remote mode of operation
The system operator can choose between local and remote control modes from the
control building HMI. Local/remote mode of operation shall also be selectable from the
local control panel for each gate. The Local/remote switch at the control panel have
priority over HMI selection of local and remote modes.
• Automated gate control
An automatic mode of gate control is also provided through software control whereby
the gates of barrage and canal can be automatically adjusted based upon
predetermined water releases into the canal and downstream of barrage. The criteria
for gate control are programmed into the SCADA system as per requirement.
Capability is also built in to the system for the operators to manually override this
feature.
499
The Automatic mode of gate control is programmed in SCADA System at Jinnah

Barrage to handle any sudden shutdown condition of Hydro Power Plant constructed
at up-stream. However, this application is not considered at other Barrages having
similar SCADA System.
➢ Alarms and Protective Features
The following abnormal conditions have been prevented against:
❖ Attempted over travel of gates beyond designed mechanical limits resulting from
failure of operator to shut off the gate hoisting motors once the gates have achieved
the limit of their travel. This protection is implemented in both manual and remote
control modes.
❖ Automatic shutting down of gate hoisting motors in case of stuck or jammed gates.
This protection is based on sensing abnormal motor loading observed by the real
time measurement of motor intake currents.
❖ Pond water level beyond safe limits
❖ Failure of gate position sensor.
❖ AC Power supply faults
❖ Failure of optical fiber ring
The system also generates alarms for any abnormal conditions including the above
situations.
➢ Instrumentation Description
• Motor current Sensors
A current sensor is provided for motor protection. If the rotor is prevented from turning
and the motor is energized, heavy current is drawn similar to starting current but rotor
damage can occurs before the typical acceleration time elapses.
The current sensor stops a timer set shorter than the locked rotor damage time. This
timer shall be activated when the motor starts. Normal motor starting is identified when
current increases from zero to above full load in a short time. If the current sensor fails
to detect current decay over time, it shall trip the supply when the timer expires. If the
current sensor detects decay over time, it shall reset the timer.
• Water Level Sensors
Water level sensors detect the level of barrage water from the bottom to the top
surface. The level measurement shall be continuous. Continuous level sensors
measure level within a specified range.
The water level sensors can detect the level and update the status of the water in the
Control Room with the help of PLCs.
• Gate Position Sensors
The gate position sensor (GPS) provided are of absolute optical encoder type to
prevent wear from turning. The GPS are mechanically coupled to the gate hoisting
mechanism such that it rotates due to the opening or closing of the gate. This rotary
500
motion is electronically converted to information about the position of the gate. Two
GPS per each gate are installed for redundancy. Provision is built in the software to
compare the values to the two GPS as a check of bona fide operation and isolate a
GPS found to be defective.
Other techniques like use of inclinometer is considered for measuring Gate position of
radial gates.
II. Video Surveillance Sub-System
The Video Surveillance system comprises of a number of camera sites transmitting
digital (i.e., encoded) images to the Network Video Recorder (NVR) installed at control
room and receiving camera control commands from the system operator or the system
monitor located at the barrage. The Video Surveillance system includes the control
room head-end electronic subsystem, which receives, decodes, and disseminates
images and data from the field and commands the control and display infrastructure.
Video surveillance system serves as a barrage security tool. System design is flexible
to permit extension to give video coverage of key areas of the barrage to help identify
any unusual activity. All CCTV cameras are mounted on a suitable structure poles to
allow a clear view of barrage and off taking canal etc.
➢ Functional Description of Video Surveillance
The Video Surveillance system is being managed with commands and control from a
system operator who may decide which visual images should be collected from the
camera sites. The system operator shall prescribe those images through control of the
CCTV camera's field of view with the pan, tilt, and zoom feature. The Video
Surveillance system manage the transmission of the prescribed images based on the
system operator's designated monitoring terminal in the control room. The images are
processed and, at the option of the system operator, displayed as commanded on
monitors and/or wall mounted LCD mimic board. The system operator has the ability
to control all internal and external functions of the camera assembly from the
monitoring terminal.
III. Three node Barrage Data WAN
The three node barrage data WAN (wide area network) comprises:
i. Transmission and receiving equipment at the remote nodes.
ii. Central transmission and receiving equipment in the control room at
Barrage.
The system is capable of data transmission by provision of point-to-point WAN links
from the Control Room to the specified remote nodes as per requirement. The type of
information transmitted from the barrage comprises gate position, water level and
instantaneous and archived water discharge data. The following solution is deployed
to accomplish the job using IT Switch/Router for data transfer in a secure manner.
A VPN (virtual private network) is provided comprising dedicated virtual or switched
data channel using connectivity by third party bandwidth providers.
501
1.13.5. Barrage Wide CAN (Campus Area Network)

The control room SCADA/HMI PCs (personal computers), all transducers, control able
elements and controllers are interconnected by a CAN (Campus area network). CAN
is based on an active Ethernet architecture with a passive ODN (Optical Distribution
Network). Mono Mode Optical Fiber cable (deployed in self-healing ring loop network
topology) serves as the telecommunications backbone interlinking various nodes
including Ethernet switches and the dual redundant SCADA PCs. The CAN carry both
voice and data. Data includes measurements generated by instruments, status of
various SCADA system elements, monitoring and control commands. CAN
communication backbone is deployed for the data transmission between PLCs and
the control room.
1.13.6. Control Room Facilities
The Control Room is housed in the purpose built Control Building established at the
Barrages. The facilities in the control center are categorized as:
• Hardware facilities
• Software facilities
The hardware includes:
• A dual redundant SCADA Server
• Historian
• Data Archival server
• Engineer/operator’s workstation
• Video Display units (VDU)
• 85” LCD/LED VDU for dynamic mimic board.
• Input Devices
• Laser Printer
• AC Uninterruptible Power supply (UPS)
The software includes:
• Operating system
• SCADA/HMI software
General description of above facilities is as under:
➢ Dual redundant SCADA Server
SCADA system with two centralized redundant servers works one being primary and
the other as a secondary. In the event of failure of the primary server, the secondary
server shall take over automatically without any user intervention. Engineer /operator
workstations are connected to the servers over dual redundant networks.
➢ Historian
The Historian Server stores the data along with the sequence of events and acts as a
data server for Microsoft Windows-based client applications.
502
The Historian Server is the heart of the Barrage Historian System. It is able to get the
data and route it in real time throughout the Historian System and entire information
infrastructure, making it possible for everyone to work from a common set of real data.
Operators, engineers and managers, may connect to the Historian Server and view
manufacturing data from Historian Data Storage.
➢ Data Archival server
An optical, write-able digital video disk drive serve as data archive which can store
historical water network data such as gate openings and water levels in real time for
later access.
➢ Engineer/Operator’s Workstation
This is an IBM compatible server computer based on the Intel Core i5 microprocessor
and equipped with 4GB of RAM and 500 GB hard disk drive (minimum).
➢ Video Display Unit
This is 60 inch LED monitors each connected with servers and operator’s
workstations.
➢ 85 inch” LED VDU for Dynamic Mimic Board
This is a 85 inch LED display capable of graphically displaying the status of Barrage
and off-taking Canal
➢ Input Devices
A keyboard, mouse or LCD panel serves as means of human-machine interfaces
between the operator and the main processor.
➢ Printer
An A3/A4 size laser printer for reports and hard copies as desired by the operator is
provided in the control room for printing of drawing and hard copies.
➢ Operating System
The operating system is user friendly based on Microsoft Windows. It is structured to
have an open architecture, which allows the system to run in a multitasking
environment with support for on-line, dynamic data exchange with other applications
such as expert systems, spreadsheets, and database programs.
1.13.7. SCADA and HMI Software
The SCADA and HMI software are standard off the shelf package(s) configured to suit
the Barrage requirements but with minimal customization. It includes the following
functions:
• Data acquisition.
• Alarm/Events processing.
• Data computation and logical analysis.
• Supervisory control.
503
• Logging.
• Reporting and Printing.
1.13.8. Human Machine Interface (HMI)
Human machine interface (HMI) is a session interface between the operator and
SCADA; it has many graphical user interface (GUI) windows, which have different
functions. The main functions configured for Jinnah Barrage are as following：
1) User Login
Operator enters his user name and password to enter the system, the operator has
two levels, Administrator and Client. Operators at different levels have different
passwords, they have different privileges. Administrators can browse screen, query
data, output file, change the alarm tag and conditions, and control gate operation.
Whereas the Client can only browse screen, query data and output file, but cannot
control the barrage gates.
2) Supervisory function
It is responsible to display the overall information about monitoring systems such as
water level, water discharge, gate position, status of the hoist , LAN status and alarm
state etc.
Graphical interface with multiple windows is available; operator can change a
window to display different information and can select the tag and date to query
historical data.
The prompt of real-time alarm is always displayed in the current window; Historical
data can be inquired to generate a report text. The Hoist status and alarm messages
are displayed with text and indications.
The water discharge of Main Barrage and Thal Canal are also displayed on the
interface.
Real-time alarm & events information is displayed. The attributes of alarm\event
information include multiple field, such as type of alarm, level of alarm, date & time,
operator name, group name, alarm limit, value of variable, etc.
Operator can browse and query all historical data records, and trend curve can be
generated based on the water level and discharge data. Alarm, messages and
historical data can be generated in EXCEL format to take a print.
1.13.9. Gate Control Function
When the Local control panel LCP is switched to remote mode of operation, the
operator can operate those gates of the Barrage and Canal though HMI/SCADA
terminal in the control room. All the gates are configured in several groups; when
several gates running at same time, the starting interval time is limited for each
adjacent gate to reduce vibration in the Barrage.
504
Moreover, the movement of gates is restricted by a gate raise or lower command to

the extent that not more than one foot at a time. Accordingly a command issued to
raise a gate by three feet shall cause the gate to be raised by one foot and then
pause for an adjustable duration ranging from one to five minutes followed by two
subsequent cycles for raising by one foot each and pausing till the desired gate
movement has been achieved.
The operator can select one or more gates for operation. When he presses the
raising or lowering button on the HMI screen, the specified gates will operate
accordingly. If stop button is pressed or limit switch becomes active or hoist
malfunctions etc. the specified gate will be stopped.
Auto gate control function is available only when Remote mode is selected by the
operator. AUTO control mode maybe applied for Main Barrage and Thal canal gates.
The operation of AUTO gate control depends on fixing the water level or value of
water discharges in the system; In this case the opening of the selected gates shall
be regulated automatically without operator to maintain preset values of water level
or water discharge of barrage or canal.
1.13.10. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
All the subsystems of SCADA comprising HMI/SCADA Workstations, Servers, all
components of video surveillance system, PLC panels and associated field
instruments have powered through redundant UPS system at all times. True Sine
Wave on-line (double conversion) AC UPS of 8 hours autonomy is installed in the
Control Building to power Data Acquisition subsystem and the sensors.
12 Vol Battery sets (maintenance free type) are used as battery backup for UPS
system. The selected battery is specially manufactured for long design life at least 10
years.
The main advantage of on-line UPS is its ability to provide electrical firewall between
the incoming utility power and sensitive electronic equipment.
1.13.11. Maintenance of SCADA System
Maintenance of SCADA System covers testing, running, diagnostics, adjustment,
updating of software, antivirus definitions at regular intervals, recording of backup
data, hard disk image files, routine maintenance with respect to testing and diagnosis
of the system, PLC performance data logging in noting down the critical parameters
etc.
Maintenance work include of general check and function test as per the pain. Operator
shall clean and keep safe environment at every day. It is recommended to keep the
indoor temperature range within 0~40o. the operator shall truthfully fill in the daily
logbook. Daily inspection needs to be performed by caretakers including but not limited
to daily cleaning and simple visual checks of the facility. Technicians can use a blower
(flow is about 2~3m3/min) or clean brush (width 100mm) to clean the debris or dust in
cabinet. If technicians find any of injure / rusted / abnormal situation it shall be replaced
or repaired timely.
505
The following safety prevention needs to be practiced for efficient operation of the
SCADA system.
i. Smoke prohibited in Central Control building.
ii. The UPS System loads should be not more than prescribed design limits and it
is also forbit to increase any electric facilities on the installed UPS before
detailed analysis.
iii. Preventive measures to be taken against rain leakage, water remains in cable
trench and groove of cabling system.
iv. It is not permissible to store any other items except equipment in the cabinet or
the console of the control room.
v. It is not allowed to change the configuration of hardware or software such as in
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), Servers, Computers, Communication
Switches etc.
vi. It is not recommended installing any other software in computer of the SCADA
System.
vii. In case of any abnormal smell, big sound or smoke, the operator should take
immediate action of cutting off the breaker between the batteries room and the
power supply.
viii. In case of any problems scenario the operator should refer to the relevant
technical instructions and record the experience of the problem.
General Check
General Check Plan is given in the table;
Table 2: General Check
Maintenance
Device Components Method Task
Cycle
Fan Electricity and
One week
Door-switch test
Switch
Data Acquisition PLC Clean & replace
Panel (DAP) SPD spare & record
One week Visual check
Fuse
Terminal
connection
Door-switch Electricity and
One week
Lamp test
Central Control Switch Clean & replace
Panel (CCP) PLC spare & record
One week Visual check
Terminal
connection
Optical
Distribution One week Visual check Clean & Record
Frame (ODF)
UPS One week Visual check Clean & Record
Battery One week Visual check Clean & Record
506
One week Visual check Clean & Record

OP1 One week Visual check Clean & Record
OP2 One week Visual check Clean & Record
SCADA1 Visual check Clean & Record
SCADA2 Visual check Clean & Record
Data Server Visual check Clean & Record
Web Server Visual check Clean & Record
VPN Router Visual check Clean & Record
Console Desk
Video Manage
Visual check Clean & Record
Station
Video Switch Visual check Clean & Record
NVR Visual check Clean & Record
VHF Radio
repeater
VHF Radio
Manage Station
Cable tray One month Visual check Clean & Record
Water Level
One month Visual check Clean & Record
Sensor (WLS)
Gate Position
One month Visual check Clean & Record
Sensor (GPS)
1.14. Duties and Responsibilities of Staff at Barrage for
Mechanical/Electrical Works:
Sub Engineer Mechanical Section has been overall incharge of the maintenance
and repair of all the mechanical equipment installed at the Barrage site. However,
Sulemanki, Khanki, Taunsa, Jinnah and Balloki barrages have been rehabilitated and
gate operation has been motorized and remote controlled, while other barrages
Trimmu, Panjnad, in all these barrages, electric motors, control panels and
computerized control systems are being installed for operation of gates. Sub Engineer
Electrical under Director Electrical has been created at all rehabilitate Barrages who
shall look after the maintenance of electric appliances. The duties of Sub Engineer
Mechanical/Electrical are as under;
1. Sub Engineer Mechanical shall be responsible for all repairs and maintenance
works relating to mechanical (Gate, Hoists, and Superstructure), Generator,
Workshop at Barrage.
2. The Electrical Sub Engineer shall be responsible for operation and
maintenance of all electric appliances, control panels, lighting and wiring
systems etc. installed at the barrage.
3. These officials shall maintain logbooks for routine checkup and maintenance
such as lubrication at different points, checking for smooth operation of different
components and cleaning by Mechanical Sub Engineer and checking of electric
appliances cleaning/dusting of electric panels, limit switches etc. by the
Electrical Sub Engineer. The items to be checked and maintained shall be
clearly mentioned in the logbook with time intervals, and logbooks shall be
written daily/weekly.
507
4. Day to-day experience on operation and difficulties encountered shall be

correctly recorded in the log book so as to be available for studying the behavior
of various components/gadgets, as well as to be useful for further
investigations. A monthly report of the month’s activities shall be submitted to
the SDO incharge and XEN besides Director Electrical.
5. These officials shall ensure that the workers deputed for checking and
maintenance know their job and are performing their duties regularly. New
incumbents shall be properly trained about their duties.
6. They should personally check working of atleast 20% of all the gates & Hoists
and control systems, weekly, and observations found should be entered in
logbooks.
7. They should ensure that maintenance staff has adequate tools/equipment for
routine checking, cleaning, dusting and repairs.
8. They should ensure that relevant lubricants (oils and greases), filters,
mechanical parts (oil seals, bearings, brake pads, rollers for Roller trains etc)
and electric parts (fuses, relays, limit switches etc) to be used for preventive
maintenance are available in stock.
9. Before start of flood season, these officials shall check operation of all barrage
gates, generator and electric motors of gates, control panels, remote control
system (SCADA) and submit a report to the SDO incharge and Director
Mechanical Barrages.
10. Before start of annual closure the Sub Engineer Mechanical shall
• check leakages from all the gates (bottom and sides)
• check alignment of gates
• check condition of ropes
• check missing rollers of Roller trains
• prepare list of parts required during the closure and
• plan procurement before start of annual closure
• make arrangements for adequate labour and materials for timely
completion of closure works
11. Similarly, the Sub Engineer Electrical shall also check all electric items, wiring,
control panels etc. and prepare list of items required to be repaired/replaced
and plan for their procurement before commencement of closure.
12. At the end of annual closure, both the officials shall check the working of all the
gates and their components and a detailed report indicating parts replaced or
repairs carried out gate wise, shall be prepared and submitted to the SDO
incharge.
13. Sub Divisional Officer in charge shall check the equipments and Sub
Engineer’s logbooks randomly and also at the end of each month, record his
certificate on the log books and generate monthly report for Executive
Engineer’s office.
14. Executive Engineer Incharge shall check the Sub Engineers’ log books and
all the gate equipments by-annually i.e. during annual closure and at the start
508
of flood season and record his remarks in the logbook.

15. During annual closure, XEN should check all the underwater running
equipments i.e. roller trains, roller guards, Guide rollers and fixed wheel etc,
and record his certificate about the correctness and operational reliability of
these equipments.
16. Director Electrical & Mechanical Barrages
Main Responsibilities and Tasks
Managing and supervising entire operational activities of “SCADA and Electro
Mechanical Works” in the Irrigation Department. Ensure reliable SCADA &
Electro Mechanical network performance, quality of service and Key
Performance Indicators (KPIs) targets are met. Guarantee all Field operations
activities are carried out in accordance with departmental policy and
procedures.
The jobholder will require close liaison within operations department (i.e.
Deputy Director Barrages (E&M) and Assistant Executive Engineer (E&M)
posted at Barrages in Punjab) to ensure that all the scheduled and emergency
activities are implemented on time. The jobholder is also responsible for the
distribution of assignments and monitoring the tasks assigned to the Barrage
operations team. The individual will require close coordination with
Administrative Departments’ management team and field formation in order to
ensure maximum availability and utility of SCADA and Electro Mechanical
network.
Operations and Maintenance (O&M) of SCADA and E&M Installations.
Management of teams involved in O&M of SCADA and Electro Mechanical
equipment network. Ensure proper functioning and timely resolution of any
types of faults on daily basis. Monitoring that all the operational processes are
enforced for effective performance to avoid any adverse service impact.
Network Performance KPIs
Review Barrage team performance indicators, in order to ensure departmental
satisfaction and performance KPI targets are met. In an event of
noncompliance, take appropriate actions and implement solutions for improving
performance. Ensure that the monthly reports are discussed and agreed with
the management.
Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)
To ensure that minimum MTTR are met by timely teams site interventions,
generation of trouble tickets or coordination with other concerned departments
for early resolution of faults.
Resource & Task Management
509
Plan all resources and define daily and weekly task activities for the field teams,
including routine & planned activities, data fills and manage resources to meet
the departmental deliverables. Prioritize activities within the barrage sites.
Staff Management
Ensure staff performance is reviewed regularly and plans are designed and
executed for adequate training and development in order to improve
performance and productivity.
Inventory & Resource Management
Responsible for spares inventory and barrages resource management. Ensure
proper records for the utilization of resources and the nodes spares.
Occasional Tasks and Responsibilities
Any responsibility / assignment other than mentioned above entrusted by the
Government time to time.
510
References:
1. Design of Hydraulic Gates by Paulo C.F. Erbisti
2. Preventive Maintenance of Gates and Hoisting System of Jinnah Barrage ----
by Project Contractors M/s DESCON
3. Operation and Maintenance Manual for Taunsa Barrage Gates by M/s
KORIMOTO Ltd, Japan
4. Paper on Operation & Maintenance of Radial Gates and Fixed Wheel Gates --
-- By E.R.N. Kannaiah Naido Technical Advisor India
5. Bureau of Indian Standards IS3973-1964- code of Practice for Selection,
Instructions and Maintenance of Wire Ropes
6. Maintenance of hydraulic gates- Important Parameters by Mr. P. Madanaiah,
Consultant, Centre for Good Governance
7. Hydraulic Gate Seals by Industrial Rubber Supply Manufacturers of Quality
Industrial Products, 55 Dunlop Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
511
2. EARTHMOVING MACHINERY
2.1. Introduction
Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) is maintaining earthmoving machinery in three
Divisions namely (i) Excavator Division Faisalabad, (ii) Machinery Division Lahore and
(iii) Machinery Division Multan under Machinery Circle at Lahore. The machinery is
broadly categorized as
I. Excavation machinery
II. Earthmoving and compaction equipment
Excavators and draglines are used for excavation and de-silting of drains while dozers,
scrapers and dump trucks are used for earthmoving in connection with making new
flood bunds or maintaining existing flood bunds. In a way the departmental machinery
is like a fire brigade because it is readily available for use by the field formation to
combat floods in order to protect the departmental infrastructure.
All the departmental earthmoving machinery is of imported nature and was acquired
under some foreign assistance such as US AID Program in 1984-87 or under ADP in
2004-6. It is therefore very essential to operate and maintain this expensive machinery
with proper care so that it works economically and efficiently for a longer period.
2.1.1. Types of Earthmoving Machinery Used In Irrigation Department
I) Bulldozer
II) Excavator
III) Draglines
IV) Motor Grader
V) Dumper Trucks
VI) Loader
VII) Scraper
VIII) Cranes
I) Bulldozer:
Bulldozers are considered one of the strongest and toughest heavy equipment used
in the construction industry. Over short distances (up to 100 meters) bulldozing is the
cheapest way of cutting and moving spoil. They are used for dozing and spreading
earth or pushing / loading scrapers. Bulldozers are classified into two types
(a) Crawler mounted Bulldozer
(b) Wheel mounted Bulldozer
(a) Crawler Mounted Bulldozer:
The crawler type bulldozer has greater tractive force and can travel on any rough
terrain, muddy surface/soil and can push large blade loads. It has greater flotation and
less chances of bogging down due to wide tracks; however, its travelling speed is slow
and is good for hauling loads over short distances.
512
(b) Wheel Mounted Bulldozer:

The wheel mounted bulldozer has four wheels driven by a 4-wheel-drive system and
has a higher travel speed and can travel on paved highways. It has lower tractive
power and capability to push moderate blade loads. It does not need a transport for
shifting from one job site to other, unless located at far off distance.
The output of a bulldozer will depend on the size and type of blade, on the power of
the tractor driving it and also on following factors
• Efficiency of the operator
• Nature of soil
• Topography of area
• Weather
II) Excavators:
Hydraulic Excavators are used primarily to excavate below natural surface of the
ground on which the machine rests. The excavator has a hydraulically controlled boom
and stick, to which the bucket is attached. The unit is mounted on either a crawler or
a wheel tractor base having an upper structure capable of a 360° swing and is primarily
designed for excavating with a bucket, without movement of the undercarriage during
the work cycle. An excavator work cycle normally comprises excavating, elevating,
swinging and discharging of material.
A cable-operated excavator uses winches and steel ropes to accomplish the
movements and is called Dragline, whereas a hydraulic excavator uses hydraulic
cylinders and hydraulic motors to accomplish its movements and functions.
Engines in hydraulic excavators usually just drive hydraulic pumps; there are usually
3 pumps: the two main pumps supply oil at high pressure (up to 5000 psi) for the arms,
swing motor, track motors, and accessories, and the third is a lower pressure (700 psi)
pump for Pilot Control, this circuit is used for the control of the spool valves, and allows
for a reduced effort required when operating the controls.
The two main sections of an excavator are the undercarriage and the house. The
undercarriage includes tracks, track frame, and final drives, which have a hydraulic
motor and gearing providing the drive to the individual tracks. The house includes the
operator cab, counterweight, engine, fuel and hydraulic oil tanks and attaches to the
undercarriage by way of a center pin. Attached to the end of the boom is the stick
which provides the digging force needed to pull the bucket through the ground. On the
end of the stick is a bucket. Buckets may be with a straight cutting edge used for
cleanup and leveling of soft material or hardened teeth used to break through hard
ground and rocks.
III) Dragline:
Dragline is a crawler crane, with an added winch drum on the front, and acts as a
dragline. The bucket of dragline is suspended from a boom with wire ropes. The bucket
is maneuvered by means of a number of ropes and chains. The dragrope is used to
513
draw the bucket assembly horizontally. By skillful maneuver of the hoist and the
dragropes the bucket is controlled for various operations.
The primary limitations of draglines are their boom height and boom length, which
limits where the dragline can dump the waste material. Another limitation is their dig
depth, which is limited by the length of rope the dragline can utilize. A dragline is most
efficient for excavating material below the level of its base. While a dragline can dig
above it, it does so inefficiently and is not suitable to load piled up material (as a rope
shovel or wheel loader can).
IV) Motor Grader:
It is a self-propelled wheeled machine with a long blade that can be adjusted to meet
certain angles to create a flat surface positioned between the front and rear axles. The
machine is primarily designed for grading, shaping, bank sloping, ditching and
scarifying of materials through its forward motion.
Graders are commonly used in the construction and maintenance of earthen roads
and gravel roads. In the construction of paved roads they are used to prepare the base
course to create a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be placed on. Graders can
produce inclined surfaces, to give can’t (camber) to roads. Motor graders can also be
fitted with a second blade in front of the front axle for leveling/grading/scraping.
V) Dumper:
Dumper, also known as dump truck is a heavy-duty truck specially designed &
constructed for carrying heavy loads under various operating conditions. It transports
and dumps or spreads materials like soil, rocks, coal, minerals, aggregate etc, by
hydraulically raising and lowering the container carrying the load.
VI) Loader:
It is a self-propelled crawler or wheeled machine which has front-mounted equipment
primarily designed for loading operation (bucket use) and which loads or excavates
through forward motion of the machine. A loader work cycle normally comprises filling,
elevating, transporting and discharging of material.
VII) Scraper:
It is a self-propelled or towed crawler or wheeled machine which has a bowl with a
cutting edge positioned between the axles, and scraps the ground, loads it
simultaneously, transports over a distance, discharges and spreads material at the
desired place through its forward motion. On the return trips to borrow pits the cutting
blades of scrapers may be lowered enough to remove high spots, thereby assisting in
maintaining the haul roads. The loading through a forward motion can be assisted by
a powered mechanism (elevator) fixed on the scraper bowl. Scrapers can be self-
loading or be assisted by another scraper or a bulldozer. A Scraper that is not self-
propelled but which is propelled by a towing machine is called a towed scraper.
514
VIII) CRANES:
Cranes are hoisting equipment used for lifting or carrying the loads and placing them
at desired place such as trailers, dump trucks, belt conveyors or at other required
places.
2.1.2. Fundamental Terminology Used For Estimating Production:
Production: Production is the hourly rate at which the material is moved. It can be
expressed in various units.
Cycle Time: Time for the round trip. The sum of the time required to complete the
actions involved in a cycle is called cycle time. For a dozer it can be represented as
Cycle Time = Load + maneuver + spread + return time
Cycles per hour = 60 min/hour
Total Cycle time (minutes)
Bank Cubic Yard (BCY): one cubic yard of material as it lies in the natural bank state.
Loose Cubic Yard (LCY): one cubic yard of material which has been disturbed and
has swelled as a result of loading.
Compacted Cubic Yard (CCY): one cubic yard of material in compacted state and
has become denser as a result of compaction.
For example, one cubic yard of earth in natural condition occupies a volume of 1.25
cubic yards after digging (loose earth) and becomes 0.9 cubic yard after compaction.
Swell: When soil is removed from its natural resting place, it swells or puffs up. Swell
of materials is expressed as a percentage of the increase in volume. For example the
swell of dry clay is 40% which means that a cubic yard of clay in the bank will fill a
space of 1.40 cubic yard in a loosened state.
Generally, earthmoving jobs are calculated on the basis of BCY, thus in order to
estimate production, the relationship between bank measures, loose measures, and
compacted cubic measure should be known.
Production / hour = Load/cycle x cycles/hour
Load Factor may be obtained if the % of swell of material is known by using the
following relationship
100%
Load Factor (LF) = 100%+% SWELL
Therefore,
1 cubic yard of clay (loose state) = 1 or 0.72 cubic yard of clay (bank state).
1.4
This means that if a scraper is carrying 25 LCY of dry clay, it is carrying (25 x 0.72) =
18 BCY
Load (BCY/hr) = Load (LCY/hr) x load factor
515
Shrinkage factor: The ratio between compacted measure and Bank measure is
called the shrinkage factor.
Compacted Cubic Yard (CCY)
Shrinkage Factor (SF) = bank Cubic yard (BCY)
2.2. Estimating Production of Machines

Ideal production of a machine unit is given in the manuals provided by the
manufacturer, however practically, the output is less than the ideal output because of
a number of factors such as operator skill, efficiency, working conditions, material
quality and state, visibility etc. Thus the ideal production is multiplied by correction
factors of various types as given in the Table below.
Table 3: Job Correction Factors
Item Correction Factors
Operator
Excellent 1.00
Average 0.6-0.75
Poor 0.5-0.60
Material
Loose stockpile 1.0
Hard to cut 0.8
With tilt cylinder 0.80
Without tilt cylinder 0.70
Hard to drift (very sticky 0.80
material)
Visibility
Dust, rain, snow, fog, 0.70-0.80
darkness
Job efficiency
50 min/hr 0.83
40 min/hr 0.67
2.2.1. Dozer Production:
The amount of material that the dozer moves depends on the quantity which will
remain in front of the blade during the push. The factors that control dozer production
rates are:
1. Blade type.
2. Type and condition of material.
Manufacturers of dozers have developed production charts for different types of
blades. We can estimate dozer production using the production charts and the
correction factors that are applicable by using the formula
Production (lcy/hr) = (maximum production) x (correction factors)
516
To obtain estimated production in bank cubic yards the appropriate load factor (LF)
from tables is applied to the corrected production as calculated above
Production (bcy/hr) = (lcy/hr) x LF
Steps for estimating dozer production:
1: Note the Ideal maximum dozer production rate from production charts provided for
the particular dozer model and type of blade.
2: Assume different correction factors for less than ideal conditions.
a. weight Correction Factor for material – (CF = 2,300lb/LCY(ideal)/actual lb/LCY)
b. Operator Efficiency correction factor - use table provided
c. Material type Correction Factor - use table provided
d. Operating technique Correction Factor - use table provided
e. Visibility Correction Factor - use table provided
f. Grade Correction Factor - use chart/graph provided
3: Total Correction Factor = multiple all correction factors
Production = Ideal maximum production x Total correction factor
Note: Make sure it is in the right units of production ex. BCY, CCY, LCY per hour. g).
Machine transmission factor - use the shrinkage or swell factor given to calculate or
use tables.
To determine how much time is needed to complete the job
Total time (hours) = Q / (P x N) where Q = quantity of material to be moved
P = hourly production rate per dozer
N = Number of Dozers
To determine the number of dozers required to complete project within specific
time:
Total number of dozers = Q / (P x T) where Q = quantity of material to be moved
P = hourly production rate per dozer
T = maximum allowable duration in hours
Example: determine average hourly production of a dozer moving hard packed clay
an average distance of 150 feet down a 15% grade, using a slot dozing technique.
Estimated material weight is 2650 lbs/lcy. Operator is average. Job efficiency is
estimated at 50 min/hr. Uncorrected maximum production is 600 lcy/hr
Applicable correction factors:
Hard packed clay is “hard to cut” material 0.80
Grade correction (from Graph) 1.19
Slot dozing 1.20
Average Operator 0.75
Job efficiency (50min/hr) 0.83
Weight correction (2300/2650)
Production = Maximum production x correction factors
517
=(600) lcy/hr)x(0.80)x(1.19)x(1.2)x(0.75)x(0.83)x(0.87)
= 371 lcy/hr
2.2.2. Excavator Production:
3600 Sec xQxF E
Production per hour = [60][ Volume correction]
t
Where
Q = heaped bucket capacity (lcy)
F = bucket fill factor
t = cycle time in seconds
E = efficiency (min per hour)
Volume correction for loose volume to bank volume 1
1+Swell Factor
2.3. Guidelines for Preparing Annual Estimate for Excavator/Dragline
(Rate per Hour and Rate per Cft):
The Machinery Divisions have got Draglines and Excavators of different make, boom
length, bucket size and engine horse power. The guidelines hereunder are of general
nature applicable to each machinery unit with minor changes, however, an estimate
for a tire mounted Excavator is discussed with assumption that the unit works for a
total of 1600 hours in a year.
Name of Machine: Hydraulic Excavator (Tire Mounted)
Model M315D
Make Caterpillar
Bucket sizes 1.0 cyd
Engine Brake Horse Power (BHP) 137
Boom Length
Year of Purchase
2.3.1. Owning Charges:
In order to protect his investment in equipment and be able to replace it, the machine
owner recovers the cost of machine during useful life of the machine plus other
charges such as interest on investment, taxes and insurance. Since the earthmoving
machinery of Machinery Circle is utilized on the departmental work, and has been
procured through government funds, therefore these charges are not included in the
analysis of rates. However, if the equipment is deployed on rental basis for private
work or on contract work, these charges should be recovered in the form of
“departmental charges” as a %age (normally 12.5%) of the rate calculated for the
departmental work.
2.3.2. Operation charges:
These include;
I. POL charges
II. Replacement of Filters
III. Establishment charges
518
IV. Repair and replacement charges

V. T&P charges
VI. Transportation charges
VII. Sundry charges
VIII. Tire cost
I. POL charges: These include
Fuel consumption charges: Actual fuel consumption should be measured in the field.
This can be done by filling the fuel tank full and then operating the machine for an hour
and refilling the fuel tank. However, if no opportunity exists to do this, consumption
can be estimated from the manufacturer’s data for the relevant machine model,
provided the machine application is known. Application determines engine load factor
(LF) and thereby engine fuel consumption. Engine working at its maximum loading
capacity is said to be working at Full load or 100% LF.
Earthmoving machines may reach a 100% LF intermittently, but seldom operate at this
level for extended periods of time. Periods spent at idle, shallow depth digging in soft
soil, traveling empty and close maneuvering at part throttle are examples of conditions
which reduce load factor.
Some manufacturers of equipment specify load factors for different applications as
given below from where we can estimate the fuel consumption, while Caterpillar
provides hourly fuel consumption estimates at various load factors.
Table 4: Load Factors for different Applications of work
Shallow depth utility Continuous trenching or
Mass excavation or
construction where truck loading in rock or
trenching where
excavator sets pipe and shot rock soils. Large
machine digs all the
digs only 3 or 4 amount of travel over
time in natural bed clay
Application hours/shift. Free flowing, rough ground. Machine
soils. Some traveling
low density material and continuously working on
and steady, full throttle
little or no impact. Most rock floor with constant
operation. Most log
scrap handling high load factor and high
loading applications.
arrangements. impact.
Load Severity Low medium High
Load Factor
35 -50% 50 – 65% 65 – 80%
(LF)
In the Irrigation Department, excavators are generally used for de-silting of drains
where the soils are not too hard, so the LF between 50-65% can be applied. Thus, if
the fuel consumption per Bhp at 100% LF has been specified by a manufacturer as F,
then the fuel consumption per hour for a 137 Bhp engine at 0.6 LF will be
Hourly Fuel Consumption = 137 x F x (0.6)
Taking the example of an excavator from Caterpillar Co. whose specifications in the
Caterpillar Performance Handbook indicate hourly fuel consumption for model M315D,
at different LF as below.
519
Table 5: hourly fuel consumption for Caterpillar Excavators M315D

Low medium High
9-13 liters per hour 13-18 liters per hour 18-21 liters per hour
For desilting of drains, we can therefore use 15.5 (average of 13 & 18) liters diesel
consumption per hour. The POL consumption as stated below is based on the
capacities and maintenance instructions indicated by Caterpillar for the particular
model M315D.
• Mobil Oil change:
a. Engine Crank Case = 8 liters after 200 hours
For 1600 hours = 1600x8/200 = 64 litres
b. Daily engine oil make up = (0.0006 liters /Bhp/hr)x Bhpx1600 = 131.5
liters
Total for engine oil = 64 + 131.5 = 195.5 liters x cost /liter = Rs. ------
• Gear Oil change:
a. Rear Axle Housing (Differential) oil change = Cap.14 liters, after 1000
hours
= (14/1000) x 1600 = 22.4 liters
b. Front Axle Housing (Differential) = Cap.10.5 liters, after 1000 hours
=(10.5/1000)x1600 = 16.8 liters
c. Final Drive oil change = Cap. 2.5 liters, after 1000 hours
= 2.5 x (1600/1000) = 4 liters
d. Power Transmission oil change = Cap. 2.5 liters, after 1000 hours
= 2.5 x (1600/1000) = 4 liters
Total for Gear oil = 22.4 + 16.8 + 4+4 = 47.2 liters x cost /liter =Rs ------
• Hydraulic oil change: tank capacity 135 liters after every 2000 hours
= 135 x (1600/2000) = 108 liters
Hydraulic oil daily make up = 0.0001/Bhp/hr = 0.0001 x 137x 1600 = 22 liters
Total for Hydraulic oil = (108 +22) x cost /liter = Rs. -------
• Greasing of parts: It should be checked at site (or approximately 1.0 kg per 8
hr shift)
= 1x 1600/8 = 200 kg x cost/kg = Rs. ------
II. Replacement of filters: This should be scheduled as per maintenance instructions
in the handbook. According to the maintenance instructions of M315D, the Filters
should be replaced as per following timings
➢ Engine oil filter after 250 working hrs
➢ Air Filter (Primary Element) once a year
➢ Air Filter (secondary Element) twice a year
➢ Fuel Filter after 500 working hours
520
➢ Hydraulic oil filter after 2000 working hrs

➢ Engine crank case Breather Filter after 2000 working hours
The cost of above filters may be worked out for 1600 working hours per year
III. Establishment charges:
The staff should include
a. Operating Staff
➢ Machine Operator one
➢ Greaser/oil man/cleaner one
➢ Chaulkidar one
b. Maintenance Staff for a Group of 6 machines
➢ Foreman one
➢ Mechanic two
➢ Electrician one
➢ Skilled coolies two
For one machine, the 1/6th cost of (b) should be counted. As the staff is partly regular
and partly work-charge, so the cost of work-charge staff should be included here.
IV. Repair & replacement (R&R) charges
There is no hard and fast formula by manufacturers of machinery for estimating these
charges. When the machine is new, the R&R charges are negligible and continue to
increase as the machine working hours increase every year. The SE Machinery Circle
should allow these charges according to the age of the machine.
V. T &P charges:
These cover the cost of miscellaneous items such as drums for oil, grease, grease
gun, special tools for repair of machine, Tent for the Operating staff, lighting generator,
Charpoy, chairs, table etc. for field staff. There is no specific formula or
recommendation by the machine manufacturers. The SE Machinery Circle should
allow a reasonable amount per machine based on the actual requirements.
VI. Transportation charges:
After finishing the work at one site, the equipment is to be shifted to a new site by
means of a Trailer. The charges can be roughly provided for an estimated travelling
(say 250-400 Km) covering two times shifting in a year. Transportation cost of POL,
lubricants, and other parts from office to the machine site should also be included in
this sub head. If extra ordinary shifting is done, the estimate may be revised as per
actual shifting cost.
VII. Sundry charges:
These include items like stationery, soap, medicine, mosquito nets, Uniform and hot
& cold charges for the operating staff, cotton waste, octori charges, toll tax etc. and
can be decided on the basis of prevailing practice.
521
VIII. Tire cost:

Calculating the hourly cost of tires depends on several variables, including type of
tires, site conditions, up-keep, operator's habits, vehicle speed, loadings, relative
amount of time spent on curves, and grades. For earthmoving equipment, previous
available experience should be used as a guideline for tire life. However following
usable hours have been recommended by the machinery manufacturers.
Table 6: Approximate Tire life in hours
Varying haul and load Severe haul and loading
Favorable haul
conditions conditions
(tires wear through the
(tires wear out normally
(almost all tires tread due to non-
Equipment but fail prematurely due
actually wear repairable damages,
to rock cuts, impacts and
through the tread usually from rock cuts,
non-repairable
from abrasion) impacts and continuous
punctures).
overloading).
Motor grader 6000-10000 3000 -6000 2000 -3000
Scraper 3000 -5000 1500 - 3000 500 -1500
Dump Trucks 4500 - 6500 2500 -5500 1500 - 4000
Wheel Tractors/
3000 -6000 1000 - 3000 500 - 1000
Excavators
Wheel loaders 3000 -6000 1000 - 3000 500 - 1000
Hourly Tire Cost = Replacement Cost of all Tires

Life in hours
Note: According to Finance Department notification vide letter No: FD(M-II) 1-
6/2000(M) dated 23.7.2007, instructions were issued to exclude R&R charges, and
work-charge establishment cost from the manufacture estimates for departmental
work and charge only POL cost from the client Divisions. In view thereof, the charges
at items III and IV above are not being charged for the work done for the Irrigation
Department.
2.3.3. Machine Out-Turn:
Studies made by the US Bureau of Public Roads after World War II revealed that there
is an optimum depth of cut for each size of dragline/excavator digging in a particular
material. A dragline/ excavator digging in an embankment of depth other than the
optimum will be less effective. This is true whether the depth is greater or less. The
Power Crane and Shovel Association of America produced two tables (i) for optimum
depth of cut and ideal production (Table 6), and (ii) effect of depth of cut and angle of
swing on the productivity of draglines/excavators (Table 7). Moreover, the production
shall also depend upon the type of material to be excavated and the boom length.
Table 6 below shows that the optimum depth of drain and output of a machine for a
specified size of bucket varies for different soil types. For excavation of new drains the
nature of soil may be different than that for de-silting of drains which shall affect the
output rate. The output of an excavator using these Tables can be worked out under
different working conditions as under:
Bucket Capacity = 1 cyd
522
Actual average Depth of Cut = 6-8 ft (for a medium size drain 7 ft

depth)
Table 7: Optimum Depth of Cut & Ideal Production of Short Boom Draglines
Size of Bucket cy *
Class of
Material 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 1 2 𝟐
𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
Moist Loam or 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.6 7 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.5
Light Sandy
Clay 70 95 130 160 195 220 245 265 305
5 5.5 6.0 6.6 7.0 7.4 7.7 8.0 8.5
Sand & Gravel
65 90 125 155 185 210 235 255 295
6 6.7 7.4 8 8.5 9.0 9.5 9.9 10.5
Good Common
Earth
55 75 105 135 165 190 210 230 265
7.3 8 8.7 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3 11.8 12.3
Hard Tough
Clay
35 55 90 110 135 160 180 195 230
7.3 8.0 8.7 9.3 10 10.7 11.3 11.8 12.3
Wet Sticky
Clay
20 30 55 75 95 110 130 145 175
*Bcy per 60 minute
Courtesy of Power Shovel & Crane Association America
Ideal out-Turn for Wet Sticky = 75 cyd per hr (from Table 6)
Clay/slush
Optimum Depth of Cut = 9.3 ft (from Table 6)
Percent of Optimum Depth = Actual depth x 100= (7/9.3) x100 = 75%
Opt. depth
Assuming an angle of Swing = 180o (may vary normally from 120 to180)
Reading from Table 7
Correction Factor = 0.755%
Job efficiency 50 min. per hour = 50/60= 0.83 (for Excavator)
Production Rate = 75 x 0.755 x .83 = 47 cyd/hr
= or 47 x 27 cu.ft/hr (1 cu.yd = 27 cu.ft)
= 1269 cft/hr
Taking 60% for slush = 1269 x0.6 = 761
Out turn of wet & dry = 761+ 2x(1269-761)
= 761 + 2 (1269 -761) = 761 + 1016 = 1777
Total production during the year = 1777 x 1500 =2,665,500
Rate per 1000cft = (total operation charges)/(2665,500)x(1000)
Rate per hour = (Rate per 1000 cft) x 1.777
523
Table 8: Effect of Depth of Cut & Angle of Swing on the Productivity of Draglines
%age of Angle of Swing
Optimum Depth 30 45 60 75 90 120 150 180
20 1.06 .99 .94 .90 .87 .81 .75 .70
40 1.17 1.08 1.02 .97 .93 .85 .78 .72
60 1.24 1.13 1.06 1.01 .97 .88 .80 .74
80 1.29 1.17 1.09 1.04 .99 .90 .82 .76
100 1.32 1.19 1.11 1.05 1.00 .91 .83 .77
120 1.29 1.17 1.09 1.03 .98 .90 .82 .76
140 1.25 1.14 1.06 1.0 .96 .88 .81 .75
160 1.20 1.10 1.02 .97 .93 .85 .79 .73
180 1.15 1.05 .98 .94 .90 .82 .76 .71
200 1.10 1.10 .94 .90 .87 .79 .73 .69
Courtesy of Power Shovel & Crane Association America

Note: for excavation of new drains and cunnetts, the output per hr or rate per thousand
cft should be calculated on the basis of type of soil and angle of swing as per site
conditions. As an example, the output for the same machine can be calculated as
under:
Assuming the soil type: Good Common Earth
Depth of excavation NSL to 8 ft = Average 4 ft
Angle of swing 1500
Ideal output =135 cyd (from Table 6)
Optimum Depth of Cut =8 ft (from Table 6)
Percent of Optimum Depth =Actual depth x 100= (4/8) x100 = 50%
Opt. depth
Angle of Swing = 150o
Reading from Table 7
Correction Factor = 0.79%
Job efficiency 50 min. per hour = 50/60= 0.83 (for Excavator)
Production Rate = 135 x 0.79 x .83 = 88.5 cyd/hr
= or 88.5 x 27 cu.ft/hr (1 cu.yd = 27 cu.ft)
= 2390 cft
Taking 60% for slush = 2390 x0.6 = 1434
Out turn of wet & dry = 1434+ 2x (2390-1434)
= 3346 cft
Total production during the year = 3346 x 1500 =5,019,000
Rate per 1000cft = {(total operation charges)/( 5,019,000)}x{(1000)}
Rate per hour = (Rate per 1000 cft) x 3.346
524
2.4. Maintenance of Earthmoving Equipment

Maintenance of earthmoving equipment may be classified as
• preventive maintenance,
• routine maintenance, and
• major repairs.
If the first two items are aggressively applied and well managed, the major repair
program is minimized. Absence of a properly implemented maintenance program will
lead to premature equipment failure, potential cost overruns, and increased crew idle
time due to the equipment awaiting repairs. The preventive maintenance program
typically involves periodic inspection, lubrication, and replacement of filters, oil as well
as other equipment engine fluids. Routine maintenance involves inspecting the
equipment and ensuring that worn out parts are replaced before they can cause major
failures in maintaining the equipment.
Operation and Maintenance manuals received with machines include instructions and
check-lists for preventive maintenance of the equipment. These instructions must be
explained to the machine operator and the Sub Engineer in charge should ensure that
these are being followed strictly. Preventive Maintenance Instructions for dozer,
excavator and motor grader are given as Annexure I to IV at the end of this chapter.
The time intervals may vary for specific brands/models and may be adjusted as per
Maintenance Manual for a particular machine. A Table showing common items for
trouble shooting is also given as Annexure V.
2.5. Instructions to be followed By Machinery Operators
2.5.1. General Safety Instructions for Operator:
i. Ensure that no one gets under the machine when it is being jacked up with
boom and arm.
ii. Ensure safety of below ground hazards as Sui-gas pipelines, water
pipelines, buried foundations etc.
iii. Machine be placed on sound support, avoid soft ground or uneven, broken
terrain or install support mats to overcome poor track support
iv. The operator should not wear loose dress that can catch on controls or on
other parts of machine
v. Sound the horn to alert people nearby before start of work and make sure
all persons are out of swing area.
vi. Avoid working in deep overhangs, working around deep pits or deep
trenching without support blocks
vii. When leaving operator’s seat, the bucket should be lowered to ground, turn
the key switch off and remove key from switch.
2.5.2. Machine Operation:
During the operation of the machine, the following precautions should be adopted by
the operator:
525
a. Walk around the machine to check people and objects that might be in the
way;
b. Just before starting, check all controls such as forward and reverse, steering
and transmission to ensure they are in the correct start-up position.
c. After starting the engine, check gauges, instruments and warning lights, all
controls and all warning and safety devices and indicators. Check operation
of service and parking brakes on level ground. Particular attention should be
focused on abnormal noise, undue vibration and smell;
d. Check service brakes in both forward and reverse operation on level ground;
e. When operating a machine, fasten the seat belt. Never mount or dismount a
machine unless it is stationary. Ensure that the cabin door is securely closed;
f. Always operate the machine slowly until fully familiarized with its control;
g. Prevent suffocation. If you must operate in an enclosed area, be sure that
there is sufficient ventilation for effective dispersion of the engine exhaust.
h. When working on slopes, avoid side hill travel whenever possible. The danger
of sliding and tipping during side hill travel is always present regardless of
how heavy or stable your machine may appear to be.
i. Avoid operating the machine too close to an overhang, deep ditch or hole and
be alert to potential caving edges, falling rocks and slides, rough terrain,
obstacles and overhead lines;
j. In case of restriction of the view of the operator, do not operate the machine
unless a helper is available for giving signals for safe operation;
k. Under wet or rainy conditions when the ground became too slippery for the
machine, stop the earth moving operation;
l. Never operate the machine in case of inadequate lighting. Adequate lighting
should be arranged for operation at night time;
m. Never leave the machine while the engine is running and ignition key is on
the machine; and
n. Never use the machine for any purposes other than it is designed for.
2.5.3. Parking:
Having finished the earth moving operation, the machine should be stationed in a
place off the work area or access road. Following points should be noted:
(a) Park on level ground, with the parking brake firmly applied and blocked by
suitable wedges, where appropriate. For wheeled machine, the wheels should
be chocked by suitable wedges and never chock the wheels with rocks. Avoid
parking near edges of slopes and excavations;
(b) Lower the attachments or working tools to the ground
(c) Remove the ignition key and hand it back to the site personnel for safe custody.
2.5.4. Loading and unloading
Machines always involve potential hazards. The procedure recommended by the
manufacturer should always be followed. For Excavators; swing lock must be engaged
before loading/unloading the machine.
526
2.5.5. Lifting of works:

Excavators are primarily designed for digging and loading operations. However, if
lifting of loads is required it should be done as per approved lifting capacity ratings of
machine. The machine should be level on a firm supporting surface. The work should
be lifted with proper hooks and slings and must be balanced and supported evenly.
2.5.6. Working near electric lines:
Serious injury or death can occur if machine or attachments contact with electric lines.
Never move any part of unit or load closer to electric lines than 3 m (10 ft) plus twice
the line insulator length.
2.5.7. Batteries Maintenance:
i. Always avoid storing metals like tools or inflammable materials around or
on batteries. Explosion or fire can be caused by short circuiting batteries
ii. Battery give off flammable fumes which can explode. Keep sparks and
flames away from batteries
iii. Sulfuric acid in batteries is poisonous. It is strong enough to burn skin, eat
holes in clothing, and cause blindness if splashed in eyes
2.5.8. Removing cap of Hydraulic oil tank:
At operating temperature, the hydraulic oil is hot and can damage the skin. To prevent
hot oil from spurting out, turn off the engine, let the oil to cool and push button on
breather to relieve pressure
2.5.9. Removing cap of Radiator:
To prevent hot water from spurting out, turn off the engine, allow water to cool and
slowly loosen cap to relieve pressure before removing.
Cooling system additive contains Alkali that can cause personal injury. Avoid contact
with skin, eyes and mouth.
2.6. Essential Checks by Machine Operator:
An operator should know essential checks for proper maintenance of machine in his
control. The following parts of the machine often require particular attention and
frequent inspections
• Tires: These should be inspected for cuts, tears, and worn tread.
• Tracks: Track tension can be checked only if the machine is reasonably clean,
and was moving forward when stopped for parking. There should be slight sag
on each side of the carrier roller. A track will wear rapidly if it is too tight or too
loose. It may also come off if it is too loose.
• Working Tools: The bucket, blade, edge, tooth or other parts that are forced
through soil or rock during earth moving are subject to wear and tear due to
abrasion and impact action. The operator should be alert to report excessive
wear and any breakage of these cutting parts.
527
• Linkage: Each hinge is a point where lubrication is required, and where a pin
may loosen and come out. Steering linkage acting on the wheels is subject to
damage from collision with rocks or other objects. Check for slackness in the
steering and lever controls and worn brake pedals and rectify and replace as
necessary
• Leaks: Surfaces of the machine, and the ground under it, should be inspected
for evidence of leakage of lubricating or hydraulic oil, or coolant. In the hydraulic
system, leaks are usually at joints. Leakage for fuel oil and air-system should
also be inspected. Any evidence of leak should be investigated and rectified
with defective parts replaced immediately.
• Radiator: The fluid levels should be checked at the beginning of each shift. For
engine with an auxiliary container for coolant, the level of the coolant should be
maintained within the upper and lower levels as indicated in accordance with
the manufacturer's instruction manual. Never loosen the filler cap of the radiator
until the engine is cooled down.
• Reservoirs: All equipments have a fluid reservoir whose level is checked by a
dip stick, usually while the engine is shut off. The operator must be sure to use
the dip stick, and add oil if necessary, before starting. The tank for hydraulic
system should be checked either by a sight gauge, a dip stick or a look through
the filler cap opening, after it has been depressurized and cooled down. Air
reservoirs (or air-vessels) should be regularly drained to remove condensation
water to maintain their efficiency.
• Air Cleaner: Open and check the presence of trash in the air cleaner. Remove
any trash and replace worn out parts. Keep the air cleaner in a serviceable
condition at all time.
• Roll Over Protection Structure: Look for any loose or damaged bolts.
Replace damaged bolts or missing bolts with original equipment parts only.
Replace the structure mounting supports if the structure rattles or makes a
noise when the machine is operated on a rough surface.
• Seat and Seat Belt: Inspect condition of seat, seat belt and associated
mounting hardware. Replace any damaged or worn parts.
• Battery: Check battery condition, including connections, level of electrolyte,
and leakage.
• Reverse Warning Signals: Check both audible alarm and flashing light
warning signals on the machine.
• Other safety features: Check control buttons, lights and mirrors.
528
2.7. Standard Operating Procedure for Management of Earthmoving

Equipment
All the earthmoving machinery is imported and very costly. So, in order to get a reliable
service from the machines for a longer period with minimum break downs and
economical expenditure, strict control of officers is required regarding maintenance
expenditures, replacement of parts, oils, filters etc as well as record keeping. In this
regard following instructions should be observed for streamlining the performance of
the machinery.
1. Complete data of every unit should be maintained regarding year of purchase,
model, capacity, hours worked, depreciation recovered, year wise repair and
replacement (R&R) items and expenditure, total output (machine production)
and physical condition as to fitness for further use or otherwise. This data
should be updated on yearly basis.
2. There are different applications of work. Output rates per hour for different
classes of materials and nature of work such as new drain/cunnette or desilting
of drains (Table: 6) shall be determined by a Committee headed by SE
machinery Circle, and output shall be strictly watched by the Executive
Engineer according to the output approved by the Committee.
3. All machines are provided with meters indicating hours worked/ mileage
covered. These meters should be in working condition and meter readings shall
be recorded in logbooks of machines.
4. All manufacturers of machine provide complete literature in the form of
manuals, for repair and preventive maintenance of the machine. These
manuals also contain checklists for lubrication of parts, cleaning and checking
the condition of components at different intervals (every 10 hrs, 50 hrs, 250 hrs
etc.) and about overhauling of main components. The checklists should be
available with the machine operator and the Sub Engineer in charge should
ensure that these checks are being exercised at the specified intervals. In this
connection written Performa in urdu should be prepared which should be filled
by the operator and submitted in the Sub Division on monthly basis with
certification by the Sub Engineer.
5. The staff looking after the machine such as Greaser, Ganger and Operators
should be provided training about proper checking, cleaning, lubrication, repair
and operation of machines according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
6. Proper tool kit should be available at every machine for day to day checking/
maintenance. The SDO in charge should ensure about it during his inspections.
7. Lubricants and hydraulic oils should be of proper specifications and should be
checked and replaced at the times recommended in the machine manuals. The
Sub Engineer in charge of machine should change Engine Oil, Transmission
Oil etc in his presence. The SDO office should maintain record/charts indicating
hours worked and actual replacement dates vs scheduled dates.
529
8. Air Filters, Hydraulic Filters, Oil Filters etc and hydraulic pipes shall be
purchased from reliable sources, of proper quality and replaced at proper time.
The old ones shall be deposited in the stores to ensure that the item has been
replaced. These items shall be purchased at Divisional level and issued from
stock as and when required.
9. The Executive Engineer shall ensure that purchase of lubricants is made
through Oil Companies (PSO, Shell, Caltex etc.) directly and not through the
Petrol Pumps.
10. Purchase of Diesel for machinery shall be made at Divisional level on demand
by SDOs direct from Oil Companies (PSO, Shell, Caltex etc.) and no local
purchase shall be made through petrol pumps.
11. There shall be no work charge staff chargeable to the estimates, all field staff
should be made regular in service.
Work done during the month shall be got verified at the end of the month from
the Indenting Division on the logbook of machine with reference to MB No: and
page
12. The Log Book of the machine shall be available at the machine in the custody
of machine operator and every check, replacement of part or lubricant shall be
entered into the Log Book. Copy of the Log Book shall be submitted by the Sub
Engineer in charge to the Sub Division after his counter signatures up to 5 th of
next month.
13. As the machines are imported ones, most of the spare parts are also of
imported nature and have high cost. Expenditure incurred for R&R shall be
carefully monitored by observing following precautions
• No providing-and-fitting of parts shall be allowed through the contractors.
The parts supplied by contractors shall be taken on stock register of the
Division and then issued.
• The contractors shall provide supporting documents regarding import of
parts or local manufacturers.
• The indent for issue of a part from stock shall be approved by the SDO in
charge for a cost up to Rs.25000/- and beyond this cost the indent for
issue of part shall be approved by the Executive Engineer. These limits
may be reviewed subject to approval by the Chief Engineer Development
as and when required.
14. Mughalpura and Bhalwal Irrigation Workshops are equipped with machinery
for overhauling/ major repairs of earthmoving machinery, therefore heavy
repairs of machine components shall be done from government workshops. In
this connection, the SE Machinery Circle shall fix a limit above which all repairs
shall be referred to the government workshops.
15. Old parts taken out from the machine shall be returned to stores and declared
as unserviceable and disposed off on yearly basis.
530
16. Condition of every machine unit more than 10 years old or completing more
than 20,000 working hours shall be checked by a Committee constituted by the
Department to assess its condition whether useful for deployment on work or
not. If the unit is no more usable for work (due to its obsolete model,
deteriorated condition or non availability of parts) then it shall be shifted to a
specified parking yard of the Division concerned, and no further expenditure
should be incurred on that unit. The procedure for declaring the unit as
unserviceable and its disposal shall be processed as per rules. New equipment
shall be procured to replace the unserviceable item.
17. All the Trailers shall be kept in good working order and ready to perform shifting
of machinery on short notices. The Executive Engineer incharge of Trailers
should personally inspect the trailer before start of flood season to ensure
about the satisfactory working condition of the Trailer.
18. O&M budget allocated by the Government shall be spent for repairs and
replacement (R&R) of parts of machinery. No extra provision for R&R charges
shall be made in the manufacture estimates. Major repairs shall be taken up
through MIW and BIW, while routine repairs of working machines shall be done
by the concerned machinery Divisions.
19. For construction of flood bunds, spurs, cunnets/river diversions, the scraper
dozer unit of Machinery Circle shall be utilized.
531
Annexure-I- DOZER (Track Mounted) - Maintenance Interval Schedule

S.
Time
N Item to Check Action Required
Interval
o
1 Engine Crankcase Measure oil level
EVERY 10
2 SERVICE Radiator Observe coolant
3 HOURS OR Fuel Tank Drain moisture and sediment
DAILY
4 Pre-cleaner Inspect-clean if necessary
5 Ripper Linkage Lubricate
EVERY 50
6 SERVICE Hydraulic Control System Observe oil level
7 HOURS OR Batteries Observe electrolyte level
WEEKLY
8 Transmission (Direct Drive) Measure oil level
9 Engine Crankcase Change oil (1), filter, and wash breather
Test to determine if lever engages
10 Parking Brake
properly
11 Steering Clutch Brakes Inspect-adjust if necessary
12 Fan and Alternator Belts Inspect-adjust if necessary
Transmission, Bevel Gear and Steering Change filter elements and wash
13
Clutch Compartments magnetic strainer
EVERY 250
14 SERVICE Track-Adjustment Adjust track
HOURS OR
15 Air Conditioner Inspect belt-test for proper operation
MONTHLY
Bulldozer Cylinder Support and Upper
16 Lubricate
Trunnion Bearings
17 Track Roller Frame Inner Bearings Lubricate
18 Fan and Adjusting Pulley Bearings Lubricate
19 Bulldozer Tilt Brace Lubricate
Flywheel Clutch Brake Lever and Bell-
20 Lubricate
crank (Direct Drive)
21 Hydraulic Control System Change filter elements
22 EVERY 500 Fuel Tank Cap and Screen Wash filler cap and screen
SERVICE
23 Winch Magnetic Strainer Wash magnetic strainer
HOURS OR
24 3 MONTHS Winch Filter Change filter
25 Cooling System Add corrosion inhibitor
Inspect center pads. Replace if large
26 Equalizer Bar Pads
pieces of pad are coming loose
Transmission, Torque Converter, Bevel
27 EVERY Gear and Steering Clutch Change oil (1) and breathers
1000 Compartment (Power Shift)
SERVICE Change oil, filter elements and
28 Final Drives
HOURS OR breather
29 6 MONTHS Winch Oil Sump Change oil
30 Universal Joint Lubricate
31 Winch Breather Change breather
532
32 ROPS Bolts Re-tighten

Flywheel Clutch Cross Shaft Bearings
33 Lubricate
(Direct Drive)
34 Hydraulic Control System Change oil-wash fill cap screen
35 EVERY Engine Valve Lash Measure-adjust if necessary
36 2000 Cooling System Change antifreeze solution
SERVICE
Transmission, Flywheel Clutch, Bevel
HOURS OR
37 Gear and Steering Clutch Compartment Change oil and breather
1 YEAR
(Direct Drive)
38 Sprocket Hub Bearings Have bearings adjusted
Transmission, Torque Converter, Bevel Measure oil level if leakage develops
39
Gear and Steering Clutch Compartment or is suspected
Clean when oil becomes thick, or at
Torque Converter Suction Screen
40 time of repairs on brakes,
(Power Shift)
transmission or torque converter
Observe oil level if leakage develops
41 Winch
or is suspected
If track was adjusted with the sprocket
42 Track tooth area clean-readjust if packing is
present
Clean when RED band in indicator
43 Engine Air Intake System
locks in visible position
Drain and clean when engine
44 Cooling System
overheats or solution is dirty
Change filter when fuel gauge
45 Fuel System
registers OUT with engine running
Observe lubricant level if leakage
46 Final Drives
develops or is suspected
47 WHEN Hydraulic Cylinders Adjust rod packing if leakage develops
REQUIRED
Change ripper tips before shank is
48 Ripper Tips
worn
49 Bulldozer Ball Sockets Adjust if brace is too loose
50 Cutting Edges and End Bits Change before moldboard is worn
Inspect periodically for dust; change
51 Air Conditioning Filters
filters if necessary
Clean or replace when engine
52 Cooling System Relief Valve
overheats or coolant loss is observed
Inspect belt and mounting hardware
53 Seat Belt replace belt at least once every 3
years
54 Fuses Replace if element is broken
Clean when oil becomes thick, or at
55 Flywheel Clutch Suction Screen time of repairs on brakes,
transmission or flywheel clutch
Adjust clutch if slippage is observed-
56 Flywheel Clutch and Brakes
adjust clutch brake
533
Annexure-II- DOZER (Tire Mounted) - Maintenance Interval Schedule

Sr
.
Time interval Item to check Action required
N
o
1 Battery or Battery Cable Inspect/Replace
2 Circuit Breakers Reset
3 Cleaner Bar Tips Replace
4 Engine Air Filter Primary Element Clean/Replace
5 Engine Air Filter Secondary Element Replace
6 When Required Engine Air Pre-cleaner Clean
7 Fuel System Prime
8 Fuses Replace
9 Oil Filter Inspect
10 Radiator Core Clean
11 Window Washer Reservoir Fill
12 DAILY Engine Air Filter Service Indicator Inspect
13 Axle Guard Clean
14 Backup Alarm Test
15 Compactor Wheel Chopper Blades Inspect/Replace
16 Compactor Wheel Plus Tips Inspect/Replace
17 Compactor Wheel Tamping Tips Inspect/Replace
18 Cooling System Coolant Level Check
19 EVERY 10 SERVICE Cutting Edges and End Bits Inspect/Replace
HOURS OR DAILY
20 Engine Compartment Inspect/Clean
21 Engine Oil Level Check
Fuel System Primary Filter (Water
22 Drain
Separator)
23 Hydraulic System Oil Level Check
24 Tire Inflation Check
25 Transmission Oil Level Check
26 Articulation Bearings Lubricate
27 Axle Oscillation Bearings Lubricate
EVERY 50 SERVICE
28 Fuel Tank Water and Sediment Drain
HOURS OR WEEKLY
29 Lift Cylinder Upper Bearings Lubricate
30 Steering Cylinder Bearings Lubricate
EVERY 100 SERVICE
31 Bulldozer Stabilizer Lubricate
HOURS OR 2 WEEKS
EVERY 200 SERVICE
32 Receiver Dryer (Refrigerant) Replace
HOURS
33 Electronic Unit Injector Inspect/Adjust
534
34 Engine Valve Lash Check

35 Transmission Oil Filter Replace
36 Brake Accumulator Check
37 Braking System Test
Crankcase Guard Compartment and
38 Clean
Power Train Guard Compartment
INITIAL 250 SERVICE
39 HOURS Differential and Final Drive Oil Level Check
40 Differential and Final Drive Oil Sample Obtain
41 Drive Shaft Spline (Center) Lubricate
42 Engine Air Filter Service Indicator Inspect/Replace
43 Engine Oil Sample Obtain
44 Hydraulic System Oil Sample Obtain
45 Cooling System Coolant Sample Obtain
46 Engine Crankcase Breather Clean
47 Engine Oil (High Speed) and Oil Filter Change
48 Engine Oil and Filter Change
Fuel System Primary Filter (Water
49 EVERY 500 SERVICE Replace
Separator) Element
HOURS OR 3 MONTHS
50 Fuel System Secondary Filter Replace
51 Fuel Tank Cap and Strainer Clean
52 Hydraulic System Oil Filter Replace
53 Transmission Oil Filter Replace
54 Transmission Oil Sample Obtain
55 Battery Hold-Down Tighten
56 EVERY 1000 SERVICE Drive Shaft Support Bearing Lubricate
57 HOURS OR 6 MONTHS Rollover Protective Structure (ROPS) Inspect
58 Transmission Oil Change
59 Brake Discs Check
60 Differential and Final Drive Oil Change
61 EVERY 2000 SERVICE Electronic Unit Injector Inspect/Adjust
62 HOURS OR 1 YEAR Engine Valve Lash Check
63 Hydraulic System Oil Change
64 Receiver Dryer (Refrigerant) Replace
Cooling System Coolant Sample (Level
65 EVERY YEAR Obtain
2)
EVERY 4000 SERVICE
HOURS OR 1 YEAR
Cooling System Coolant Extender
68 Add
EVERY 6000 SERVICE (ELC)
HOURS OR 3 YEARS Cooling System Water Temperature
69 Replace
Regulator
535
Annexure- III- EXCAVATOR - Maintenance Interval Schedule

S.No Action
Time Interval Item to check
required
Air Conditioner/Cab Heater Filter
1 Inspect/Replace
(Recirculation)
3 Boom Base Pins Lubricate
4 Bucket Linkage Inspect/Adjust
5 Bucket Tips Inspect/Replace
7 WHEN REQUIRED Engine Air Filter Primary Element Clean/Replace
9 Fuses Replace
10 Oil Filter Inspect
12 Screen (Fuel Transfer Pump) Clean
13 Track Adjustment Adjust
14 Window Washer Reservoir Fill
15 Cooling System Level Check
17 Fuel System Water Separator Drain
EVERY 10 SERVICE
HOURS OR DAILY
20 Indicators and Gauges Test
21 Track Adjustment Inspect
22 Travel Alarm Test
23 Undercarriage Check
EVERY 50 SERVICE
24 Boom, Stick and Bucket Linkage Lubricate
HOURS OR WEEKLY
INITIAL 100 SERVICE
26 Fuel System Filter Replace
HOURS
27 Fuel System Priming Pump Operate
EVERY 100 SERVICE
28 HOURS OF CONTINUOUS Hydraulic System Oil Filter Replace
HAMMER USE
30 INITIAL 250 SERVICE Final Drive Oil Change
31 HOURS Hydraulic System Oil Filter Replace
32 Swing Drive Oil Change
EVERY 250 SERVICE
34 HOURS Final Drive Oil Sample Obtain
35 Belt Tightener Bearing (Fan Belt) Lubricate

Inspect/Adjust/
36 Belts
Replace
37 Condenser (Refrigerant) Clean
EVERY 250 SERVICE
38 Cooling System Hoses Inspect
HOURS OR MONTHLY
40 Final Drive Oil Level Check
41 Swing Bearing Lubricate
42 Swing Drive Oil Level Check
43 EVERY 250 SERVICE
Hydraulic System Oil Filter Replace
44 HOURS OF PARTIAL
536
HAMMER USE (50% OF

SERVICE HOURS)
EVERY 250 SERVICE
45 HOURS OF CONTINUOUS Hydraulic System Oil Filter (Return) Replace
HAMMER USE
INITIAL 500 HOURS (FOR
NEW SYSTEMS,
46 REFILLED SYSTEMS, Cooling System Coolant Sample (Level 2) Obtain
AND CONVERTED
SYSTEMS)
47 Cooling System Coolant Sample (Level 1) Obtain
EVERY 500 SERVICE
HOURS
49 Swing Drive Oil Sample Obtain
50 Engine Crankcase Breather Clean
51 Fuel System Filter Replace
52 EVERY 500 SERVICE Fuel System Priming Pump Operate
53 HOURS OR 3 MONTHS Fuel System Priming Pump Strainer Clean
54 Fuel Tank Cap and Strainer Clean
EVERY 500 SERVICE
HOURS OF PARTIAL
57 Hydraulic System Oil Filter (Return) Replace
HAMMER USE (50% OF
SERVICE HOURS)
59 Battery Hold-Down Tighten
EVERY 600 SERVICE
HOURS OF CONTINUOUS
61 Hydraulic System Oil Filter (Return) Replace
HAMMER USE
62 Swing Drive Oil Change
63 Water Pump Bearing Lubricate
EVERY 1000 SERVICE
HOURS
65 Final Drive Oil Change
66 EVERY 2000 SERVICE Hydraulic System Oil Change
HOURS OR 1 YEAR
67 Swing Gear Lubricate
68 EVERY YEAR Cooling System Coolant Sample (Level 2) Obtain
EVERY 3000 SERVICE
69 Cooling System Coolant Extender (ELC) Add
HOURS OR 3 YEARS
EVERY 6000 SERVICE
70 Cooling System Coolant (ELC) Change
HOURS OR 6 YEARS
Annexure-IV- Motor Grader - Maintenance Interval Schedule

Sr.
Time interval Item to check Action Required
No:
1 When Required Battery Replace
3 Blade Lift Cylinder Socket Check/Adjust/ Replace
4 Center-shift Cylinder Socket Check/Adjust/Replace
5 Circle Clearances Check/Adjust
6 Circle Drive Oil Level Check
8 Cutting Edges and End Bits Inspect/Replace

537
9 Drawbar Ball and Socket End Play Check/Adjust
10 Engine Air Filter Primary Element Clean/Replace

Engine Air Filter Service Indicator Check/Replace
12
Screen
13 Engine Air Precleaner Clean
14 Engine Crankcase Breather Replace
15 Evaporator Coil and Heater Coil Clean
16 Moldboard Wear Strip Inspect/Adjust/Replace
17 Radiator Clean
19 Ripper Tip Inspect/Replace
20 Scarifier Teeth Inspect/Replace
21 Air Tank Moisture and Sediment Drain
22 Backup Alarm Test
23 Brakes, Indicators and Gauges Test
24 Circle Drive Pinion Teeth Lubricate
25 Circle Top Lubricate
26 Every 10 Service Cooling System Coolant Level Check

Hours or Daily
27 Engine Air Filter Service Indicator Inspect
29 Fuel System Water Separator Drain

Transmission and Differential Oil Check
31
Level
Initial 100 Service Transmission and Differential Oil Replace/Clean
32
Hours Filter and Screens
33 Articulation Bearings Lubricate
34 Axle Oscillation Bearings Lubricate
35 Blade Lift Cylinder Socket Lubricate
36 Cab Air Filter Clean/Replace

Every 100 Service
37 Hours or 2 Weeks Center-shift Cylinder Socket Lubricate
38 Center-shift Lock Bar Clean/Lubricate
39 Drawbar Ball and Socket Lubricate
41 Kingpin Bearings Lubricate

538
42 Ripper Cylinder Bearings Lubricate
43 Scarifier Lift Link Socket Lubricate
44 Tandem Drive Oil Level Check
45 Tire Inflation Check
46 Wheel Lean Bearings Lubricate
47 Wheel Lean Cylinder Bearings Lubricate
48 Initial 500 Service Battery or Battery Cable Inspect/Replace

Hours (or at first oil
49 change) Electronic Unit Injector Inspect/Adjust
51 Braking System Test
52 Cooling System /Coolant Sample Level/ Obtain
53 Engine Air Filter Service Indicator Inspect/Replace
56 Fuel System Prime

Fuel System Primary Filter (Water Replace
57
Separator) Element
58 Fuel System Secondary Filter Replace
59 Every 500 Service Fuel Tank Cap and Strainer Clean

Hours or 3 Months
62 Parking Brake Drain the moisture
63 Tandem Breather Clean/Replace
64 Tandem Drive Oil Sample Obtain

Transmission and Differential Oil Replace/Clean
65
Filter and Screens
Transmission and Differential Oil Obtain
66
Sample
67 Wheel Bearing Oil Level (Front) Check
68 Blade Cushion Accumulator Check

Rollover Protective Structure Inspect
69 Every 1000 Service (ROPS)
Hours or 6 Months Transmission and Differential Clean/Replace
70
Breather
Transmission and Differential Oil Change
72
73 Every 2000 Service Air Dryer Desiccant Replace

Hours or 2 Years
539
75 Circle Drive Oil Change
76 Condenser (Refrigerant) Clean
77 Cooling System Pressure Cap Clean/Replace
78 Crankshaft Vibration Damper Inspect
79 Electronic Unit Injector Inspect/Adjust
81 Engine Valve Rotators Inspect
82 Evaporator Coil and Heater Coil Clean
83 Final Drive Preload Check
84 Refrigerant Dryer Replace
85 Tandem Drive Oil Change
86 Wheel Bearing Oil (Front) Change

Every 3 Years After Seat Belt Replace
87
Date of Installation
Every 3000 Service Cooling System Water Temperature
88 Replace
Hours or 3 Years Regulator
Every 6000 Service
89 Cooling System Coolant Add
Hours or 3 Years
Every 12 000
90 Service Hours or Cooling System Coolant Change
6 Years
Annexure- V-Trouble Shooting Hydraulic Excavators

If a trouble occurs, investigate a cause as mentioned in following Table and take
immediate measures for repair. If the cause is not established clearly, consult
manufacturer’s service centre.
ENGINE
Problem Possible Cause Remedy
Starter does not Low battery power. Charge battery.
operate Poor terminal contact. Clean and tighten connections.
Starter switch failed. Replace switch.
Starter relay failed. Replace relay.
Starter control failed. Replace controller.
Wiring harness faulty. Replace harness.
Battery relay failed. Replace relay.
Blown fuse. Replace fuse.
Starter engages, Fuel solidifies in cold weather. Replace fuel.
engine does not
Fuel filters plugged. Replace filters.
start
Water or dirt in fuel system. Clean system and add new fuel.
Air in fuel system. Purge air from system.
540
Engine stop control failed. Replace stop control.

Engine stop relay failed. Replace relay.
Engine starts, runs Engine oil viscosity incorrect. Change oil.
only at low speed or Clogged or dirty fuel injectors. Clean injectors.
shuts down
Engine stops motor, cable out of Re-adjust.
adjustment.
Engine speed control cable out of Readjust.
adjustment.
Engine knocks, Low engine oil. Re-fill.

runs Plugged air intake system. Clean system and replace filter.
unevenly or surges.
Injection pump out of adjustment. Contact Service Centre of dealer.
Plugged fuel filter. Replace fuel filter.
Water or dirt in fuel system. Clean system and add new fuel.
Clogged or dirty fuel injectors. Clean injectors.
Engine has poor Plugged air intake system. Clean system and replace filter.
power Clogged or dirty fuel injectors. Clean injectors.
Engine speed control cable out of Readjust.
adjustment.
Injection pump out of adjustment. Contact Service Centre of dealer.
Valve backlash faulty. Adjust backlash.
Engine runs hot Low coolant level. Add coolant.
Thermostat faulty. Replace thermostat.
Radiator cap faulty. Replace radiator cap.
Radiator core plugged. Clean radiator.
Oil cooler core plugged. Clean oil cooler.
Fan belt loose or damaged. Tighten or replace as required.
Temperature sensor faulty. Replace sensor.
Hydraulic System
Problem Cause Remedy
None of the controls Hydraulic pump failed. Contact Service Centre of dealer.
function (loud noise Low hydraulic oil level. Add hydraulic oil as required.
from pumps) Suction line plugged or damaged. Clean or replace as required.
None of the controls Pilot pump failure. Contact Service Centre of dealer
function (no noise from Cut off solenoid valve failed. Replace solenoid.
pumps)
Safety limit switch is ON. Adjust limit switch clearance.
All actuators have low Low hydraulic oil level. Add hydraulic oil as required.
power
Suction filter clogged. Clean filter.
Hydraulic pumps faulty. Contact Service Centre of dealer.
Main relief pressure too low. Contact Service Centre of dealer.
541
Hydraulic pumps excavating. Bleed air from hydraulic pumps.

Only one or two actions Overload relief pressure too low. Reset pressure.
have little or no power Make-up check valve leaking. Clean or replace as required.
Control valve spool faulty. Replace valve spool.
Dirt in valve spool. Clean or replace as required.
Actuator failed. Repair or replace as required.

Cylinder seal failed. Repair or replace as required.
Cylinder rod damaged. Repair or replace as required.
Remote control valve failed. Replace control valve.
Wrong pilot line connection. Reconnect pilot lines.
Oil temperature too Oil cooler faulty. Contact Service Centre of dealer
high Fan belt loose. Tighten fan belting as required
Swing System
No swinging motion Swing brake valve faulty. Replace brake valve.
Hydraulic timer faulty. Replace timer.
Swing brake valve faulty. Low brake release pressure. Adjust pressures.
Swing motor failed. Replace swing motor.
Remote control valve failed. Replace control valve.
Swing motion jerky Swing gear worn out. Replace swing gear
Swing bearing damaged Replace bearing
Improper lubrication Add grease
Electrical System
Battery will not hold a Low battery power. Clean and retighten.
charge Alternator belt loose or bad. Tighten or replace belt.
Loose or corroded terminals. Tighten or replace as required.
Alternator faulty. Repair or replace as required.
Low battery power Internal battery short. Replace battery.
Short circuit in wiring. Repair as required.
Engine speed is not Speed control dial failed. Replace control dial.
controllable Throttle controller failed. Replace controller.
Speed control motor failed. Repair or replace as required.
Wiring harness damaged. Repair or replace as required.
Connector failed. Repair or replace as required.
Power mode selector Blown fuse. Replace fuse.
does not work Power mode selector switch Replace switch.
failed.
Connector failed. Replace connector.
542
EPOS-V controller failed. Repair or replace as required

"Engine speed is not
controllable."
Working mode selector Blown fuse. Replace fuse.

does not work Working mode selector Replace switch failed.
switch.
Connector failed. Replace connector.
Travel System
Travel motion does not Center joint leaking. Repair or replace as required.
function
Parking brake will not Repair parking brake.
release.
Travel motor failed. Repair or replace as required.
Remote control valve failed. Repair or replace as required.

Travel speed is too low Track tension too high or too Adjust tension.
low.
Damaged rollers or idlers. Repair or replace as required.
Track frame damaged. Repair as required.
References:
1. Construction Planning, Equipment and Methods by Peurifoy RL, Mc Graw Hill
Publication
2. Construction Equipment Management for Engineers Estimators and Owners –
Douglas D. Grans Berg Calin M. Popascu Prichard C. Ryan
3. FAO Corporate Document Repository --- calculation of Machine rates
4. Caterpillar Performance Handbook No:29
5. Caterpillar Maintenance Manual for D8K Dozer
6. Construction Operation and Methods “Equipment Production” ---
WWW.learncivilengineering.com
7. Operation and Maintenance Manual --- DOOSAN Solar S220LC-V Hydraulic
Excavator
543
3. PUMPS
3.1. Introduction
Pumps are installed in the Irrigation Department for lifting canal water from a lower
NSL to higher NSL and for extraction of ground water for salinity and reclamation
control of lands. For Lift Irrigation purpose, Centrifugal pumps are installed at sites
where small quantities (up to 10 cusecs) of irrigation water are lifted at low heads. For
greater quantities of water, either split pumps or vertical tubular axial flow pumps are
installed. For extracting groundwater, T/wells of centrifugal type are installed for low
depths and deep well turbine pumps for greater depths.
3.2. Centrifugal Pump:
Centrifugal pump works on the principle that an impeller rotates inside a pump casing
fitted with a drive shaft. The liquid entering the pump is rotated by the impeller and the
centrifugal force generated in the fluid due to rotation is converted to pressure head
by a volute chamber called Discharge Head. As a result, the fluid is transported to the
outlet opening of the pump with pressure. At the same time, a negative pressure zone
called Suction Head is created at the inlet opening, which draws the fluid further into
the pump. Fig.7 below explains this principle of operation.
Figure 7: Centrifugal pump principle of operation

Centrifugal pumps are so installed that the suction head should not be more than 15
ft otherwise, cavitations shall start and the pump shall not lift any water. For better
performance, the suction head should be minimum. For high heads, multistage pumps
may be used. The normal speed of rotation for lifting canal water (containing silt
content) should not exceed 950 rpm; old installed pumps at some lift schemes were
of 500 or 750 rpm due to which the pump worked smoothly with minimum vibration
and less maintenance.
Fig.8 shows a low head horizontal centrifugal pump with a single stage impeller. The
motor and pump are mounted on the same foundation block for ease of alignment of
pump and motor shafts. This type of pump is used for small and medium discharges.
544
Figure 8: Horizontal Centrifugal Pump

3.3. Pump Terminology
Head: a measure of the pressure or force exerted by water expressed in feet.
Centrifugal pump curves show pressure as head, which is the equivalent height of
water with specific gravity = 1.
Static Head: The vertical height difference from the centerline of the impeller to the
discharge point is called discharge static head, while the vertical height difference from
the surface of the water source to the discharge point is known as total static head.
Total Head (Total Dynamic Head) — the total energy imparted by the pump to the
pumped liquid. It is the sum of
I. Static lift (vertical distance between the pumping level in T/well and discharge
pipe)
II. Velocity head at exit of the discharge pipe
III. Friction loss in pump column
IV. Friction loss in discharge head
V. Friction loss in discharge pipe
Capacity/Flow—the rate of liquid flow that can be carried, typically measured in
gallons per minute (gpm).
Net Positive Suction Head (NPHS)—how much suction lift a pump can achieve by
creating a partial vacuum, atmospheric pressure then pushes liquid into the pump. It
is a method of calculating if the pump will work or not.
545
Cavitation—cavities or voids in liquid. Bubbles take up space leading to a drop in

pump capacity. Collapsing bubbles can damage the impeller and volute, making
cavitation a problem for both the pump and the mechanical seal.
Specific Speed—a measure of the function of pump flow, head, and efficiency
Pump Efficiency—the ratio of energy delivered by the pump to the energy supplied
to the pump shaft. The number varies with impeller design and numbers from 60
percent to 80 percent are normal.
3.4. Pump Horsepower:
Pump horse power for a given lift and capacity can be calculated by the formula
Brake Horse Power (BHP) = ______Work________
time(seconds)x550
where,
work is the quantity of water lifted for the total head of the pump, and can be
expressed as:
Pump Brake Horse Power (BHP) = GPM x Pressure Head in Ft x Specific Gravity of liquid
3960 x ϒ
For clean water, the Specific Gravity is =1
GPM = Pump capacity in gallons per minute
ϒ = Pump efficiency (normally between 70-85%)
Taking Motor efficiency ϒm as 90%
Motor Horse Power = Pump Brake Horse Power (BHP)
ϒm
Motor KW = Motor Horse Power x 0.746
3.5. Pump Performance Curve
A centrifugal pump performance curve is a tool that shows how a pump will perform in
terms of head and flow. Pumps can generate high volume flow rates when pumping
against low-pressure head or low volume flow rates when pumping against high-
pressure head. The possible combinations of total pressure and volume flow rate for
a specific pump are plotted to create a pump curve. The curve defines the range of
possible operating conditions for the pump. For example in the curve of Fig.9, to pump
against a total head of 120 feet and using an impeller of 8.5 inches dia, we could pump
at a rate of about 42 gpm (gallons per minute) with a NPSH required of three feet and
at a efficiency of about 73.3 percent.
Using the above data, the brake horsepower (HP) would be three HP. To account for
future expansion and pump at a higher rate, such as 55 gpm, the total head would
stay the same. On the pump curve, the intersection of 120 feet of total head and 55
gpm shows the need for a new impeller of nine inches dia, a brake horsepower of
about four HP, and a NPSH of 3.75 feet. The efficiency would be about 73.5 percent.
546
The pump’s efficiency varies throughout its operating range. Each pump will have its
own maximum efficiency point. The best efficiency point (BEP) is the point of highest
efficiency of the pump. All points to the right or left of the BEP have a lower efficiency.
Figure 9: Typical Pump performance curve

The impeller is subject to axial and radial forces resulting vibration, which get greater
the further away the operating point is from the BEP. Pumps should be sized as close
as possible to its best efficiency point or flow rate. This not only makes the pump more
efficient but also improves the reliability of the pump.
Pump efficiency is greatest when the largest possible impeller is installed in a pump
casing. Pump efficiency decreases when smaller impellers are installed in a pump
because of the increased amount of fluid that slips through the space between the tips
of the impeller blades and the pump casing. Pump efficiency also decreases as the
rotational speed of the pump is reduced.
3.6. Important Tips in the Use of Centrifugal Pump
3.6.1. Installation:
• Use a common Base plate for fixing motor and the pump
• Set the base plate on a solid foundation preferably of concrete, level carefully,
grout the base plate with anchor bolts, and allow setting.
• Mounting pads be provided for heavy pumps to eliminate vibrations
• Fix pump first and then align the motor shaft to fix the motor
• See that the motor and the pump are in line and that the shaft turns easily by
hand after the anchor bolts and nuts have been tightened.
• Be sure that the pump and motor are dowel pinned to the base when they are
in proper alignment.
• Suction and discharge pipes should be connected after fixing the pump
• Suction and discharge pipes should be self supporting in order to avoid strain
on pump and ensure proper alignment.
• Locate the pump as near the supply intake as possible.
547
• Ensure proper ventilation to avoid overheating of motor

• Avoid piping bends as much as possible as these create hindrance to smooth
flow and consequent pressure loss
• Pipe joints should be of flanges with flange gaskets of proper size and material.
Flange gaskets should be properly centered between the flange bolts so that
there is no interference with the flow of water
• To avoid formation of air pockets in the suction piping, it should have a slope
towards the reservoir in the case of suction lift and towards pump in case of
flooded suction installation
• Isolating valve on suction piping should be either in fully open or fully closed
position, but never as a flow regulator. The valve stem should be horizontal
relative to flow in the piping and at a distance from the pump suction flange of
atleast 10 times the pipe size
• A non return valve or a foot valve must be fitted in the suction piping
• Install a non return valve (sluice valve) just after the pump discharge flange to
stop dangerous water hammer which can damage the pump casing
• A flow regulating valve should be fitted in the discharge piping to regulate the
flow of water
• Proper lifting devices be available for lifting the motor and pump during repairs
• Circuit breakers and fuses should be sized in accordance with full amperage of
motor appearing on motor Name Plate
• Motors above 7.5 KW be wired for Star-Delta start-up to avoid electrical
overload to the motor and mechanical overloads to the pump
• Electrical Switch of pump should be as close to the pump as possible
• Safety Guard should be installed to cover the shaft and coupling
• Check connections of motor for direction of rotation by jogging the motor before
work
3.6.2. Starting, Operating and Maintenance Instructions
• Never run the pump when it is dry, the suction piping and the pump must be
filled with water
• Motor should be started with discharge valve closed, when the motor reaches
full speed, the discharge valve should be opened gradually
• Do not run the pump with closed discharge pipe for an extended period of time
• Check motor amperage which should not exceed the value shown on the motor
nameplate
• Ensure that pump /motor assembly does not have unusual vibrations,
hammering and noise
• Ensure that there is no leakage of air into the pump from the Glands
• Ensure that gland packing at stuffing box has a continuous dripping water
• Bearing temperature at full operation should not exceed 85 0C
548
• Pump can be shut down by switching off power supply to the motor, however,
if there are no provisions against liquid hammer, the flow regulating valve in
discharge piping should be closed prior to stopping the pump
• While doing maintenance work on pump, ensure to switch off the electric power
supply
• Never over lubricate the bearings with grease or oil as it will cause overheating
of bearings
• Do not use grease or oil contaminated with solid particles. Always use
oil/grease type recommended by the pump manufacturer
• For pumps fitted stuffing box and gland packing, dripping of water /pumped
liquid should continue from the glands to remove the heat generated due to the
friction between gland packing and the rotating shaft. The quantity of dripping
liquid depends upon the size of pump and the pressure in the stuffing box
housing.
• Adjustment of gland packing should not be done when the pump is running
• If the pump remains out of service for long period of about two months or more,
replacr the gland packing prior to start up as the gland packing gets hard.
3.6.3. Trouble Shooting
Sr.
Trouble Check for
No:
1 Pump fails to build head pressure : a. Pump not primed.
b. Incorrect pump rotation.
c. Motor speed too low.
d. Suction line restricted.
e. Motor failure.
f. Plugged or damaged impeller.
g. Pump or impeller under sized.
h. Pump cavitations
i. Improper impeller clearance.
Pump fails to provide enough flow
2 a. System resistance too high.
rates.
b. Pump under sized.
c. Pump not primed.
d. Driver speed too low.
e. Poor suction conditions.
f. Improper impeller clearance.
Excessive noise or vibration during
3 a. Motor bearing failing.
operation.
b. Pump cavitations.
c. Improper impeller clearance.
4 Leaking mechanical seal. a. Improper assembly.

b. Worn or cracked seal faces.
c. Abrasive material in fluid.
d.Liquid flashing at seal faces (Fluid
temperature too high).
549
e. Seal pressure rating too low for the service.

f. Chemical attack of seal components.
g. Seal operated dry or with a liquid having
poor lubricating properties.
Pump gradually loses pressure and a. Increasing temperature causing cavitations
5
head. or liquid vaporization.
b. Motor failure.
c. Suction lift too high.
d. Air entering suction line.
a. Excessive flow and high amp drawn
6 Motor overheating
(Throttle discharge).
b. Low voltage or frequency
c. Flow rate too low with resulting heat rise.
d. Bearing failure.
e. System temperature too high.
f. Motor winding defective
3.7. Deep Well Turbine Pumps:

Deep well turbine pump is vertical axis centrifugal or mixed flow type pump comprising
of more than one stage which accommodates rotating impellers and stationary bowls
having guide vanes. These pumps are used where the pumping water level is below
the limits of horizontal volute centrifugal pump. They have higher initial cost and are
more difficult to install and repair. The pressure head developed depends on the
diameter of impeller and the speed at which it is rotated. The pressure head developed
by single impeller is not enough to meet the requirements, so two or more bowl
assemblies are used. The impellers are dynamically balanced; hence locally
manufactured bowl assembly should be accepted only, if fitted with a dynamically
balanced impeller.
Hollow shaft electric motor drives the pump with separate top shaft fitted to the pump
by a threaded coupling. The motor is fitted on the discharge head which is either a
cast iron head or a fabricated Steel head. Ports are provided for connecting the
pressure gauge, stuffing box bypass return and lubricator connections.
Threaded or flanged column pipes provide positive shaft and bearing alignment.
Rubber lined bearings are spaced to provide vibration free operation for the line shafts.
the shaft is supported within the column by using bearing retainers in the column
assembly.
3.7.1. Starting Instructions:
• The gland should be gradually tightened after the pump has been set into
operation.
• Water should be allowed to drip during pump operation. Amount of drip should
be adjusted by means of the gland to ensure that stuffing box housing runs
cool.
• Lubricate bearing cum seal cage by grease. Over greasing should be avoided.
Check direction of rotation of the motor. It should be counterclockwise when
looking from the top.
550
• Rubber bearings should be pre lubricated with water.

• Motor should be started and load checked. Abnormal loading of motor should
not be allowed
• Discharge should be checked for sand contents. In the case of excessive sand
in the initial stages, pump should be run till the water is clear otherwise sand in
the discharge column will settle into the bowl assembly and start abrasive action
for the running pump components.
3.7.2. Troubles and their causes:
1) Jammed Rotor i.e. the pump can’t be rotated by hand
If the rotor of the pump cannot be rotated by hand, the pump should not be started
until its cause has not been ascertained and the defect removed. Jamming can be due
to either a foreign object sticking within the running clearances of the pump rotor or
the rotating parts having developed encrustation bond with the stationary parts on
account of a long idle period. In either case, rotor of the pump should be moved up
and down by means of the Top Nut. Encrustation layers if any, would generally
breakdown and the pump would become free. Foreign objects of smaller size may slip
down via the hydraulic passages of the pump, and the pump may become free to
rotate. If jamming persists, pump must be pulled out and reinstalled.
2) Reduction in Discharge:
If the pump is operated at its designated characteristics, it shall deliver the designed
discharge, however, if a reduction in capacity results, it may be on account of an
impeller becoming loose or worn out. If the pump gives excessive sand during running,
the abrasive action of sandy water increases the running clearances of the pump,
particularly that of the impeller neck against the wearing ring. This increase of
clearance causes excessive return of water from pressure side to the suction side of
the impellor, resulting loss of capacity.
3) Vibration:
Vibration of pump may be due to a number of reasons such as bent shafts, misaligned
bearings, unbalanced impellers or misalignment between motor and pump after pump
repairs and refitting. A pump vibrating in excess of permissible limits undergoes
accelerated wear and tear, and its life shortens considerably. Continuous vibration of
pump damages the bearings and sleeves and threaded connections of column
assembly.
551
Figure 10: A view of Deep Well Turbine Pump

552
3.7.3. Trouble Shooting:

Trouble Possible Cause
Pump does not discharge Pump is located above the water level
Suction pipe is not tight
Impellors are choked
Pump rotates in the wrong direction
Total head is high and requires more stages
Motor voltage low
Pump does not provide sufficient Pump supplied is not conforming to the site operating
discharge conditions
Speed of motor is too low due to low voltage
Wearing rings of bowl assembly are worn out
Impellers are choked
Impellers are damaged
Suction strainer is partly choked
Suction pipe is not tight
Water level in suction is too low
Pump vibrates Misalignment
Foundation not rigid
Impeller clogged
Shafts bent
Worn out bearings
Air or vapour entering pump on suction side
Column pipes improperly /loose joined
Motor fault (overheating, noisy, failure) Motor (defective winding, short circuiting, burnt)
Improper voltage (low or high)
Phase loss (missing/ reversal)
Overloading
Improper ventilation
Fuses not as per amperage sizes
Terminals (loose, rusted, moisture)
Circuit breaker faulty (under capacity, defective)
553
3.8. Vertical Tubular Casing Pumps:

Vertical tubular casing pumps work on the same principle as the deep well turbine
pump. As the name suggests, these pumps are housed in long cylindrical tubes, with
an axial-flow impeller mounted near the bottom end and the motor mounted at the top.
Water is drawn in at the bottom of the casing and exits through a discharge head near
the top. The motor is fitted at the top and long shaft connecting the motor to the
impeller runs down the centre of the casing and is carried on a maintenance-free
ceramic bearing. This type of pump provides highly efficient way of lifting large
quantities of water to moderate heights and supplying it to land at higher level. In
Irrigation Department such pumps of KSB brand are installed at lift schemes of Balloki
Division.
The maintenance requirements and possible causes of malfunction are the same as
for the deep well turbine pumps.
3.9. Split Casing Centrifugal Pump:
This is a centrifugal pump but the casing is split into two separate chambers. This type
of casing design is more economical for higher flow applications, and the impeller can
be supported by bearings on both sides which is an advantage for larger, higher flow
pumps. The pump has the suction and discharge connections in the lower half of the
casing, opposed to each other. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is supported
by bearings on both sides. The added advantage over normal centrifugal pump is that
the split casing design provides easy access to all rotating parts. Such pumps are
installed at Pai Khel lift Irrigation Scheme, Mianwali, with 50 cusecs discharge.
Installation instructions
• Sufficient space around the pump for installation, care and disassembly.
• The building must have sufficient drainage facilities for disposal of leakage,
priming liquids, flushing of sealing devices etc.
• Risk of flooding the pump, motor and control panel should be taken care of.
• Pump be sited as low as possible to the liquid level to be pumped so as to have
shortest possible suction pipe
• Suction pipe to have minimum no. of bends
• Proper ventilation necessary for cooling of motor.
• The foundation to be sufficiently strong to absorb vibrations
• Perfect alignment between pump and motor
• Headroom to be provided for the use of crane, hoist or other necessary lifting
devices.
554
Figure 11: Vertical Tubular casing Pump
Figure 12: Horizontal Split casing Pump

555
Trouble Shooting
In majority of cases, operational difficulties are external to the pump and following
causes should be carefully investigated before undertaking repairs:
I. No Water Delivered
• Pump not primed – indicated by no pressure on discharge.
• Speed too low – indicated by low pressure on discharge.
• Valve closed – indicated by high discharge head.
• Impeller completely plugged up – indicated by low discharge pressure.
II. Abnormally Small Quantities Delivered
• Air leaks in suction pipe or stuffing boxes.
• Speed too low.
• Discharge head higher than anticipated.
• Impeller partially plugged up.
• Obstruction in suction line.
• Mechanical defects: casing rings worn, impeller damaged, casing or seal
defective.
III. Insufficient Pressure
• Speed too low. Might be caused by low voltage or current characteristics
different from nameplate reading on the motor.
• Air in water will cause the pump to make a cracking noise.
• Mechanical defects: worn casing rings, damaged impeller, defective casing
or seal.
IV. Intermittent Operation
• Leaky suction line.
• Water seal plugged (hence, a leaky stuffing box).
• Suction lift too high.
• Air, gas or vapor in liquid.
V. Pump Overloads Motor
• Speed too high.
• Head lower than rated, hence, pumping too much water. (This is valid for
low specific speed pumps).
• Mechanical defects: stuffing boxes too tight, shaft bent, rotating element
binds.
• Rubbing due to foreign matter in the pump between the case rings and the
impeller
VI. Pump Vibrates
• Misalignment.
• Foundation not sufficiently rigid.
556
• Impeller partially clogged.

• Mechanical defects: bent shaft, rotating element binds, bearings worn,
coupling defective.
• Suction and discharge pipes not anchored.
• Pump cavitating from too high a suction lift.
• Air entrainment in the pump suction due to low submergence.
References:
1. Installation and Operating Instructions for Deep Well Turbine Pumps by KSB
Pump Company Ltd
2. KSB Product Introduction for Tubular Axial Flow Pump
3. The Chemical Engineers’ Resource --- WWW.cheresource.com
4. Maintenance Guidelines, Machinery Reliability Programs ---- Luis F. Rizo,
PE 4 Mates Way Waterford, New York 12188-1165
5. Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of Deep Well Turbine (DWT)
Pumps
---- Goulds Water Technology
6. Reading Centrifugal Pump Curves By Zane Satterfield, P. E., NESC
Engineering Scientist – http://WWW.nesc.wuv.edu/techbrief.com
7. Peerless Pumps --- WWW.PEERLESSPUMP.COM
8. Installation, Operation, and Maintenance Manual for Horizontal Process
Pumps RuhRPumpen Inc. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
9. Operating Manual for Centrifugal and Self Priming Pumps --- Pompetravani
S.P.A Zona Industriale 20022 CASTANO, PRIMO ITALIA
557
4. IRRIGATION WORKSHOPS
4.1. Introduction
With the advent of canal irrigation system in the Sub Continent, the need for repair of
gates and gearings of barrages and canal head regulators was felt, so a workshop
was established in Amritsar (India) in early 20th century, named as Central Irrigation
Workshop Amritsar. Subsequently, Mughalpura Irrigation Workshop (MIW) was
established in Lahore, in 1944 as a branch of Central Irrigation Workshop Amritsar.
After Independence in 1947, the MIW was the only workshop in the country to cater
for the fabrication and repair of gates and hoisting systems for barrages and head
regulators of canals.
A Central Stores Division Lahore and an Excavator Division Faisalabad (previously
Lyallpur) were also established along with the MIW in 1944 under a Mechanical Circle
Lahore to administer and control the working of machinery and mechanical equipment
of the department. During construction of Taunsa barrage on river Indus, another
workshop was established at Bhalwal (District Sargodha) in 1955 for fabrication of
gates and hoisting system of Taunsa Barrage. A design section for designing gates is
working in Mechanical Circle Lahore, to provide detailed designs of gates and allied
equipment required to be fabricated.
4.2. Mughalpura Irrigation Workshop (MIW):
As already stated above, the MIW was commissioned in 1944 for fabrication and repair
of gates and hoists for barrages and canal head regulators. The workshop is headed
by an Executive Engineer supported by two Assistant Engineers (SDOs) and has been
meeting the requirements for gates and hoisting systems all over Punjab as well as
NWFP (Khyber Pakhtoon Khaw) till 1990s’. In addition, repair of departmental
earthmoving machinery, vehicles and T/Well pumps was also done by the MIW.
During 1984-86, the Workshop was renovated under US AID Program, old buildings
were repaired, new buildings were constructed and some new equipment for
overhauling of heavy earthmoving machinery was installed. The Workshop has
following shops
1. Electric Shop 6. Vehicle Repair Shop 11. Carpenter Shop
2. Engine Shop 7. Transport Shop 12.Painter Shop
3. Steel Shop 8. Machine Shop 13. Civil Shop
4. Welding Shop 9. Fitting Shop
5. Smithy Shop 10. Foundry Shop
The Workshop is capable to perform following functions:
❖ Repair, fabrication and installation of gates and gearings of barrages and canal
regulators
❖ Repairs of pumping machinery of Lift Irrigation Schemes & T/wells
❖ Rewinding of electric motors
558
❖ Overhauling of earthmoving machinery

❖ Repair / overhauling of vehicles and other transportation machinery
❖ Providing heavy duty trailers for shifting of gates and earthmoving machinery
4.2.1. Accounting System of MIW:
Since inception, the MIW was working under Central Amritsar Workshop Rules which
were based on commercial accounting system. After independence in 1947, the
Government issued sanction for the adoption of Amritsar Workshop system of
accounts vide letter No: 43-61/229/41 dated 28.6.1949. Under these rules, a Balance
Sheet is prepared covering all the transactions of workshop on annual basis. Various
expenditures for running the Workshop during the year are classified under the
following sub heads.
Labour Charges: These consist of:

• Salary
• TA/DA
of labour, supervisory staff and security staff, incurred on the particular jobs
Material Charges: These cover the cost of stores issued to the particular job, or
materials procured and used on a job directly (without stores)
Factory Charges: These cover the
1) salaries of officers and office establishment
2) Leave, pension and contingent charges
3) interest on Capital Investment and Depreciation Charges
4) M&R charges of buildings and T&P
General Charges: These consist of
1) Utility charges (Electricity, Gas and water)
2) Cost of consumable stores in Workshop
3) Cost of repair to Workshop equipment
559
4) Cost of liveries
5) Pay of work-charge staff and idle labour
6) Transportation charges in connection with management of workshop
7) Expenditure in connection with court cases
Office Charges: These include
• interest on capital value of T&P, its depreciation and M&R Charges
• interest on capital value of buildings, its depreciation and M&R Charges
• Establishment Charges, TA, Contingencies, Electric and Telephone charges
Store Supervision Charges: These include
➢ Interest on capital value of stock in hand
➢ Depreciation and maintenance of tools and plants (T&P) of store
➢ Share of Establishment Charges (other than work-charge) and a proportionate
share of General Office Charges
In the commercial accounting system, all direct and indirect charges are recovered
from the jobs executed by the workshop. Thus for every job executed in the MIW, a
job order is opened and direct expenditures (Labour and Material charges) incurred
on the job in relevant shops (such as Foundry, Machine etc) are recorded and
compiled when the job is completed.
The Indirect Charges under the sub heads mentioned above are estimated for the
whole year on the basis of anticipated as well as previous year’s expenditures and a
proportionate share of Indirect Charges is charged to the job on the basis of total
estimated cost of jobs to be done by the Workshop during the whole year.
An analysis of the actual expenditures under General Charges, Factory Charges,
Office Charges and Store Supervision Charges was done in the past decades (when
there was sufficient workload in the workshop), and it was observed that these are
proportional to the labour charges in the following ratio.
General Charges (GC) : 70% of labour charges
Factory Charges (FC) : 50% of labour charges
Office Charges for work at site : 22.5% of labour charges at site
Store Supervision Charges 10% cost of material
Thus, since last 20 – 25 years, Indirect Charges are being levied on the jobs executed
in the workshop in the above proportion. Since the workshop is getting much less work
load (few jobs) than its full capacity, the labour is not fully utilized and consequently
the Indirect Charges, especially GC and FC are not fully recovered (100%) on the
basis of above percentages. The result is that the Balance Sheet shows workshop
going in loss. Therefore, this proportion needs to be reviewed after a certain interval
of time so as to balance the income and expenditures in the Balance Sheet prepared
on annual basis. At the same time, there is a need to provide more work load to the
workshop to utilize its working capacity.
An example for calculating the cost to be charged from a job is given below.
560
Direct Charges on the Job:

1. Cost of material issued on the job = Rs. 10,000/-
2. Labour charges in workshops = Rs. 2500/-
3. Labour charges at site = Rs. 1000/-
Total = Rs. 13500/-
Then Indirect Charges are calculated as
i. GC = 0.7 x 2500 = Rs.1750/-
ii. FC = 0.5 x 2500 = Rs.1250/-
iii. Store Supervision Charges = 0.1 x 10,000 =Rs. 1000/-
iv. Office Charges = 0.225 x 1000 =Rs. 225/-
Total = Rs. 4225/-
Total expenditure on the job = 13500/- + 4225/- = Rs. 17725/-
4.3. Bhalwal irrigation Workshop (BIW):
This workshop was established in 1955 for fabrication of gates and hoists for Taunsa
Barrage. In addition this workshop has manufactured and installed gates at several
canals and head works in Punjab as well as in NWFP (now Khyber Pakhtoon Khaw).
The workshop is equipped with foundry and all types of machine tools and can
fabricate gates up to 60 feet width.
The workshop was renovated during 1984-86 under US AID Program and new
earthmoving machinery (Dozers, Excavators and Scrapers etc) received under US
AID for the Machinery Circle was unloaded and assembled at BIW. New engine
overhauling shop for overhauling the engines of earthmoving machinery was
established in BIW besides improving the existing workshops. Complete overhauling
of Draglines (Engine, Tracks) has been done in this workshop in the past.
4.3.1. Accounting System:
The Workshop is headed by an Executive supported by two Assistant Engineers
(SDOs). The Workshop is not running on commercial accounting system like MIW but
works according to the Departmental Financial Rules of Punjab Government. Thus
charges actually incurred on the job are recovered from the indenting Divisions. The
workshop labour is regular government establishment and budget for electricity
charges for the workshop is also allocated by the government. However, cost of
running Generator (during load shedding/electric breakdown) is recovered from the
jobs in hand. Liveries for the labour, T&P charges, and transportation cost from
workshop to the site of installation of gates and consumable materials are charged to
the jobs undertaken in the workshop.
On receipt of a job, the site is visited by XEN/AE and scope of work assessed.
Drawings are prepared in the Design Section of Mechanical Circle and sent to the
Executive Engineer BIW who works out material cost. Remaining expenditures are
estimated in the following ratio.
561
1. Material cost 40% of total cost

2. T&P charges 20% of total cost
3. Consumable materials 10% of total cost
4. Labour liveries, hot and cold charges at site 10% of total cost
5. Transportation charges 20% of total cost
Total 100%
References:
1. Mechanical Circle Irrigation Department, Lahore
562
i
HYDRAULIC MODELING
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Table of Contents
1 HYDRAULIC MODELING .......................................................................................... 563
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 563
1.2 Physical Models .................................................................................................. 563
1.2.1 Hydraulic Similitude ..................................................................................... 563
1.2.2 Geometric Similarity ..................................................................................... 563
1.2.3 Types of Physical Model .............................................................................. 571
1.2.4 Data Requirements for Physical Hydraulic Modeling. ................................... 573
1.3 Introduction to Mathematical Modelling ............................................................... 575
1.3.1 General: ....................................................................................................... 575
1.3.2 Categories of Modelling ............................................................................... 576
1.3.3 Model Calibration and Validation.................................................................. 582
1.3.4 Performance Evaluation Criteria of Mathematical Models ............................ 583
1.3.5 General Description of Some Models ........................................................... 584
1.4 Modelling Facilities of Punjab Irrigation Department ............................................ 586
1.4.1 Irrigation Research Institute ......................................................................... 586
1.5 Reference used in Mathematical Modelling Section ............................................ 589
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: GEOMETRIC SCALE MODEL OF DASU DAM ON 1:80 SCALE................................................... 573

FIGURE 2: DISTORTED SCALE MODEL OF JHELUM RIVER BELOW RASUL BARRAGE HORIZONTAL SCALE
1:150 VERTICAL SCALE ................................................................................................................. 573
FIGURE 3: SECTIONAL MODEL OF DASU DAM SPILLWAY ...................................................................... 574
FIGURE 4: BLACK BOX MODEL ............................................................................................................... 577
FIGURE 5: PHASES OF MATHEMATICAL MODELLING ................................................................................. 579
FIGURE 6: ONE DIMENSIONAL ................................................................................................................ 580
FIGURE 7: TWO DIMENSIONAL ................................................................................................................ 580
FIGURE 8: THREE DIMENSIONAL ............................................................................................................. 581
FIGURE 9: LAYOUT OF FIELD STATION AT NANDIPUR ............................................................................... 587
ii
HYDRAULIC MODELING
563
HYDRAULIC MODELING
1 HYDRAULIC MODELING
1.1 Introduction
The design process includes hydraulic modeling to confirm the hydraulic behavior of
various components of the Project. Two different techniques are used for hydraulic
modelling. These include:
(i) Physical Modelling
(ii) Mathematical Modeling
Initially physical modeling was the only tool available. However, with the increase of
computational capacity of computers, mathematical modelling is also extensively used
now. Initially various options may be studied through mathematical modeling and the
most promising option is then subjected to physical modeling for confirmation of the
projected results. In the Punjab hydraulic modeling is done at the Irrigation Research
Institute laboratories at Lahore and Nandipur. A brief introduction of the Institute is
provided in Section 1.4.
1.2 Physical Models
Physical models involve physical testing of designed project parameters on a model
built on a reduced scale. This requires a clear and accurate understanding of the
principles of similitude. Similitude is the study of similarity between prototype and the
model. A brief description of hydraulic similitude is given in Section 1.2.1.
1.2.1 Hydraulic Similitude
After collecting the data and information relating to the problem(s) to be studied, the
second stage is the fixation of model scales i.e. the ratio between the prototype values
and the model values. This requires a clear and accurate understanding of the
principles of similitude.
Experience indicates that it is necessary to confine similarity to a single force. Since
in most open channel flow problems, the force of gravity is the primary force, therefore,
only similitude in open channel flow problems is considered for the purpose of keeping
this discussion as simple as possible. This is the principal type of similitude which is
required in most of the works in Pakistan. Complete similitude requires conformity with
respect to geometric, kinematic and dynamic factors in model and prototype.
1.2.2 Geometric Similarity
Two objects are said to be geometrically similar if the ratios of all corresponding
dimensions are equal. Thus, the geometric similarity refers only to similarity in form.
For geometric similarity to exist, all linear dimensions are related by the equation;
Lm
= Lr
Lp
Where L stands for length and the subscripts m and p stand for model and prototype
respectively. The ratio of the two i.e. Lr is known as length ratio or linear model scale
564
HYDRAULIC MODELING
such as 1/15 or 1/50 etc. depending upon the space and discharge available for the
model. Similarly, Area ratio is expressed as:
Am L2m
Ar = = = L2r
Ap L2p
Volume ratio,
Volm L3m
Volr = = = L3r
Vol p L3p
And ratio of hydraulic radius

Am / Pm L2m / Lm Lm
Rr = = = = Lr
Ap / Pp L2p / Lp Lp
Kinematic similarity
Kinematic similarity implies that the ratio of the velocities at all corresponding points is
the same. It is expressed as:
𝑉
Vr=𝑉𝑃
𝑚
Its value in terms of scale ratio (Lr) will be determined by dynamic considerations as
explained in the subsection 1.2.2.2.
As time T is dimensionally L/V, the time scale is
Tr = Lr/Vr
𝐿𝑟
Similarly, acceleration is: 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑇 2
𝑟
Dynamic Similarity:
Dynamic similarity is similarity of forces. Forces that may act on a fluid element include:
Gravity FG= m g = 𝜌L2 𝑔
Pressure FP = (∆𝑝)𝐴 = (∆𝑝)𝐿2
𝑑𝑢 𝑉
Viscosity Fv = 𝜇 (𝑑𝑦 ) 𝐴 = 𝜇 (𝐿 ) 𝐿2 = 𝜇𝑉𝐿
Elasticity FE = 𝐸𝑉 𝐴 = 𝐸𝑉 𝐿2
Surface Tension FT = 𝜎𝐴
𝐿
Inertia FE = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝜌𝐿3 𝑇 2= 𝜌𝐿4 𝑇 −2 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2
Dynamic similarity will be achieved if following condition is satisfied and ratio of all
forces is equal i.e.,
𝐹𝐺 𝑝 𝐹𝑃𝑝 𝐹𝑉𝑝 𝐹𝐼𝑝
= = = (1.1)
𝐹𝐺 𝑚 𝐹𝑃𝑚 𝐹𝑉𝑚 𝐹𝐼𝑚
Where subscripts m and p refer to model and prototype respectively.

565
HYDRAULIC MODELING
a.) Reynold’s Number

Solution of equation (1.1) in terms of inertia and viscous forces gives the following
relation:
𝐹𝐼 𝐹𝐼
𝑅=( ) =( )
𝐹𝑉 𝑝 𝐹𝑉 𝑚
Where R, is known as Reynold’s number in honor of Osborne Reynolds who presented
this in a publication of his experimental work in 1882. Using relations in preceding
section, it can be shown that:
𝐹𝐼 𝜌𝐿𝑉 𝐿𝑉
𝑅= = = (1.2)
𝐹𝑉 𝜇 𝜈
Reynolds number is particularly important for pressure flow through conduits / siphons,
since gravity does not affect the flow pattern. Equation 1.2 together with Kinematic
similarity explained in Section 1.2.2.1 yields scale ratios summarized in Section 1.2.2.3
b.) Froude Number
Solution of equation (1.1) in terms of inertia and gravitational forces gives the following
relation
𝐹 𝐹
F=(𝐹 𝐼 ) =(𝐹 𝐼 )
𝐺 𝑝 𝐺 𝑚
The ratio of inertia to gravitational forces is defined It can be shown that:

𝐹𝐼 𝜌𝐿2 𝑉 2 𝑉2
= = (1.3)
𝐹𝑣 𝜌𝑔𝐿3 𝑔𝐿
Solution of above equation to express velocity V in the first power, as in Reynold’s
number yields following expression:
𝐕
𝑭= (1.4)
√𝐠𝐋
Where F is known as Froude Number, in honour of William Froude.

c.) Modelling
Making a model geometrically similar to prototype does not mean that model is also
kinematically similar to the prototype. Kinematic similarity is the similarity of motion
involving velocity, time, acceleration and discharge. Flow in open channels is entirely
dependent on the force of gravity. Thus to get the water flowing, a channel must have
a fall or gradient in the direction of flow to cause motion.
For kinematic similarity to exist between model and prototype, the flow must obey
Froude Law which states that for similarity of motion the Froude Number must have
the same value in model as in prototype.
V
Froude No. F =
gd
566
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Fm Vm / gd m
Or = =1
Fp V p / gd p
Where V & d are velocity & depth of flow respectively.

From the above, the velocity ratio
Vm dm
Vr = = = hr
Vp dp
hm
Where hr vertical scale ratio = and h is vertical scale of model
hp
𝑉𝑟 2
Thus ℎ𝑟
Lm / Vm L
tr = = 1r
Lp / Vp
hr2
in case of geometric model tr = yr
Distance
If acceleration is defined as;
Time2
am Lm / tm2 Lr Lr
Acceleration ratio = = = 2 = = 1 in case of geometric model.
a p Lp / t p2 tr Lr
L3
Discharge can be expressed as so that
t
5
Qm L3m / tm L3r
Discharge ratio Qr = = = 1 = Lr2 for geometric model.
Qp L3p / t p
Lr2
3
For distorted model as defined in section 1.2.3.1(b) Qr = LrYr2
Should the fluids in model and prototype be different, as can happen in special cases,
the term g would not be dropped as was done in deriving the velocity ratio because
in that case gm  g p and g r would occur in each of the above expressions of Kinematic
similarity.
So Vr = ( yr g r )
t r = ( yr g r )
567
HYDRAULIC MODELING
5 1
and Qr = yr 2 g r 2
w w
The density of any fluid is  = then g =
g 
w
if g is replaced by the above ratios would then read as

w 1 w 1 5
1 1
w 2
Vr = Lr ( ) 2 , Tr = Lr ( ) 2 , Qr = Lr 2 ( )
2
  
Thus for similarity in model and prototype, the Froude Law states that ratio of forces
on model & prototype will be proportional to each other.
Fm M m am
Fr = =
Fp M p a p
Or
Fm M m g m
Fr = =
Fp M p g p
Note that ' a ' has been replaced by ' g ' since acceleration in open channels is
produced by gravity. By assuming that the fluid in model and prototype is the same,
gm
=1
gp
Mass in the above expression equals volume x density or

w Vol  w w
F= = = Vol   since = 
g g g
Lm3 m
So mass ratio, M r = = L3r since m =  p
Lp  p
3
Similarly, other dynamic ratios can be obtained from those already developed. Since
Energy = Force x Distance
Fm Lm
Energy ratio Er = = L3r Lr = L4r
Fp LP
L 3  Lr Lr 4
7
Fm Lm / tm
Power ratio pr = = r = 1 = Lr in case of single scale model.
2
Fp Lp / t p tr
Lr 2
568
HYDRAULIC MODELING
1 7
Fmtm
Ir = = Lr 3  Lr = Lr
2 2
Impulse ratio Fp t p
1 7
FmVm
Mr = = Lr 3  Lr = Lr
2 2
Momentum ratio FpV p
If impulse and momentum are equated, it will be found that they bear the same
dimensions
F  t = M V
Or
MLt ML
Mat = 2
= = MV
t t
The above scale ratios are shown summarized in the following table for convenient
use.
Summary of Scale Ratios
Characteristics Dimension Scale ratio for
Froude law Reynold’s Law
(Geometric)
Length L Lr Lr
Area L2 Lr2 Lr2
Volume L3 Lr3 Lr3
Hydraulic Radius R Rr Lr
(Kinematic)
Time t Lr1/2 (L2 ρ/µ)r
Velocity L/t Lr1/2 (µ/Lρ)r
Acceleration L/t2 1:1 (µ2 ρ-2 L-3)r
Discharge (L µ/ρ)r
Channel Roughness L2/3/L1/2 Lr1/6
(Dynamic)
Mass L3 Lr3 (L3 ρ)r
Force L3 Lr3 (µ2/ρ)r
Energy FL Lr4 (L µ2/ρ)r
Power F L/t Lr7/2 (µ3 L-1ρ-2)r
Impulse and momentum F x t = MV Lr7/2 (L2µ)r
569
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Similarity Laws for Movable Bed River Models

There is one requirement for similitude which the above relationships do not
automatically include; the model should be of mobile bed material and flow in model
should be turbulent to get bed scour similar to prototype scour. Following similarity
laws are used for sediment transport modelling1:
 (s − 1) g 
1/ 3
Dimensionless particle diameter d * = d  

 υ 
2
Particle Reynold’s No. = 8 1 + 0.0139d * − 1 (Julien 1995)

3
 
24
Coefficient of Drag, C D = + 1.5 Engelund and Hansen (1967)
Re
4
( s − 1) gd
And hence fall velocity  s = 3
CD
Let
Vr = Scale Ratio for Velocity = Vm/Vp
Lr = Scale Ratio for Horizontal distance
Yr = Scale Ratio for vertical distances (depths)
Rr = Scale Ratio for Hydraulic Radius
dr = Scale Ratio for sediment size
ʋr = Scale Ratio for Kinematic viscosity = 1
gr = Scale Ratio for acceleration due to gravity = 1
For Hydraulic Similarity

Froude No. Similarity
Vr = Yr1/2
Where r represents scale (Model / Prototype)
For Sediment Transport
Particle Reynold’s Number
u* d
R* = should be same for model and prototype, which results in relation

1Refer to “Open Channel Hydraulics” by Terry W Sturm, Page 375 to 377, equations 10.4, 10.8, 10.9
and 10.10
570
HYDRAULIC MODELING
2
Rr Yr d r
=1 (1)
Lr r
2
Lr
dr =
Rr Yr
Particle Froude No.

2
u
Fs = * should be some for model and porotype,
2
gd
where α = s – 1
d is particle diameter
s is the specific gravity of the sediment particle
This results in
Rr Yr
=1 (2)
 r Lr d r
Rr Yr
dr =
 r Lr
Solving 1 and 2 simultaneously results in relation between r and dr
−1 / 3
dr = r (3)
Note: To satisfy both Equation (1) and (2), equation (3) must be fulfilled, otherwise
only one equation can be satisfied
Ratio of Shear Velocity to fall velocity
 u* 
  =1
 w r
which implies
wm = w p R r (4)
For simulation of sediment transport, equations (1) through (4) need to be satisfied.
Dynamic similarity for a movable-bed river model requires that conditions given by
Eqs. (1) to, (4), be satisfied. As in case of fixed bed models, all the conditions cannot
be satisfied. Thus, to simulate mobile bed models, following considerations are made:
(i) Review of Shields diagram show that influence of grain Reynold number
on initiation of motion is not significant for Re*>70. In practice, problems
of sediment transport in rivers mostly involve this range.
571
HYDRAULIC MODELING
(ii) Equation 1 above can be ignored for such conditions. However for such
cases, sediment scaling shall be carried such that Re* in model is also
above 70 while fully satisfying conditions of Equation (2) above. This
results in following relationships
Yr2
dr = for distorted scale
 r Lr
and
Lr
dr = for Geometric Scale Model
r
If same specific gravity sediment is used, then very small sediment size will be required
to be used in model, which will result in change in roughness characteristics as well
as type of sediment (cohesionless transport will be transformed to cohesive transport).
Therefore to truly represent the model, it is necessary that bed material be composed
of lighter weight material such as lignite, haydite and cornmeal.
In practice, procurement of lighter weight material is difficult and costly. Thus phyiscal
models are generally constructed of sand, which has nearly same specific gravity as
that in prototype. This implies that mobile bed models in such case can only be used
for qualitative judgement
1.2.3 Types of Physical Model
The main function of a hydraulic model is to produce a flow situation in the model
similar to that in the prototype. In order to reproduce the results of the prototype, the
model must be similar to the prototype. The research engineer would prefer the model
to be an exact replica of the prototype, have all relationships mathematically correct,
be of as big a size as possible to reduce error and have a bed material that would
move in the model similar to the bed material in the prototype. However, practical
limitations of available space, funds, time and the model bed material make this
impracticable in many model studies.
Therefore, special modelling techniques are required to accurately reproduce
prototype occurrences.
Physical Models are classified on following two basis:
(i) Classification based on Scale Representation
a. Geometric Scale Models
b. Distorted Scale Models
(ii) Classification based on Representation (Whole or part models)
a. Comprehensive Model
b. Sectional Model
A brief description of various types of physical models is given below:
572
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Classification based on Scale Representation

a.) Geometric Scale Models
Geometric Scale Models are scale representation of model on true scale i.e., all scale
ratios are equal. This is the ideal case and is best to be achieved wherever possible.
However, large structures, such as barrages, bridges, when built on geometric scale
become very small with respect to the river reach. The flow depths predicted in the
model become very small (due to model scale). Practical limitations on the size of sand
/ surface roughness in the model, may result in conversion of turbulent flow to laminar
flow, which will alter the entire flow characteristics. This necessitates building distorted
models which have different vertical and horizontal scales.
Generally, when only a structure is to be tested, then Geometric scale models are
mostly constructable. However, if model test of approach conditions, downstream
impacts, river training works etc., is required, then the required model scales are so
large that distorted models have to be constructed.
b.) Distorted Models
As explained in preceding section, Geometric models cannot be used for all types of
structure. Distorted models are mostly used for rivers, harbours and reservoirs, the
prototypes of which have relatively rough surfaces and flatter slope belong to the
category of distorted models. Such models have different horizontal and vertical
scales. Distorted models have horizontal scale ratios that range from 1:500 to 1:50
and vertical scale ratios that range from 1:60 to 1:15. Classification based on Model
Representation (Whole or Part)
c.) Comprehensive Model
Comprehensive models are those in which complete hydraulic structure is modelled.
These can be either built on Geometric scale or on Distorted Scale as per the model
requirements. The river problems require different methods for physical modeling of
river reaches and hydraulic structures.
d.) Sectional Model
Sectional models are those in which only part of the prototype is modelled. These are
usually built on Geometric Scale and usually two bays of a structure are modelled in
such a way that one bay is constructed in the center with two half bays on either side.
However, size of model tray and discharge handling capacity limitations may require
modelling one or only part of the bay if required. These are prepared when precise
determination of flow characteristics such as coefficient of discharge, pressures,
aeration requirements and energy dissipation are to be analyzed. Error! Reference s
ource not found. shows sectional model of Dasu Dam Spillway.
573
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Models of falls, spillways, conduits

and other appurtenances, the
prototypes of which have relatively
steep slope and smooth surface fall in
the category of geometric scale or
true scale models. Such models are
not distorted and their scale ratio
ranges from 1:80 to 1:50 shows the
model of Dasu dam in operation.
The 242 m high dam will have 8 gated
spillways, 9 low level outlets, 2
diversion tunnels and two sediment
flushing tunnels. The project will have
generation capacity of 2,160 MW in
the first stage and ultimate capacity of
4,320 MW. All the project features Figure 1: Geometric Scale Model of
have been built to the scale of 1:80. Dasu Dam on 1:80 scale
Models involving river reaches such

as those for river training works,
modelling of upstream and
downstream flow conditions for
barrages, bridges etc., are normally
developed on distorted scale shows
the distorted model of River Jhelum
downstream Rasul Barrage.
Figure 2: Distorted Scale Model of

Jhelum River Below Rasul
Barrage Horizontal Scale
1:150 Vertical Scale
1.2.4 Data Requirements for Physical Hydraulic Modeling.

For the investigation of any problem through hydraulic modeling, the first and foremost
requirement is the complete and accurate data. The data required in connection with
the problem of rivers and hydraulic structures is as follows:
i. Plans and sections of the structure(s) i.e. complete drawings as built or
as proposed to be constructed.
ii. Plans and sections of the connecting channels some specific distance
upstream and downstream of the structure (topographic and
bathymetric surveys).
iii. Highest and lowest discharge for which the structure is designed with
574
HYDRAULIC MODELING
corresponding upstream and downstream water levels i.e. hydrograph

with corresponding water levels.
iv. Locations of gauges for which prototype water levels are given.
v. Information about the material forming bed and banks of the channels.
vi. Terms of reference for the model studies including parameters needed
to be confirmed.
Figure 3: Sectional Model of Dasu Dam Spillway

Factor to be Considered in Planning a Model Study
Many practical considerations impose limitation on objectives of model studies as well
as on the techniques to be employed in conducting the tests. The following conditions
are important in planning for model tests.
Time Construction of hydraulic works is usually undertaken soon after
preparation of designs. Therefore, the time available for model
studies, which are carried out after preparation of designs, becomes
limited. The project planning, design should therefore be so
regulated as to provide adequate time for model study and
interpretation.
Space Mobile bed river models require large space. Availability of adequate
space at the site of the model studies is therefore essential. HRS
Nandipur has ample space in 9 model trays.
Water Supply For conducting tests, river models require large quantity of water for
long periods of time. Therefore, availability of adequate quantity /
discharge of water is an essential requirement of physical model
studies.
Finance Availability of adequate finances is essential so that investigations
may be carried out uninterrupted.
Manpower Trained and experienced manpower is required in adequate
numbers during planning, execution of tests and report writing.
575
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Equipment Field implements, measuring equipment and computers are

required in adequate quantity. Telemetry equipments are also
required to transmit data from the model directly from the test sites
to the operation room for interpretation. (This facility is at the
moment not available in IRI Lahore).
Setting up and Running of a mobile bed model
Main steps for setting up and running of a mobile bed model are contained in brief in
the following:
1) Determine the scales to be used in the model.
2) Select a suitable sized tray.
3) Assume an optimal hydrograph for stream and corresponding levels.
4) Select the alluvium grading to be used in moulding the model stream
section.
5) Mould the stream prism in the alluvial bed of the model to the prescribed
scale.
6) Run the model for a full year and compare the water / bed levels
observed on the model with the actual received prototype levels to
calibrate the model. If the levels on the prototype and the model tally
reasonably the model stands calibrated, otherwise look for any
anomalies / errors in stream bed moulding or hydrograph or time scale.
7) After the model is calibrated, various tests can be carried out to evaluate
the proposed interventions.
Interpretation of Model Results
Observations are taken during model test program as per specially designed proforma.
For ease of measurement, gauges are normally pre-converted as per scale ratio so
that direct reading during model test is possible. Other measurements such as
pressure, velocity etc., have to be measured and projected for prototype conditions
using similarity laws.
It must be emphasized that interpretation of model test results should be carried out
with great care and caution. Model test results are greatly influenced by selected scale
and distortion of the scale ratios. Eddies considered minor in the model, may appear
as significant in prototype. Therefore, all observations should be carefully made and
recorded. This also means that the instruments to be used for measurement and
observations should be of high accuracy to achieve best and reliable results.
1.3 Introduction to Mathematical Modelling
1.3.1 General:
Mathematical modelling involves representation of physical processes through
mathematical relations. Simplest mathematical models involve mathematical relations
576
HYDRAULIC MODELING
such as Manning’s Equation, Chezy Equation, Standard Step Method for water
surface profile computation etc. In other words, a model is a system that will convert
a given input (geometry, boundary conditions, force, etc.) into an output (flow rates,
levels, pressures, etc.) to be used in civil engineering design and operation. Simulation
may be direct by the use of hydraulic models, semi-direct using analogues or
indirect by making use of theoretical and computer-based analysis, including
mathematical, computational and numerical models.
1.3.2 Categories of Modelling
There are two main categories of modeling techniques used in water resources field
which are explained here;
1) Hydrologic Modelling
2) Hydraulic Modelling
3) Groundwater Modelling
4) Crop Water / Irrigation Scheduling Models
5) Decision Support System Models
Hydrologic Model:
A hydrologic model is a simplification of a real-world system (e.g., surface water, soil
water, wetland, groundwater, estuary) that aids in understanding, predicting, and
managing water resources. Both the flow and quality of water are commonly studied
using hydrologic models. Hydrological models are divided into two categories; one is
physical models which involve physical representation of natural phenomena making
small scale physical models and second one is abstract models which represent
system in mathematical form with set of governing equations. Some of the commonly
used hydrological models include HEC-HMS, HEC-SSP, DHI Mike HYDRO, SWAT
etc.
a) Categories of Hydrological Models
Hydrological Models can be further categorized into following types of models:
• Black Box Models
• Lumped Models
• Semi-Distributed Models
• Distributed Models
Black Box models
Models describe mathematically the relation between variables (e.g. rainfall and
surface runoff) without describing the physical process by which they are related e.g.
unit hydrograph approach, Artificial Neural Network (ANN); Rational formula etc.
Below. Figure 4 is example of Black box.
Lumped Models
A Lumped model considers the whole catchment as a single unit. Hydrological
parameters are averaged for the watershed. For example, Slope elevation, soil type,
land cover and all other associated properties. Lumped parameters models don’t
explicitly take into account the spatial variability of inputs, output or parameters. They
577
HYDRAULIC MODELING
take all the data for sub catchment and combine it into a single number or set of
numbers, that define the response of the basin to certain inputs. This model is not
suitable for spatial GIS database; however, GIS-based spatial parameters can be
lumped to run lumped parameter watershed models. Examples of Lumped Model are
the Stanford Watershed Model (SWM) and Hydrological Modeling System (HEC-
HMS) [2].
Figure 4: Black Box Model

Semi-Distributed Model
In this type of model some parameters are lumped and some parameters are
distributed and these models use conceptual functional relationships for different
hydrological processes applied to a number of relatively homogeneous subareas of
the catchment which are treated as lumped units. Some of the examples include:
• SWAT Model
• HEC-HMS (using sub-catchments)
Distributed Model
Distributed models consider spatial variation in inputs, and parameters in general, the
watershed area is divided into a number of elements and water balance component
are first calculated separately for each element. Data for each element inside the
watershed is used to compute surface and subsurface flows within that element
accumulative at outlet are calculated by accumulating and routing upslope flows.
These models are suited with spatial database (GIS databases). One example of
distributed model is System Hydrological European Model (SHE). These models are
based on the complex physical theory i.e based on the solution of governing equations
e.g model based on the unsteady flow St. Venant equations for watershed and
unsteady flow modeling in water body.
b) Various Available Hydrological Models
Some of the available Hydrological Models are:
• 3D-Catchment Conceptual Multilayer Model (ArcEGMO)
• Hydrological River Basin Environment Assessment Model (HydroBEAM)
• Hydrospheric Atmospheric Sciences Model (IHAS)
• Kinematic Runoff and Erosion Model, Version 2 (KINEROS2)
• Physically-Based Distributed Erosion Model (MEFIDIS)
• DHI Mike Hydro
• MIKE SHE
578
HYDRAULIC MODELING
• MIKE SWMM
• Storm Water Management Model (SWMM)
• HEC-HMS and HEC-GeoHMS
• Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)
c) Data Requirements for Mathematical Models
The accuracy of the model result is highly dependent on the input data, before using
the data it is necessary to check the data source and accuracy. The designer must
compile the data that are specific to the subject site. Following are the major types of
data that may be required.
• Watershed characteristics
• Stream reach data (especially in the vicinity of the facility)
• Other physical data in the general vicinity of the facility such as utilities
or easements;
• Hydrologic and Meteorological data (stream flow and rainfall data
related to maximum or historical peaks as well as low flow discharges
and hydrographs applicable to the site)
• Existing and proposed landuse data in the subject drainage area and in
the general vicinity of the facility
• Anticipated changes in landuse and/or watershed characteristics
(MODIS Satellite)
• Grid based data (elevation, land use, water shed characteristics for
distributed / semi-distributed models)
d) Selection of Type of Model to be Used
Type of Model to be used is highly dependent on following factors:
(i) Available time for analyses
(ii) Quality of available data
(iii) Accuracy desired
(iv) Computational skill of modelling team
If available data is limited then black-box models or lumped models are better suited.
If distributed / semi-distributed models are used, then more detailed data is required,
which needs to be pre-processed before input into the model to ensure good quality
output.
e) Steps of Hydrologic Modelling
Various steps involved in hydrologic modelling are shown in Error! Reference source n
ot found.
Data Collection
Phase I Model Input Preparation
Parameter Evaluation
579
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Model Calibration
Phase II Model Validation Model Testing
Phase III Analysis of Alternatives

Figure 5: Phases of Mathematical Modelling
Mathematical Hydraulic Model
A mathematical hydraulic model is a model of a water/sewer/storm system and is
used to analyze the system's hydraulic behavior. Hydraulic modelling enables the
accurate estimation of water levels and flood extents in rivers and other hydraulic
structures.
A number of models and softwares have been developed by various researchers,
institutes and organizations based on modeling categories and method of calculation
of modeling which are explained above. With advancement of computer technology
and speed, three dimensional softwares are very common which solves complex
mathematical equations like Navier Stokes equation and Saint Venant equations etc.
These models are very less time consuming and cost effective rather than physical
models which involve scaling effect. Numerical Modelling is classified into following
types:
• One Dimensional Models
• Two Dimensional Models
• Semi Three Dimensional Models
• Three Dimensional Models
One Dimensional Model (1D):
Flow is passed along a pre-determined path (from upstream to downstream). Velocity
is averaged across each node. One dimensional models are best for channel flow as
well as good for modeling of structures and piped system. HEC-RAS is an example of
1-Dimensional model. It does not capture dynamic of structures and outfall Error! R
eference source not found.is example of 1D flow.
Two-Dimensional Model:
Flow moves across a horizontal mesh (regular or irregular). Velocity is calculated in
two directions but depth is averaged in two dimensional models. The model cannot
calculate velocity at every point for flow of water in canal/rivers etc. is example of 2D
flow.
Semi-Three-Dimensional Models
Semi-Three-Dimensional Models are models which use concepts of 1D or 2D
hydraulics, however they use some additional relations to approximately express the
results in 3 Dimensional form. One of example of such models is GSTARS 3 which
computes hydraulic and sediment transport in 1D mode, but cross-section is estimated
in 3 dimensions.
580
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Figure 6: One Dimensional2
Figure 7: Two Dimensional3

Three-Dimensional Model (3D)
Flow moves in any direction (3-dimensions). Velocities vary in three dimensions. In
three-dimensional modeling, we can calculate pressure along the chute of spillway,
velocity and other flow parameters easily at every desired point. Three dimensional
models are used for complex modeling of hydraulic structures. Flow-3D, Star-CD,
Fluent, Mike-11 are few examples of 3D modeling software which are available in
market. Long model run time simulation is limitation of three modeling is example of
three-dimensional modeling.
Data Requirements
Generally following type of data is required:
• Flood plain and environmental regulations. Watershed, stream reach
and site characteristic data, as well as data on other physical
characteristics. This data can be obtained from a field reconnaissance
of the site. Examination of available maps and aerial photographs of the
watershed is also an excellent means of defining physical
characteristics of the watershed.
• Estimation of roughness of nullah (Manning’s ‘n’ or Chezy ‘C’).
2 https://membersfloodplain.site-ym/resource/.../Comparison-and-Utilization-o.pdf
581
HYDRAULIC MODELING
• Topographic details as per model requirement (cross-sections for 1D,

2D modelling, while Digital Terrain Model is required for 3D modelling)
Figure 8: Three Dimensional4

List of Various Hydraulic Models
• HEC-RAS – (Hydrologic Engineering Center – River Analysis System)
• Branched Lagrangian Transport model (BLTM)
• Diffusion Analogy Flow Model (DAFLOW)
• Full Equations Model (FEQ)
• Illinois Hydrodynamic Watershed Model III (IHW-III)
• DHI MIKE 11
• Two-Dimensional Alluvial River and Floodplain Model (DHI MIKE21
CHD & CST)
• Two-Dimensional Floodplain Model (MIKE21 HD)
• Urban Drainage and Sewer Model (MOUSE)
• Interactive River-Aquifer Simulation Program (IRAS)
• SOBEK (Delft Hydraulics)
Groundwater Models
As the name suggests, Groundwater models simulate groundwater flow conditions.
Modflow is a commonly used Groundwater Modelling software.
582
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Decision Support System Models

Models made to aid in decision making are called decision support system models
(DSS). These incorporate analyses technics such as Linear Programming, Dynamic
Programming, Genetic Algorithm, Fuzzy Logic etc., to optimize various options
available. These can either be based on Spreadsheet or can be commercially
available such as DHI Mike Basin.
Environmental Models
Models which carry out modelling of environmental parameters are called
environmental models. These are either coupled with Hydraulic Models (such as HEC-
RAS, DHI Mike 11 etc.,) or may be standalone models (such as Qual 2K). Moreover,
these are also differentiated as either lumped models or process based models. Some
of the Environmental Models Used are:
• Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution Models (AGNPS 98)
• Areal Nonpoint Source Watershed Environmental Simulation
(ANSWERS)
• Continuous Annual Simulation Model (CALSIM)
• Erosion Productivity-Impact Calculator/ Environmental Policy Integrated
Climate (EPIC)
• Hydrologic Simulation Program-Fortran (HSPF)
• LOAD ESTimator (LOADEST)
• One-dimensional Transport with Equilibrium chemistry (OTEQ)
• Illinois Least-Cost Sewer System Design Model (ILSD)
• Illinois Urban Storm Runoff Model (IUSR)
• Water Quality/Solute Transport (OTIS)
• Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)
• Large Scale Catchment Model, formerly CALSIM (WRIMS)
• QUAL2K
1.3.3 Model Calibration and Validation
After the successful run of the model it is necessary to calibrate and validate the model.
A brief description on calibration and validation process is given below;
Model calibration
Calibration is a stage of modeling in which the parameters of the model are adjusted
either manually or using the inverse programs (auto-calibration models). This stage is
conducted via fitting the model observation, i.e output data of each run, against the
real observation data of the phenomena being studied.
There are two basic methods used for the calibration of hydrologic models. The first
method is a guided trial and error procedure where the users knowledge of the model
and how each parameter affects the results are used to control changes to parameter
values. Decisions as to which parameters to change are made primarily by comparing
simulated versus observed values, especially hydrograph plots. This procedure is
583
HYDRAULIC MODELING
most effective when interactive, graphical software is available to view the results and
make parameter changes. The calibration is finished when the user subjectively
determines that the objectives have been met
The second method is automated calibration, in this method various computer
algorithms are used to achieve the best simulated reproduction of observed values,
typically mean daily discharge. The algorithms contain strategies for varying the values
of user specified parameters in an attempt to obtain an optimal fit. Typically the user
can apply limits on the range over which parameter values can vary in the hope of
obtaining more physically realistic results. The quality of the reproduction is often
determined by a single statistical objective function, such as minimizing the daily root
mean square error. Sometimes a series of steps are used where different groups of
parameters and different objective functions are used at each step (e.g. the objective
function used for parameters affecting low flows may differ from the function used for
parameters that primarily control storm runoff). In some approaches multiple objective
functions are used to try to find a group of parameters sets that will produce good
results based on several criteria. Then the user can choose subjectively from this
group of parameter sets. Automatic optimization has been primarily used for the
calibration of individual watersheds, mainly headwater drainages. There are limited
strategies available for using automated optimization over entire river basins.
Model Validation
The ultimate goal of modeling is to make prediction for periods or situations
where there is no available data and only by the use of model, one can gain
information about them. Hence, the calibrated model in previous stage is tested on
another set of data (known as validation data) to test goodness of fit. If the results are
acceptable, the model calibration is said to be validated. If results are not acceptable,
then the calibrated parameters are modified suitably so that both calibration results
and re-validation results are within acceptable range.
It may be noted that this step, which is very critical, is mostly omitted due to lack of
validation data. However, maximum effort should be made that model can be validated
on at least one additional set of data to achieve better and more reliable results.
1.3.4 Performance Evaluation Criteria of Mathematical Models
A sensitivity analysis is a technique used to determine how different values of an
independent variable impact a particular dependent variable under a given set of
assumptions. Every model consists of different parameters. A sensitivity analysis is
performed to check which parameter is most sensitive. A little / minor change in value
of most sensitive parameters have a significant effect on the output /results of model.
From a scientific or practical point of view, the application of mathematical models
aims to reproduce measurements with acceptable accuracy (Seibert, 2001). Various
statistical tools are utilized in order to assess a model’s quantitative performance
(Moriasi et al., 2007). Quantitative assessment of the models’ prediction accuracies is
done by calculating root mean square error (RMSE) (Deshmukh et al., 2013), Nash–
584
HYDRAULIC MODELING
Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) (Nash and Sutcliffe, 1970), and percent bias (PBIAS)
(Moriasi et al., 2007). Mathematically, these performance evaluation indicators are
respectively expressed as follows:
Where Qcomp and Qobs are the computed / predicted and observed runoff values for
storms events, respectively. Qobs is the mean of the observed runoff values from a
watershed.
RMSE is widely used as a goodness-of-fit indicator that describes the difference
between the observed and predicted values in the same units. Smaller RMSE values
(optimum = 0.0, perfect fit) describe a better model runoff prediction.
In addition, the NSE is widely used for efficiency determination of hydrologic models
ranging from -1 to 1.0 (optimum = 1.0, perfect fit). A model is judged to be satisfactory
with NSE > 0.50 (Moriasi et al., 2007). Ritter and Muñoz-Carpena (2013) established
a hydrologic model performance rating where NSE < 0.65 (unsatisfactory) was
deemed a lower threshold. Other model performance ratings were acceptable (0.65 ≤
NSE < 0.80), good (0.80 ≤ NSE < 0.90), and very good (NSE ≥ 0.90).
Similarly, the PBIAS quantifies a model’s tendency to underestimate or overestimate
values, where a value of zero (optimum) shows perfect fit. A performance rating based
on PBIAS can be found in Moriasi et al. (2007). Positive (negative) bias results indicate
model underestimation (overestimation). These quantitative evaluations were
reinforced by visually evaluating the model performance in comparison to the
combined observed and estimated runoff values through scatter plots.
1.3.5 General Description of Some Models5
General brief introduction of some models used in research institutes and by
professionals is descried below;
a) MIKE-SHE
The purpose of MIKE SHE is the simulation of coupled hydrologic processes with
emphasis on surface water, groundwater interactions, channel flow, unsaturated zone
flow and groundwater flow. It is Physically based, distributed and integrated hydrologic
modeling system.
5 http://hydrologicmodels.tamu.edu/models.htm
585
HYDRAULIC MODELING
b) HEC-HMS
The program began as an event-oriented, precipitation-runoff simulator for surface
water hydrology studies. It now includes evapotranspiration, snowmelt, and infiltration
models for continuous simulation studies. It is increasingly becoming a land surface
process simulator operating for event and continuous time periods. The program is
designed to simulate the land surface processes of the hydrologic cycle.
Consequently, it contains components for precipitation, potential evapotranspiration,
snowmelt, canopy interception, surface storage, infiltration, surface runoff, baseflow,
channel routing, and channel losses. It also includes components for simulating
reservoirs and diversions. It is intended to be used singly or in combination with other
HEC software for studies of water availability, urban drainage, flow forecasting,
environmental enhancement, future urbanization impact, reservoir spillway design,
flood damage reduction, floodplain regulation, and system operation.
c) HEC-RAS
HEC-RAS is an integrated system of software, designed for interactive use in a multi-
tasking environment. HEC-RAS is designed to perform one dimensional hydraulic
calculation for a full network of natural and constructed channels. It contains four one
dimensional river analysis components for: (1) steady flow water surface profile
computations; (2) unsteady flow simulation; (3) movable boundary sediment transport
computations; and (4) water quality analysis. A key element is that all four components
use a common geometric data representation and common geometric and hydraulic
computation routines.
d) DHI Mike-11
MIKE 11 is a professional engineering software package for the simulation of flows,
water quality, and sediment transport in estuaries, rivers, irrigation systems, channels
and other water bodies. MIKE 11 is a fully dynamic, user-friendly, one-dimensional
modelling tool for the detailed design, management and operation of both simple and
complex river and channel systems. Due to its exceptional flexibility and speed, MIKE
11 provides a complete and effective design environment for engineering, water
resources, water quality management and planning applications. MIKE 11 utilizes a
fully Windows integrated Graphical User Interface.
e) DHI Mike Basin
MIKE BASIN is a general multi-purpose river network model for river basin
management and planning. The purpose of MIKE BASIN is the simulation of natural
inflows, multiple multipurpose reservoir operation and water right allocation in river
basins based on a prioritized water accounting procedure. It allows for conjunctive use
of surface water and ground water. An extension to the basic module includes water
quality simulation based on point and non-point sources.
f) Integrated Water Flow Model (IFWM)
IWFM is a water resources management and planning model that simulates
groundwater, surface water, stream-groundwater interaction, and other components
586
HYDRAULIC MODELING
of the hydrologic system. IWFM models groundwater flow as a quasi-three-

dimensional system and solves the governing flow equation using the Galerkin finite
element method. A unique feature of IWFM is the land use based approach of
calculating water demand. IWFM simulates stream flow, soil moisture accounting in
the root zone, flow in the vadose zone, groundwater flow, and stream-aquifer
interaction. It is Continuous integrated hydrologic model type.
g) Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)
SWAT is a river basin scale model developed to quantify the impact of land
management practices in large, complex watersheds. It is a hydrology model with the
following components: weather, surface runoff, return flow, percolation,
evapotranspiration, transmission losses, pond and reservoir storage, crop growth and
irrigation, groundwater flow, reach routing, nutrient and pesticide loading, and water
transfer. SWAT can be considered a watershed hydrological transport model.
h) Flow-3D
Flow-3D is a three-dimensional code developed by Flow Science in early 1990’s. It
has ability to accurately model free surface flow which is essential for modelling open
channel flow behavior that is commonly found in spillway flows. Flow-3D has ability to
ignore the air surrounding the flowing water by using true volume of fluid (true-VOF)
method. This method tracks the sharp interface between water and air without using
fine meshes required by other CFD code. Another method, known as the fractional
area/volume obstacle representation (FAVOR) technique is used to model the
complex geometric region. It allows the program to use fully structured Cartesian grids
or meshes mean that the meshing process could be done very efficiently. The mesh
is overlaid on imported non-flow geometry and the FAVOR technique is used to
determine the void or flow region within each cell.
1.4 Modelling Facilities of Punjab Irrigation Department
1.4.1 Irrigation Research Institute
An Irrigation Research Institute was established in 1924, when a small laboratory was
set up in a wing of Punjab University Chemical Department at Lahore. Soon, the
problems spilled out of the laboratory at Lahore and a field station was established in
1925 at Malikpur (now in India) where investigations of river problems on large scale
models became possible.
The Laboratory at Lahore had to be expanded very soon and a Chemical and Physics
Sections were added in 1931. Hydraulics Section which was destined to play a major
role in future was opened after the seat of the laboratory was shifted to the present
building of Irrigation Research Institute by the side of Irrigation Secretariat. The
Institute progressively built up its reputation and is recognized as one of the premier
institutes in physical modeling in the World.
After creation of Pakistan in 1947, field station of Malikpur went over to India.
Accordingly, a new field station was opened in 1952 at Nandipur, district Gujranwala
about 80 KM from Lahore. The Hydraulic Field Station Nandipur covers an area of 100
587
HYDRAULIC MODELING
acres by the side of Upper Chenab Canal (UCC) where a gravity fall of 15’ to 20’ft is
available. About 1/4th of the station area is occupied by the colony and offices for the
staff in the South - West corner of the station and the remaining 3/4 of the area is
divided in twenty-two experimental trays of various sizes. The triangular area
consisting of 6 trays is fed by 75 cusecs supply channel running parallel to UCC while
the escape/disposal channel of this portion lies along the Sialkot - Gujranwala Road
and then after crossing the road runs parallel to UCC till it goes out of the station after
passing under the Kamoki Distributary to join the escape/disposal channel of the
trapezoidal area in the South of the station. Leaving the South - West corner for the
colony and offices, the remaining big rectangle divided in 16 trays is bifurcated by the
main escape channel running through it. The two high level supply channels carrying
225 cusec and 200 cusec discharge run along three sides of the big rectangle to supply
gravity flow to be disposed off through the bifurcating escape channel after use for
experiments. Escape channels of both the areas join together at the East of the Station
to carry the total discharge back to the Upper Chenab Canal below the power house
constructed on the parent canal half a mile below (Error! Reference source not found.).
In addition to gravity flow, there are two pump houses at the station with self-circulation
system which can be used if gravity flow is not available for a short period in winter
when UCC is closed for annual inspection. One pumping system with 14 pumps
capable of lifting about 50-60 cusec discharge is equipped with 25 feet high reinforced
concrete tank for testing of models of high head structures of tunnels and spillways on
as large a scale as 1/18.
Area of HRS =100 Acres

Trays = 22 No.
Head available = 13 ft
Type of flow = Gravity
Discharge taken
from UCC = 500 Cs
Nandipur
Figure 9: Layout of Field Station at Nandipur

The second pumping system consisting of 4 pumps, 100’x15’x3’ high water tank and
return channel around one of the trays is connected to 3 glass flumes each about 60
feet long 4 feet wide for sectional models of high head structures. One of the glass
588
HYDRAULIC MODELING
flumes is about 8 feet high to house sectional models of high head structures of low
dams. The glass flumes are fitted with mobile over-head trollies for observations of
water levels and velocities at different points along the flumes.
A number of trays are provided with sheds, some of which are 100'x100' to house and
protect the perspex models from direct heat of sun and direct cold of night to keep the
difference of temperature of perspex models as low as possible so that perspex
models do not get cracked.
The station is also provided with a field workshop consisting of machine shop, smithy
and carpenter shop. The machine shop is equipped with lathe machines, shaper
machines, drilling machines, cutters and grinders. The carpenter shop is equipped
with Benson Saw machine, round Saw machine and planer whereas the smithy shop
is equipped with cutting machine, oven and drilling machines. Moreover an electric
oven is also available in workshop which is capable of heating perspex sheets of 4’x8’
size to mould perspex models.
All the fabrication work of bridges for models, gates of model spillways and other
structures required for model construction is done in this local workshop.
A silt laboratory exists at the station. The laboratory is equipped with all necessary
implements like graduated cylinders, flasks, sieve meshes and visual accumulation
tubes to make analysis of silt/sand used in the experiments. The concentration of
suspended silt can also be determined, if required, from the water complex samples
taken from certain models.
The Institute is now catering to the needs of all the provinces of the country and the
Federal Government in all the departments such as Buildings, WAPDA, Highway,
Irrigation, NHA & Railways etc. There is no major flood protection work or a major
hydraulic structure such as highway bridge, railway bridge, or a barrage across one of
the rivers, the basic design and layout feature of which have not been worked out
through model testing in the Institute. Moreover, technique of protection against river
erosion which is common feature on controlled rivers have been developed and
different geometries of spurs have been tested and modified with the result that
geometries for highly efficient and effective spurs have now been evolved which are
used to train the rivers wherever necessity arises.
A photographic laboratory manned by a photographer and dark room assistant is set
up at the premises of the station for documentation of model data. The laboratory is
equipped with Rolliflex Camera and wide-Angle camera to take still photographs to
show current directions in models during operation. Movie camera and V.C.R. facility
is also available to prepare movies of important model studies.
IRI has now also purchased computer software (Flow 3D) and has initiated training of
its staff members to enable use of the model in future.
589
HYDRAULIC MODELING
1.5 Reference used in Mathematical Modelling Section

1. Barman, P. 2005. “Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis to optimize the
pump suction line configuration of a hydraulic control system” SAE 2005-01-
3633, ISSN 0148 – 7191 .
2. Novak, P, V. Guinot, A. Jeffrey and D.E. Reeve, 2010. “Hydraulic Modelling-an
introduction (Principles, methods and applications)”, Spon press is an imprint
of Taylor & Francis Group. Ist Edition, ISBN 0-203-86162-0.
3. Yang, R. 2002. “Simulations of Oil Flow and Flow-Induced Forces Inside
Hydraulic Valves” SAE 2002-01-137, ISSN 0148 – 7191.
4. Yang, R. 2005. “Predicting Hydraulic Valve Pressure Drop Using CFD” SAE
2005-01-3635, ISSN 0148 – 7191.
5. Seibert, J., 2001. On the need for benchmarks in hydrological modelling.
Hydrol. Process. 15, 1063–1064. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hyp.446.
6. Moriasi, D.N., Arnold, J.G., Van Liew, M.W., Binger, R.L., Harmel, R.D., Veith,
T., 2007. Model evaluation guidelines for systematic quantification of accuracy
in watershed simulations. Trans. ASABE 50, 885–900.
http://dx.doi.org/10.13031/2013.23153.
7. Deshmukh, D.S., Chaube, U.C., Hailu, A.E., Gudeta, D.A., Kassa, M.T., 2013.
Estimation and comparison of curve numbers based on dynamic land use land
cover change, observed rainfall–runoff data and land slope. J. Hydrol. 492, 89–
101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.04.001.
8. Nash, J., Sutcliffe, J., 1970. River flow forecasting through conceptual models
part I –a discussion of principles. J. Hydrol. 10, 282–290.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(70) 90255-6.
9. Ritter, A., Muñoz-Carpena, R., 2013. Performance evaluation of hydrological
models: statistical significance for reducing subjectivity in goodness-of-fit
assessments. J. Hydrol. 480, 33–45.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.12.004.
590
HYDRAULIC MODELING
i
ASSET MANAGEMENT PLAN

Table of Contents
1. ASSET MANAGEMENT PLAN .................................................................................. 591
1.1. Asset Management ................................................................................................ 591
1.2. Framework for Preparing an Asset Management Plan ............................................ 592
1.2.1. Defining systems and functions:.......................................................................... 592
1.2.2. Asset Surveys: .................................................................................................... 593
1.2.3. Routine Maintenance Costs: ............................................................................... 593
1.2.4. Rehabilitation and Upgrading Costs .................................................................... 593
1.3. Asset Management Plan – March 2007 .................................................................. 593
1.4. Steps Involved in Revising/Updating or Preparing Fresh AMP ............................... 595
1.5. Confirmation/Verification of Inventory of PID Assets ............................................... 595
1.6. Estimating Historical and Replacement Costs of PID Assets .................................. 596
1.7. Estimating Rehabilitation Costs (Deferred Maintenance) of Assets ........................ 598
1.7.1. Cause of Rehabilitation Need: ............................................................................ 598
1.7.2. Cause of Rehabilitation Need ............................................................................. 598
1.8. Operational Expenditure (OPEX) ............................................................................ 602
1.8.1. Nature of M&R Works: ........................................................................................ 602
1.8.2. M&R Costs ......................................................................................................... 602
1.8.3. Supervision and Administration Costs: ................................................................ 603
1.9. Preparation of a Revised/Updated or Fresh AMP ................................................... 603
1.9.1. M&R Plan ........................................................................................................... 603
1.9.2. R&U Plan ............................................................................................................ 604
1.10. References: ........................................................................................................ 607

ii
591
1. ASSET MANAGEMENT PLAN

1.1. Asset Management
This chapter describes the process and procedures which would be followed in
preparing/revising an Asset Management Plan (AMP) for the Irrigation Department.
The term ‘Asset Management’ has its origins in finance and business sector. Assets
mean the entire property of all sorts belonging to a merchant or to a trading association
(Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary). Asset management is intended to
maximize the benefits to the owner (i.e. the return on investment) through trading,
servicing or extending assets at the most appropriate time. This requires a
comprehensive knowledge of the assets and what affects their value. Applying the
term 'asset management' to engineering infrastructure is a relatively new concept. The
term 'asset management' to infrastructure is now considered applicable to engineering
sector, as well. The concept of an Asset Management Plan (AMP), as applicable to
irrigation and drainage infrastructure, is to prepare a plan that would allow assessment
of asset condition, performance and investment needs in order to maximize benefits.
Asset Management procedures and techniques were developed and used in the water
supply and sewerage industry of England and Wales, in 1989. A study was carried out
in order to determine if these procedures and techniques could be adapted for
application to irrigation in developing countries. The study was financed by Official
Development Assistance (ODA). It was concluded from this study that Asset
Management Procedures and Techniques, developed and used in the water supply
and sewerage industry could be used for Irrigation. For preparing an AMP a framework
was devised, which identified the following six stages:
i) Devise procedures for preparing the AMP and keeping it up to date.
These must be traceable and repeatable.
ii) Prepare a statement of the Utility’s relevant standards and policies.
iii) Identify various functions of the Utility and prepare a list of systems under
each heading. Each system will comprise a number of assets.
iv) Collect information on performance and condition of the principal
components of each system. This may be done by sampling (Note that
performance information relates to a system whereas condition
information relates to individual assets).
v) Estimate long term investment covering a 20-year planning period to
meet shortfalls of performance and condition and to provide for
expansion and improvement.
vi) Prepare short term programme of expenditure for 5-10 years.
Preparing the statement of the Utility’s relevant standards and policies is particularly
important in that it introduces the idea of standard of service provision to water users
as a key driving force in determining investment needs. The actual level of service
provided to the water users is compared to the standard and the identified shortfall.
Investment to improve levels of service can be identified and subsequent
improvements monitored.
592
1.2. Framework for Preparing an Asset Management Plan

for Irrigation and Drainage Infrastructure (Assets)
Aims of Asset Management: Asset management planning is the process of
establishing the condition of infrastructure as a basis for evaluating the level of
investment required to maintain or enhance its condition and utility. Good
management of assets results in increased longevity and sustained utility of the
infrastructure and an enhanced level of service provision to the water user. The
introduction of Asset Management into irrigation and drainage infrastructure have the
following aims:
i) To help achieve more cost-effective management of the infrastructure.
To this end, it enables the managers to make better-informed investment
decisions which have a clear basis of justification and which can be
audited or replicated;
ii) To facilitate turnover of assets from government control where desired;
iii) To provide a cost-effective technique for calculating irrigation service
charges based on a realistic assessment of the costs of sustaining the
supply of water; and
iv) To facilitate comparative performance assessment.
Steps involved in preparing AMP: The steps involved in the process may be
summarized as follows:
i) Defining systems and functions;
ii) Assessing system performance - achieved levels of service, how these
fit with present and future requirements and what infrastructure
adjustments are needed,
iii) Studying Operations and Management (O&M) - a parallel review of the
organization and its procedures for O&M;
iv) Conducting an Asset Survey - their extent, value and the liabilities they
represent; and
v) Building the Cost Model- analysis of historical Capital Expenditure
(CAPEX) and Operational Expenditure (OPEX) as a basis for future
projections.
1.2.1. Defining systems and functions:
It is necessary to define at the outset exactly what primary functions the service is
intended to provide. Appropriate systems can then be identified in this context. For
irrigation the following are identified:
i) supply of water for irrigation; and
ii) removal of excess water by drainage.
Irrigation infrastructure is often used for several subsidiary purposes (for example,
non-irrigation uses of water; flood protection; public use of maintenance access
roads). PID looks after the flood protection, as well. The extent of the infrastructure to
be included in the AMP must be defined.
593
1.2.2. Asset Surveys:

The fundamental requirement of an Asset Management Plan is the knowledge of what
assets exist, their value and the liabilities they represent derived from the knowledge
of the state of repair of each asset and its life expectancy. Assuming that some sort of
inventory already exists, the task will be to confirm this inventory and to extend it as
may be necessary to include all the asset data requirements of the AMP. An inventory
of IPD assets; both key irrigation and drainage infrastructure, as well as for supporting
assets was prepared in 2005 under Development Policy Loan (DPL) in 2005, which
formed the basis for the preparation of an Asset Management Plan as described below
in Section 1.3.
The results of the Asset Surveys of the systems must be assembled in a manner which
facilitates integration and analysis within the AMP. A computer database is envisaged.
1.2.3. Routine Maintenance Costs:
These are of interest, as these provide reference costs for preparation of the
Operational Expenditure (OPEX) budget. For meaningful information to be derived,
records are needed covering as many years of operation as possible. Where it is
proposed to make significant changes to current maintenance practices, or where new
types of asset are being introduced requiring a different maintenance regime, then
fresh estimates (yardstick) will have to be prepared. Some of the historical data may
nonetheless be of value in preparing these.
1.2.4. Rehabilitation and Upgrading Costs
These costs are needed to prepare the investment cost model to improve the condition
of individual assets and the performance of the systems. These costs are based on
the physical condition ratings of the assets and cost of rehabilitation and upgrading of
similar infrastructure.
1.3. Asset Management Plan – March 2007
The process, which is described in the preceding subsections, was carried out that
generated the following information pertaining to assets of the Punjab Irrigation
Department.
(i). Inventory of the Assets;
(ii). Estimating Historical and Replacement Costs of Assets;
(iii). Rehabilitation and Upgrading (R&U) Costs;
(iv). Maintenance and Repairs (M&R) Costs;
(v). Supervision and Administration Costs
Inventory of the Assets included both key irrigation and drainage infrastructure as
well as the supporting assets and undertook an analysis of the inventory. The analysis
of the inventory involved: (i) technical specifications; (ii) historical and replacements
costs/values; (iii) physical condition with rating 1-5 (non-functional to proper working
order); and (iv) cost of rehabilitation and upgradation. The offices of the zonal chief
engineers carried out the asset surveys and provided data regarding physical
594
condition of assets. In order to establish the physical condition of the assets the rating
of each asset was carried out by the concerned staff of various IPD Zones on a scale
of 1 to 5, as per following definitions.
Rating Condition
5 Practically new
4 Generally good with no damage, only routine
maintenance required.
3 Generally good but with some deterioration or
damage. Need attention.
2 Significantly damaged or deteriorated. Suffering
from deferred maintenance. Needs urgent
rehabilitation.
1 Very poor and dilapidated condition requiring
partial restoration or complete replacement.
Replacement cost of asset was full amount needed to acquire such an asset and not
necessarily replicating the present designs. Precise calculations of the costs of the
entire infrastructure of PID, however, could not be made nor were these needed. The
estimates of gross value of the assets were based on review of cost data of other
projects which had been completed or were in planning or construction stage at that
time. In some cases where comparable data was not available preliminary estimate of
cost were prepared for the replacement of an existing asset. The assets of PID were
estimated to have an overall replacement value of Rs. 1,170,311 Million 1 (about US $
19,505 million2).
Rehabilitation and Upgrading (R&U) costs were based on the existing physical
condition of infrastructure and keeping in view the policy adopted by PID about
preparing rehabilitation plans, the estimates of rehabilitation works were prepared.
Maintenance and Repairs (M&R) costs: Periodic maintenance and repairs of the
infrastructure are carried out through maintenance funds allocated for each
component based on approved yardsticks which are mainly based on general
parameters for yearly maintenance and operational features. The system of yardsticks
was used for equitable distribution of funds for different components of irrigation and
drainage networks, etc.
Supervision and Administration costs were the emoluments of sanctioned staff
strength of 48,503 (1,072 officers BS 16 to 20 and 47,431 other staff in BS 1 to 15) in
FY 2005-06.
In March 2007, after working for about one and half years completing activities of the
six stages mentioned in section 28.2 which generated the above information, an APM
was prepared by PID. This APM provided the estimated costs of yearly M&R,
rehabilitation and upgrading costs for the ten year period 2007-17 along with its
1 Based on 2005 prices
2 Based on conversion rate of one US$=PKR 60, applicable in 2005
595
phasing on the basis of FY 2006-7 MRS rates. The soft copy of this AMP, along with
its Annex 1 and Annex 2, is available in Strategic Planning/Reform Unit (SPRU)
located in the Irrigation Secretariat, Lahore. For producing these two annexes several
hundred interlinked MS Excel worksheets were prepared using the information
supplied by offices of zonal chief engineers, which are also available in SPRU.
Since an APM is a living document it should be periodically revised/updated,
preferably yearly with the data to be provided by offices of zonal chief engineers. The
maximum interval between two consecutive APMs should not exceed three years.
1.4. Steps Involved in Revising/Updating or Preparing Fresh AMP
To an extent the process, employed for preparing the original AMP, has to be repeated
to update the information required for the preparation of the revised/updated or fresh
AMP. It will involve: (a) confirmation/verification of the inventory prepared in year 2005;
(b) revising historical and replacement costs of PID assets; (c) estimating maintenance
and repairs (M&R) costs and preparing M&R plan; and (d) estimating rehabilitation
and upgrading (R&U) costs and preparing R&U plan.
Confirmation/verification of the existing inventory is needed to account for the
reduction in CCA due to urbanization of the cultivable land. The exercise is required
to take care of any additions and deletion to the assets so that a revised/updated or a
fresh AMP can be prepared accurately.
Rehabilitation and upgrading (R&U) costs required for revising/updating will be based
on the condition survey of the infrastructure which will be carried out by the offices of
chief engineers. Physical condition will be rated 1-5 (non-functional to proper working
order) during the condition survey exercise. Rehabilitation and upgrading (R&U) costs
will be computed in accordance with the applicable policy of PID.
In order to estimate maintenance and repair (M&R) costs, O&M yardsticks based on
prevailing MRS will be needed. The O&M yardsticks for each zone were prepared in
year 2007 using the respective criteria of O&M for each zone. These yardsticks were
prepared using interlinked MS Excel worksheets so that changing the prices of labour
and materials would automatically change the values in the yardsticks. The soft copies
of these Excel worksheets are available in SPRU located in the irrigation secretariat.
Supervision and Administration costs are the emoluments of sanctioned staff strength
of officers BS 16 to 20 and other staff in BS 1 to 15.
1.5. Confirmation/Verification of Inventory of PID Assets
The inventory prepared in 2005 is available in SPRU in the irrigation secretariat. For
its confirmation/verification, the field staff working with the zonal chief engineers will
revise the existing inventory by physical check noting additions and deletions in the
assets. Each office of the zonal chief engineer will also carry out condition survey using
the rating 1-5 (non-functional to proper working order).
596
1.6. Estimating Historical and Replacement Costs of PID Assets

As was done during the exercise of 2005, the types of assets considered for estimating
historical and replacement costs will be: (i) Headworks / Barrages.; (ii) Main Canal
Systems; (iii) Distributaries and Minor Canals; (iv) Inter-river Link Canals; (v)
Tubewells Fresh GW; (vi) Tubewells Saline GW; (vii) Surface Drains; (viii) Subsurface
Drainage; (ix) Flood Embankments; (x) Spurs; (xi) Small Dams; (xii) Lift Schemes; (xiii)
Buildings; (xiv) Lands; (xv) Machinery; (xvi) Workshops; (xvii) Vehicles; and (xviii)
Stores etc. The replacement costs of assets will be based on the updated inventory
taking into account additions and deletions in the assets.
The total value will be estimated, which is the full amount currently needed to acquire
such an asset but not necessarily replicating the present designs. For the purpose of
preparing an AMP the precise value will not be needed. The estimates of total value
of the assets will be based on review of cost data of other projects which have been
completed at that time or are in planning or construction stage. In some cases where
comparable data will not be available estimate of cost will need to be prepared for the
replacement of an existing asset. The approach for calculating for different types
assets is presented in the paragraphs those follow.
Barrages: The estimated cost of a barrage will be used as a reference cost for
establishing a unit cost per cumec of its discharge capacity. At the time of preparing
AMP in March 2007 the then estimated cost of the new Khanki barrage was used as
a reference cost. As no two barrages are exactly similar, and some barrages may have
more extensive river training works as well as extensive diversion works than those at
the reference barrage, the per unit discharge rate will be adjusted for different
barrages. In March 2007 exercise Khanki barrage unit rate per cumec was considered
applicable to Rasul, Qadirabad and Marala barrages, whereas factors ranging from
1.25 to 1.75 were applied based on experience for estimating the unit costs of other
barrages in the Punjab.
Canal systems: In order to estimate the replacement value of the canal systems, the
cost of earth work and land required for one Km length will be worked out for the
channels having following capacities:
(i). 0-50 Cusecs (0 to 1.41 Cumecs);
(ii). 50-250 Cusecs (1.41 to 7 cumecs);
(iii). 250-500 Cusecs (7 to 14 cumecs);
(iv). 500-1,000 Cusecs (14 to 28 cumecs);
(v). 1,000-5,000 Cusecs (28 to141.6 cumecs);
(vi). 5,000-10,000 Cusecs (141.6 to 283 cumecs); and
(vii). Above 10,000 Cusecs (283 cumecs).
The quantities required for constructing for the above categories of canals will be
calculated. The unit costs will be worked out using the prevalent market rates for the
597
items involved in the construction of these categories of canal. For the structures of
the canals such as falls, bridges, aqueducts, syphons, etc. similar approach will be
adopted as used for barrages. For computing the replacement cost of different types
of structures on the basis of similar structures constructed in the near past will be used
as a reference structure. Per unit discharge cost will be worked out for different types
of structures, which will be applied to each structure according to their discharge
capacity. The rates will be worked out for one Km length of the respective channels.
In the 2005 exercise, the quantities required for constructing Awagat Distributary. Khiki
Distributary, Mianwali Distributary, Rakh Branch, Lower Gugera Branch, Upper
Gugera Branch and Q.B. Link constructed in the past were considered. The prevalent
market rates were applied for the items involved in the construction of these channels.
For the structures of the canals such as Falls, Bridges, Aqueducts, Syphons, etc. same
criteria was adopted as was used for barrages for computing the replacement cost of
different types of structures on the basis of similar structures constructed in the near
past i.e. structures constructed on Burala Branch in Faisalabad Irrigation Zone.
Drains: The replacement cost of the drains will be worked out by estimating the earth
work involved in branch drain and main drain and applying market rates to the
quantities involved in the excavation of new drains. The same unit costs of land and
earthwork will be applied as those used for canals. The average cost of drains with
different bed widths will be estimated for 1 km length. The cost of structures will be
taken from the different structures constructed on a reference drain. The cost for 1 foot
of bed width of the sample drain will be computed and applied to all the structures
involved in the inventory.
In the 2005 exercise, the replacement cost of the drains was worked out by estimating
the earth work involved in Nasrana Branch Drain and Khairwala Main Drain and
applying market rates to the quantities involved in the excavation of these drains. The
same unit costs of land and earthwork were applied as were used for canals. The
average cost of drains with different bed widths was estimated for 1 km length. The
cost of structures was taken from the cost of different structures constructed on
Fatehpur Branch Drain having 8 feet bed width. The cost for 1 foot width was computed
and applied to all the structures involved in the inventory. The replacement cost of
subsurface drains was estimated using a unit rate of Rs 50,000/ha.
Small dams: A group of small dams of various heights will be selected and their costs
will be calculated by estimating quantities involved in their main structures and
ancillary works (including their command water works maintained by PID), multiplied
with the prevailing market rates of items of works used in the construction of these
small dams. The average cost of these small dams will be multiplied with the existing
number of small dams owned by PID.
Embankments, spurs, etc.: The replacement cost of embankments will be
established on the basis of average cost of embankments with one spur for 1 mile.
The earth work required for 15 feet height embankment will be computed for
determining the quantity per 1 mile. The prevalent market rates will be applied for the
quantities involved in the construction of embankment.
598
Buildings: The cost of the buildings will be computed according to the categories of
the buildings on the basis of the unit rates of covered area. The unit rates will be based
on the market rates.
Land: PID owns lands in all districts of Punjab. The details of available land with the
Department will be collected from field formation/Divisions. The rates for lands will be
obtained from the concerned district revenue officer through canal collectors of zones.
The cost of land owned by PID in various districts will be estimated using average
market rates.
Miscellaneous assets: The costs of other assets such as tubewells, workshops,
machinery and vehicles etc. will also be estimated using basic criteria of replacing
them on the basis of prevailing market rates.
Alternative methods for estimating historical and replacement costs of PID assets:
There can be alternative methods for estimating historical and replacement costs of
assets in case that the historical and replacement costs of assets have previously
been established. These alternative methods could be using the price indexing, etc.
In year 2005, an exercise for estimating historical and replacement costs of PID assets
was done. It will be easier to establish updated replacement costs by using appropriate
price indices of PID assets established previously. Of course the updated inventory
taking into account additions and deletions in the assets will be taken into account.
1.7. Estimating Rehabilitation Costs (Deferred Maintenance) of Assets
1.7.1. Cause of Rehabilitation Need:
Main reason for rehabilitating irrigation and drainage assets is the deferred
maintenance which accumulates over the years for various reasons. Primary reason
for deferred maintenance is perpetually inadequate annual budgeting particularly for
maintenance (M&R) by PID.
Furthermore, due to fiscal constraints the allocations by PID is generally made on
budget precedence of the previous years without regard to ground conditions or
requirement of increased costs due to inflation. Further the actual releases depend
upon the availability of funds and seldom match the realistic requirements. As a result,
the M&R needs are not normally met as envisaged in annual yardstick. This causes
accumulation of maintenance works over the years.
1.7.2. Cause of Rehabilitation Need
Barrages are the gated structures across rivers, built to affect better control and
command for the off-taking canals. They play a pivotal role in providing sustained
water supplies to millions of hectares of irrigated lands in the Province. They also
control diversion of water to the inter-river link canals that serve command areas
previously commanded by the eastern rivers allocated to India under the Indus Waters
Treaty. Thus, the barrages are important hydraulic structures, which are essential to
sustain irrigated agriculture.
599
Periodic inspections of the barrages will be made to assess the need of rehabilitation
work (maximum interval between two consecutive inspections should not exceed three
years). The periodic inspections of the barrages will be carried out by a group of field
staff headed by the concerned chief engineer. The group inspecting the barrages will
keep in view PID’s policy for rehabilitation of barrages as is presented below.
➢ Assured capacity to pass the highest expected flow estimated on the
basis of stream of flow data and computed using internationally accepted
formulae, preferably without resorting to use of breaching sections;
➢ Safety of the main weir structure under the expected maximum loading
condition;
➢ Instrumentation to facilitate monitoring of the safety of the main and
appurtenant structures
➢ Assure credibility of flood protection works (guide bunds, marginal
bunds, spurs, etc.); and
➢ Improvement in gates and gearing system for efficient regulation, where
needed.
The recommendations/suggestions given in the report of inspecting group will be
considered for determining rehabilitation works (deferred maintenance), and those will
be costed to form basis of rehabilitation plan of barrages. The rehabilitation work will
be prioritized and the rehabilitation plan will include the phasing accordingly.
Canal Systems deteriorate due to utilization beyond designed capacities, tampering
control structures, damage to canal banks caused by human and cattle trespassing
and inadequate routine and preventive maintenance. Beside the deterioration of
conveyance channels a large number of major structures on the canals will need major
repairs due to aging and long neglect. Therefore, the rehabilitation needs will also
cover besides the rehabilitation of canal systems, systematic replacement of old
structures, adopting new practices and technology besides meeting other needs of the
system.
Periodic inspections (maximum interval between two consecutive inspections should
not exceed three years) of the canal systems will be made to assess the need of
rehabilitation work. The periodic inspections of the main and branch canals by a
groups of field staff headed by the concerned superintending engineer in the case of
main and branch canals, and the concerned executive engineer in case of the
distrbutary and minor channels. The groups inspecting the canal systems will keep in
view PID’s policy for rehabilitating and upgrading canal systems as is presented below.
➢ Restore canal prisms to the original or revised parameters (by observing
performance data of canal, reviewing it and revising L-Section, if
needed) in order to pass authorized discharge of the canal;
➢ Rehabilitate hydraulic structures on the canal that can be retained for
long service periods merely restoring those by carrying out repairs and
maintenance;
➢ Reconstruct/replace those structures that have deteriorated to an extent
that those are unsafe and/or cannot adequately cope with the present
600
service requirements. These should be reconstructed having intrinsic

capacity to easily measure flows passing through them, where such
measurements are warranted for better management practices. The
need for providing gates and gearing for easy and efficient regulation
should also be considered;
➢ Reset/reconstruct Head Regulators of off-takes, as required;
➢ Line the Distributary canals and Minors in saline ground water areas;
➢ Provide Escape channels, where needed and is feasible,
➢ Restore canal fixtures i.e. RD Markers, Barrier Gates on patrol roads,
water gauges (preferably metallic and permanent) etc., and
➢ Providing monitoring facilities.
The recommendations/suggestions given in the report of inspecting groups will be
be costed to form basis of rehabilitation plan of canal systems. The rehabilitation work
will be prioritized and the rehabilitation plan will include the phasing accordingly.
Drainage Systems have been constructed in order to address the problem of rising
water table and to evacuate excess rainwater. Most of these drains are seepage-cum-
storm water drains. The surface drains have generally been designed with rule of
thumb criteria of capacities, ranging from 1 to 4 cusecs per square mile of the
catchment area to evacuate the excess rain water within 3 to 5 days. The review of
the operation of surface drains suggests that the designed capacities are lower than
normally required for effective drainage, particularly during intense rainfall events. The
inadequate capacities of surface drains have been further reduced by ill-planned
construction of roads, embankments, link canals, blockage of natural drainage lines,
and lack of adequate cross drainage works. The inadequate maintenance of drains
has led to their clogging with sediments and weeds. Poor outfall conditions during peak
flow seasons of drains, when the rivers are also in a high flood stage, is a significant
factor that inhibits effective drainage. The other problem that is becoming increasingly
severe relates to the disposal of untreated municipal and industrial effluent into the
drains. This is turning out to be a serious environmental hazard and the problem needs
to addressed.
not exceed three years) of the drainage systems will be made to assess the need of
rehabilitation work. The periodic inspections of the main and branch canals will be
carried out by a group of field staff headed by the concerned superintending engineer.
The group inspecting the drainage systems will keep in view PID’s policy for
rehabilitating and upgrading drainage systems as presented below.
➢ Rehabilitate/restore drains to the approved parameters;
➢ Rehabilitate structures on the drain that can be retained for long service
periods, just restoring those by carrying out repairs;
➢ Reconstruct/replace those structures that have deteriorated to an extent
rendering these unsafe and/or which cannot adequately cope with the
service requirements;
601
➢ Revisit the need of inlet structures and augment the existing inlets, as
required; and
➢ Restore fixtures i.e. RD Markers, Barrier Gates on patrol roads, ROW
markers etc.
The recommendations/suggestions given in the report of inspecting groups will be
be costed to form basis of rehabilitation plan of drainage systems. The rehabilitation
work will be prioritized and the rehabilitation plan will include the phasing accordingly.
Accordingly, rehabilitation and upgradation of drainage systems will include weed and
debris clearance; bed clearance; maintenance of banks inlets, bridges, outfalls and
other structures; and monitoring the drain flows to evaluate its effectiveness and
identify the need to remodel.
Flood Embankments and Spurs are damaged due to very sharp flood peaks on
account of intense monsoon rainstorms in the upper river catchments. The
construction of flood protection works, viz. flood embankments, spurs, studs, etc. has
been carried out to protect irrigation infrastructures and to safeguard agricultural lands,
cities, towns and villages from the onslaught of floods.
Since the sizeable part of the flood protection infrastructure is associated with the
barrage structures, periodic inspections of the barrages will determine the need of
rehabilitation work for this part the infrastructure.
PID’s policy in respect of flood protection embankments and spurs is that these are
inspected before the advent of flood season every year for assessing their reliability
to withstand flood onslaught. Their deficiencies are removed prior to flood season and
flood fighting plan is prepared annually. As such in ideal conditions there should not
exist any deferred maintenance requiring rehabilitation of this type of the infrastructure.
Small dams exist in rainfed (barani) areas of the Pothohar Plateau in the Punjab
Province. The rehabilitation works for dams may consist of repairs/restoration of of
slopes embankment slopes, filter, catch water drains, spillway channel protection,
riprap and retaining walls etc. The works for channel mainly includes
repairs/restoration of existing channels lining, spillway, aqueducts, extension of
channel, replacement of pipes, and repairing/providing cross-drainage works.
not exceed three years) of the small dams will be made to assess the need of
rehabilitation works. The periodic inspections of small dams will be made by the
concerned field staff who is responsible for their maintenance and repairs. They should
follow PID’s policy in respect of dam safety.
The observations of the concerned field staff will be considered for determining
rehabilitation works (deferred maintenance), and those will be costed to form basis of
rehabilitation plan of small dams. The rehabilitation work will be prioritized and the
rehabilitation plan will include the phasing accordingly.
602
Tubewells which pump out only saline ground water will be rehabilitated. The
rehabilitation works will include re-boring, changing strainers/filters, replacing pumping
machinery, renovating pump house, etc.
Buildings were constructed during the construction and development of irrigation
systems in the Punjab Province. There are four types of building in PID: (i) Office
Buildings; (ii) Residential Buildings; (iii) Rest Houses; and (iv) Other Buildings. Most
of the building are old and need major renovation/reconstruction.
1.8. Operational Expenditure (OPEX)
The Operational Expenditure (OPEX) includes the following costs:
➢ Maintenance and Repair (M&R) Costs; and
➢ Supervision and Administration Costs.
1.8.1. Nature of M&R Works:
M&R works for any irrigation and drainage asset may involve any one or more of the
following three activities: (i) preventive maintenance; (ii) repair works; and (iii)
replacement of parts of and/or complete facility.
Preventive Maintenance works required to avoid unnecessary deterioration of an
asset other than normal wear and tear such as, painting gates of hydraulic structures
in an irrigation and drainage system, oiling moving parts of gates and gearing, cleaning
and painting walls of the buildings, repairing “gharas” in the earthen embankment of a
canal or a drain or a flood embankment, etc.
Repair-works involve removal of defects that may occur due to improper use or by
accident or otherwise, which if not repaired may endanger safe use of the asset and
can become cause of its complete destruction. Includes making up of worn out earthen
embankments to the designed dimensions, and desilting of the channels as well as
the repairing embayment etc.
Replacement of parts of and/or complete facility may involve replacement of a
spare part that might have worn out, replacement/reconstruction of a facility that might
have spent its useful life or damaged to an extent that it cannot be beneficially used.
In order to carry out durable M&R works of required quality, periodic inspections
should be undertaken to determine the M&R needs of major structures, such as
barrages, large hydraulic structures, main canals and large flood control facilities.
1.8.2. M&R Costs
The periodic maintenance and repairs of the infrastructure are carried out through
maintenance funds allocated for each component based on approved yardstick which
is mainly based on general parameters for yearly maintenance and operational
features. The system of yardsticks is used for equitable distribution of funds for
different components of irrigation network.
603
1.8.3. Supervision and Administration Costs:

The supervision and administrative costs relate to the remuneration and allowances
paid to the operational staff, the secretariat staff and other related offices of PID such
as Irrigation Research Institute, Punjab Engineering Academy, and Directorate of Land
Reclamation etc.
1.9. Preparation of a Revised/Updated or Fresh AMP
After confirming/verifying of the existing inventory prepared previously and gathering
the following information, it will be possible to prepare a revised/updated or fresh AMP.
i). revised historical and replacement costs of PID assets.
ii). Operational Expenditure (OPEX) comprising the following costs:
➢ Maintenance and Repair (M&R) Costs.
➢ Supervision and Administration Costs.
iii). estimated rehabilitation and upgrading (R&U) costs.
AMP will have two parts: (i) routine maintenance works (M&R Plan), and (ii)
rehabilitation & upgrading works (R&U Plan) with proposed schedule and financing
arrangement. Based on the above information a revised/updated or fresh AMP setting
out the following will be prepared:
• scheduled plan for routine operation and maintenance activities for the next
five to ten years with costs and financing plans; and
• scheduled plan for rehabilitation and upgradation activities for the next five
to ten years with costs, institutional arrangement, and financing plans.
1.9.1. M&R Plan
Routine (Preventive) Maintenance Plan: A maintenance program will be developed,
taking into consideration the yardsticks in-vogue and incorporating physical
requirements for each zone. The maintenance plan shall be a dynamic one, covering
next 5-10 years, incorporating the assessment of the necessary financing sources
(provincial budget, etc.).
Form of M&R Plan: The inventory, prepared in FY 2005, provided the total number
of barrages, total lengths of the main, branch, distributary and minor canals, drains,
flood embankments, spurs etc. zone-wise. The inventory should be updated to include
assessment of condition of the infrastructure as well as incorporate any changes in
the assts. These Excel spread sheets prepared in August 2005 were based on the
approved yardsticks at that time. The multiplication factor to bring August 2005
yardsticks to the current level at any time can be established or alternatively the
revised yardsticks are established. These spread sheets available in Strategic
Planning / Reform Unit (SPRU) located in the Irrigation Secretariat, Lahore can be
conveniently modified to compute revised M&R costs of PID’s assets.
A sample of the Excel spread sheet showing of M.R Plan is given on next page.
604
1.9.2. R&U Plan

Identification of Rehabilitation and Upgradation (R&U) Works: Based on the
confirmed / verified inventory and its analysis, and assessment of the physical
conditions rating from 1(near collapse) to 5 (practically new) for each type of irrigation
and drainage infrastructure will be established. The analyses will be done by the
concerned staff during asset survey exercise. For those infrastructures classified 4
and 5, which require repair measures due to accumulated maintenance, it is required
to:
i) develop a scheduled rehabilitation plan for the next five to ten years.
Priorities should be based on: (i) potential serious collateral damages
(i.e. barrages), and (ii) large economic impacts (i.e. main canals and
inter-river link canals;
ii) assess necessary financing sources (external and provincial budget),
including those already secured and to be identified. Depending on the
realistic assumption on financing sources, the required implementation
period for each asset needs to be assessed; and
iii) proposed institutional arrangement to carry out the repair works.
System / Sub System UCC
Phasing of Work
Total
FY 2007-08 FY 2008-09 FY 2009-10 FY 2010-11 FY 2011-12 FY 2012-13 FY 2013-14 FY 2014-15 FY 2015-16 FY 2016-17
FY 2007-17
Multip. Yearly M&R
ApprovedYa
Length FSD C.C.A/ C.A Factor Programas
Sr. No. IMIS CODE Description rdstick 2005 Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Multip-Factor Remarks
(RD) (Cusecs) (1000 AC) Yardstick per 2005
(Rs./Mile) to bring to bring to bring to bring to bring to bring to bring to bring to bring to bring
2005 Level Yardstick Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost
yardstick yardstick yardstick yardstick yardstick yardstick yardstick yardstick yardstick yardstick
(M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs)
2005 to 2007 2005 to 2008 2005 to 2009 2005 to 2010 2005 to 2011 2005 to 2012 2005 to 2013 2005 to 2014 2005 to 2015 2005 to 2016
Level Level Level Level Level Level Level Level Level Level
UCC Main Line Upper

Main Line Upper
133 16850 62,000 1.000 1.649 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 1.100 1.814 18.141
(Upper Chenab Canal)
Nokhar Branch 88 722 12 62,000 1.000 1.091 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 1.100 1.200 12.003 1 No. fallen bridge.
1 Kot Jaffar Disty D 129 144 24 23,000 1.000 0.593 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 1.100 0.653 6.527
(i) Dhounkle Minor M 32 31 4 23,000 1.000 0.147 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.100 0.162 1.619
(ii) Kakka Minor M 10 11 2 23,000 1.000 0.046 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 0.506
2 Gakhar Disty D 58 34 11 23,000 1.000 0.267 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 2.935
3 Kailaske Disty D 157 255 50 23,000 1.000 0.722 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 1.100 0.794 7.944
(i) Kot Bhawani Dass Minor M 28 22 12 23,000 1.000 0.129 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.100 0.142 1.417
(ii) Nut Minor M 53 40 6 23,000 1.000 0.244 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 1.100 0.268 2.682
(iii) Kot Sujana Minor M 23 14 3 23,000 1.000 0.106 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.164
(iv ) Chandhar Minor M 25 25 6 23,000 1.000 0.115 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.265
4 Pathanke Disty D 58 48 15 23,000 1.000 0.267 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 1.100 0.293 2.935
5 Warpal Disty D 104 128 28 23,000 1.000 0.478 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 1.100 0.526 5.262
(i) Wazirke Minor M 25 17 5 23,000 1.000 0.115 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.100 0.127 1.265
(ii) Bucha Minor M 19 22 2 23,000 1.000 0.087 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 0.961
Total Nokhar Branch 180 4.408 4.849 4.849 4.849 4.849 4.849 4.849 4.849 4.849 4.849 4.849 48.486
Total Main Line Upper 180 6.057 6.663 6.663 6.663 6.663 6.663 6.663 6.663 6.663 6.663 6.663 66.627
Main Line Lower (UCC) MC 283 11375 - 62,000 1.000 3.509 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 1.100 3.860 38.601
1 Talwandi Disty D 52 76 13 23,000 1.000 0.239 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 1.100 0.263 2.631
(i) Trigri Minor M 39 29 7 23,000 1.000 0.179 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.100 0.197 1.973
2 Nurpur Disty D 182 436 38 23,000 1.000 0.837 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 1.100 0.921 9.209
(i) Ruriala Minor M 36 19 6 23,000 1.000 0.166 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.100 0.182 1.822
(ii) Qila Mian Singh Minor M 81 52 12 23,000 1.000 0.373 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 1.100 0.410 4.099
(iii) Ladhewala Sub Minor SM 38 13 4 23,000 1.000 0.175 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.923
(iv) Dhariwal Sub Minor SM 5 5 1 23,000 1.000 0.023 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 1.100 0.025 0.253
(v) Gobindpura Minor M 74 76 22 23,000 1.000 0.340 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 1.100 0.374 3.744
(vi) Musa Sub Minor SM 24 10 3 23,000 1.000 0.110 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.100 0.121 1.214
(vii) Argan Minor M 79 96 31 23,000 1.000 0.363 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 1.100 0.400 3.997
(vii) Jhar Minor M 49 35 11 23,000 1.000 0.225 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 2.479
3 Kamoke Disty D 154 231 30 23,000 1.000 0.708 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 1.100 0.779 7.792
(i) Abdal Minor M 13 7 2 23,000 1.000 0.060 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 0.658
(ii) Ferozewala Minor M 12 10 3 23,000 1.000 0.055 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 0.607
(iii) Machike Minor M 38 30 7 23,000 1.000 0.175 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.100 0.192 1.923
(iv) Eminabad Minor M 43 38 10 23,000 1.000 0.198 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 1.100 0.218 2.176
(v) Toleke Minor M 13 7 2 23,000 1.000 0.060 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 0.658
4 Nandipur Feeder F 29 52 0 23,000 1.000 0.133 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.100 0.147 1.467
5 Mehlowala Disty D 49 48 8 23,000 1.000 0.225 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 1.100 0.248 2.479
(i) Attawa Minor M 35 21 5 23,000 1.000 0.161 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.100 0.177 1.771
6 Bhikhi Disty D 15 14 3 23,000 1.000 0.069 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 0.759
7 Gilgitti Disty D 13 5 2 23,000 1.000 0.060 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 0.658
8 Sadhoke Disty D 151 360 4 23,000 1.000 0.695 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 1.100 0.764 7.641
(i) Ananta Minor M 22 18 5 23,000 1.000 0.101 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.100 0.111 1.113
(ii) Ghulab Singh Minor M 34 28 6 23,000 1.000 0.156 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.100 0.172 1.720
(iii) Wandho Minor M 41 41 11 23,000 1.000 0.189 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 1.100 0.207 2.075
(iv) Dholan Minor M 61 84 14 23,000 1.000 0.281 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 1.100 0.309 3.087
(v) Sher Garh Sub Minor SM 19 23 6 23,000 1.000 0.087 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 1.100 0.096 0.961
(vi) Tamboli Minor M 13 12 3 23,000 1.000 0.060 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 1.100 0.066 0.658
(vii) Ghanian Minor M 8 9 2 23,000 1.000 0.037 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 1.100 0.040 0.405
9 Changa Disty D 11 12 3 23,000 1.000 0.051 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 1.100 0.056 0.557
10 Naddha Disty D 9 8 2 23,000 1.000 0.041 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 0.455
11 Dandian Disty D 69 94 17 23,000 1.000 0.317 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 1.100 0.349 3.491
(i) Aima Minor M 20 13 3 23,000 1.000 0.092 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.100 0.101 1.012
(ii) Mangat Minor M 17 11 3 23,000 1.000 0.078 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 1.100 0.086 0.860
12 Kali Disty D 18 10 3 23,000 1.000 0.083 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 1.100 0.091 0.911
13 Gulloke Disty D 51 59 13 23,000 1.000 0.235 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 1.100 0.258 2.581
14 Hacher Disty D 23 19 5 23,000 1.000 0.106 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.100 0.116 1.164
15 Gharial Disty D 9 10 2 23,000 1.000 0.041 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 1.100 0.046 0.455
Total Main Line Lower 322 11.095 12.204 12.204 12.204 12.204 12.204 12.204 12.204 12.204 12.204 12.204 122.041
1 Muridke Branch BC 60 714 14 62,000 1.000 0.744 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 1.100 0.818 8.184
2 Muridke Disty D 167 304 41 23,000 1.000 0.768 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 1.100 0.845 8.450
3 (i) Chakian Minor M 45 45 12 23,000 1.000 0.207 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 1.100 0.228 2.277
4 (ii) Nangle Isa Minor M 12 15 2 23,000 1.000 0.055 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 1.100 0.061 0.607
5 (iii) New Minor M 10 10 3 23,000 1.000 0.046 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 1.100 0.051 0.506
6 (iv) Khanna Minor M 26 38 6 23,000 1.000 0.120 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.100 0.132 1.316
7 (v) Boali Minor M 15 16 4 23,000 1.000 0.069 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 0.759
8 (vi) Kuthiala Minor M 31 30 7 23,000 1.000 0.143 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.100 0.157 1.569
9 (vii) Shamke Minor M 16 15 3 23,000 1.000 0.074 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 1.100 0.081 0.810
10 (viii) Qila Sattar Shah Minor M 7 10 2 23,000 1.000 0.032 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 0.354
11 Kala Shah Kaku Disty D 141 265 32 23,000 1.000 0.649 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 1.100 0.713 7.135
12 (i) Dala Wagha Minor M 15 12 3 23,000 1.000 0.069 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 1.100 0.076 0.759
13 (ii) Dargahi Minor M 101 94 19 23,000 1.000 0.465 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 1.100 0.511 5.111
14 (iii) Dharor Hindu Sub Minor SM 7 6 1 23,000 1.000 0.032 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 1.100 0.035 0.354
15 (iii) Chaura Minor M 1 4 1 23,000 1.000 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 1.100 0.005 0.051
605
606
Form of R&U Plan:

For preparing the R&U plan, Excel spread sheets were also developed under DPL.
These spread sheets include the irrigation and drainage assets of each circle arranged
in the hierarchical manner along with respective IMIS codes (for canals only)
system/sub-system wise. These spread sheets are available in Strategic Planning /
Reform Unit (SPRU) located in the Irrigation Secretariat, Lahore.
A sample of the Excel spread sheet showing of R&U Plan is given below.
Zone: Lahore
Circle: UCC
System / Sub System: UCC
Phasing of Work
Total Rehabilitation
C.C.A/ FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY FY Total
Required
Lengt FSD C.A 2007- 08 2008-09 2009-10 20010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 FY 2007-17
Description Sourse of funding
h (RD) (Cusecs) (1000 Qty of
Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost
AC) L(RD) E/Work Cost (M.Rs)
(M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs) (M.Rs)
(M.Cft)
Upper Chenab Canal
Main Line Upper
MC 133 16850 - 200.000 100.000 100.000 200.000 ISRP/ADP
Nokhar Branch B.C 88 722 28 55.000 25.000 30.000 55.000 ADP

Kot Jaffar Disty D 129 144 32 52.000 15.000 20.000 17.000 52.000 ISRP
(i) Dhounkle Minor M 32 31 3 33.000 10.000 15.000 8.000 33.000 ISRP
(ii) Kakka Minor M 10 11 2 10.000 0.000 10.000 10.000 ISRP
Gakhar Disty D 58 34 10 37.000 0.000 20.000 17.000 37.000 ISRP
Kailaske Disty D 157 255 32 48.000 10.000 15.000 23.000 48.000 ISRP
(i) Kot Bhawani Dass Minor M 28 22 7 38.000 15.000 23.000 38.000 ISRP
(ii) Nut Minor M 53 48 20 34.000 20.000 14.000 34.000 ISRP
(iii) Kot Sujana Minor M 23 14 3 23.000 10.000 13.000 23.000 ISRP
(iv ) Chandhar Minor M 25 26 6 25.000 15.000 10.000 25.000 ISRP
Pathanke Disty D 58 48 17 32.000 10.000 10.000 12.000 32.000 ISRP
Warpal Disty D 104 128 28 41.000 15.000 15.000 11.000 41.000 ISRP
(i) Wazirke Minor M 25 17 5 25.000 15.000 10.000 25.000 ISRP
(ii) Bucha Minor M 19 22 6 16.000 16.000 16.000 ISRP
Upper Chenab Canal M.L.L MC 283 990.000 500.000 200.000 200.000 90.000 990.000 ISRP/On going
Talwandi Disty D 52 76 13 43.000 20.000 23.000 43.000 ISRP
(i) Trigri Minor M 39 29 7 39.000 20.000 19.000 39.000 ADP
Nurpur Disty D 33 436 41 140.000 57.000 37.000 46.000 140.000 ISRP/On going
I)Ruriala Minor M 35 19 6 36.000 20.000 16.000 36.000 ISRP
II) Qila Mian Singh Minor M 81 52 13 60.000 60.000 60.000 ISRP
iii) Ladhewala S/Minor SM 38 13 5 38.000 20.000 18.000 38.000 ISRP
iv)Dhariwal S/Minor SM 5 5 2 6.000 6.000 6.000 ISRP
v)Gobindpura Minor M 28 25 22 29.000 20.000 9.000 29.000 ISRP
vi)Musa S/Minor SM 24 10 3 24.000 12.000 12.000 24.000 ISRP
vii)Argan Minor M 28 96 31 30.000 20.000 10.000 30.000 ISRP
viii)Jhar Minor M 49 35 11 49.000 20.000 20.000 9.000 49.000 ISRP
Kamoke Disty D 154 231 30 51.000 - 30.000 21.000 51.000 ISRP
I) Abdal Minor M 13 7 2 13.000 - 13.000 13.000 ISRP
ii)Ferozwala Minor M 12 10 3 12.000 - 12.000 12.000 ISRP
(iii) Machike Minor M 38 30 7 38.000 - 20.000 18.000 38.000 ISRP
(iv) Eminabad Minor M 43 38 9 43.000 - 20.000 23.000 43.000 ISRP
v) Tolekey Minor M 12 7 2 13.000 - 13.000 13.000 ISRP
Nandipur Feeder F 29 52 0 29.000 - 29.000 29.000 ISRP
Mehlowala Disty D 49 48 8 40.000 20.000 20.000 40.000 A.D.P
(i) Attawa Minor M 35 21 5 35.000 - 20.000 15.000 35.000 ISRP
Bhiki Disty D 14 14 4 15.000 - - 15.000 15.000 ISRP
Gilgiti Disty D 13 5 1 13.000 - - 13.000 13.000 ISRP
Sadhoke Disty D 151 360 4 64.000 - 30.000 34.000 64.000 ISRP
I)Ananta Minor M 22 18 8 22.000 - 22.000 22.000 ISRP
ii) Ghulab Singh Minor M 34 28 6 34.000 - 14.000 20.000 34.000 ISRP
607
1.10. References:
1. Asset Management procedures and techniques, Water Supply and
Sewerage Industry of England and Wales, 1989.
2. Microsoft Excel work sheets for computing M&R Yardsticks, prepared
under World Bank’s Development Program (DPL I&II) in 2006 and 2007
3. IPD, Assets Inventory of Bahawalpur Zone, March 2007
4. IPD, Assets Inventory of D.G Khan Zone, March 2007
5. IPD, Assets Inventory of Multan Zone, March 2007
6. IPD, Assets Inventory of Faisalabad Zone, March 2007
7. IPD, Assets Inventory of Lahore Zone, March 2007
8. IPD Assets Inventory of Sargodha Zone, March 2007
9. IPD, Asset Management Plan, prepared under World Bank’s Irrigation
Sector Development Policy Loans (DPLs I&II) – March 24, 2007
608
i
PREPARING OF ANNUAL O&M BUDGET

Table of Contents
1. PREPARING OF ANNUAL O&M BUDGET ................................................................ 609
1.1. GENERAL .............................................................................................................. 609
1.2. O&M BUDGET ....................................................................................................... 609
1.2.1. M&R COSTS ...................................................................................................... 609
1.2.2. SUPERVISION AND ADMINISTRATION COSTS............................................... 610
1.3. M&R YARDSTICKS................................................................................................ 610
1.3.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 610
1.3.2. GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF M&R YARDSTICKS’ ITEMS ....................... 611
1.3.3. CRITERIA FOR M&R YARDSTICKS: ................................................................. 616
1.3.4. ZONE-SPECIFIC CRITERIA FOR M&R YARDSTICKS ...................................... 616
1.3.5. M&R YARDSTICKS FOR BARRAGES & HEAD WORKS................................... 616
1.3.6. M&R YARDSTICKS FOR SMALL DAMS & HILL TORRENTS ............................ 616
1.4. UPDATING YARDSTICKS ..................................................................................... 631
1.4.1. M&R YARDSTICKS SPREAD SHEETS ............................................................. 631
1.4.2. APPROACH FOR REVISING/UPDATING M&R YARDSTICKS .......................... 637
1.5. INVENTORY OF INFRASTRUCTURE ................................................................... 637
1.6. PREPARATION OF O&M BUDGET ....................................................................... 640
1.6.1. APPROACH FOR ESTIMATING M&R COSTS................................................... 640
1.7. TIMELINE FOR PREPARATION OF THE ANNUAL O&M BUDGET ...................... 641
1.8. REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 643
List of Tables
TABLE 1: ZONE SPECIFIC ITEMS INCLUDED IN M&R YARDSTICKS ............................................................. 613
TABLE 2: MAINTENANCE CRITERIA OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INFRASTRUCTURE ................................ 617
TABLE 3: INVENTORY OF PID INFRASTRUCTURE ...................................................................................... 639
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: IMAGE OF AN INTERLINKED MS EXCEL SPREAD SHEET SHOWING CALCULATIONS OF EARTHWORK
.................................................................................................................................................... 631
FIGURE 2: IMAGE OF AN INTERLINKED MS EXCEL SPREAD SHEET SHOWING AN M&R YARDSTICKS UNIT COST
.................................................................................................................................................... 632
FIGURE 3: IMAGE OF AN INTERLINKED MS EXCEL SPREAD SHEET SHOWING COMPUTATIONS FOR AN M&R
YARDSTICK UNIT COST ................................................................................................................... 632
FIGURE 4: IMAGE OF ONE OF THE INTERLINKED MS EXCEL SPREAD SHEETS SHOWING FACTORS PERTAINING A
FEW ITEMS IN THE ZONE-SPECIFIC CRITERIA, WHICH CHANGE UNIT COSTS, IF VARIED ......................... 634
ii
FIGURE 5: IMAGE OF ONE OF THE INTERLINKED MS EXCEL SPREAD SHEETS SHOWING MRS RATES OF A FEW
ITEMS, WHICH CHANGE UNIT COSTS, IF VARIED ................................................................................ 635
FIGURE 6: IMAGE OF ONE OF THE INTERLINKED MS EXCEL SPREAD SHEETS SHOWING QUANTITIES PERTAINING
TO A BARRAGE, WHICH CHANGE IN UNIT COSTS, IF VARIED ................................................................ 636
FIGURE 7: IMAGE OF ONE OF THE INVENTORY MS EXCEL SPREAD SHEETS................................................ 638
FIGURE 8: IMAGE OF SHEET SHOWING O&M BUDGET OF 2006-07 ............................................................ 641
609
1. PREPARING OF ANNUAL O&M BUDGET

1.1. General
Maintenance and repair (M&R) works for the Irrigation Department’s assets may
involve one or more of the following three activities.
Preventive Maintenance: The works under this activity are required to avoid
unnecessary deterioration of an asset other than normal wear and tear such as,
painting of gates in an irrigation and drainage system, oiling of moving parts in gates
and gearing, cleaning and painting of walls of the buildings, repairing of general wear
and tear in the earthen embankment of a canal or a drain or a flood embankment etc.
Repairs: The works under this activity involve the removal of defects that may occur
due to improper use or by accident or otherwise, which if not repaired may endanger
safe use of the asset and can become cause of its complete destruction. Repair
includes making up of worn out earthen embankments to the designed dimensions,
and the desilting of the channels as well as the repairing embayment with killa bushing
etc.
Replacement of complete and/or part of the facility: These works may involve
replacement of worn out spare parts and replacement/reconstruction of a facility that
might have spent its useful life or is damaged to an extent that it cannot be beneficially
used.
M&R works are planned to be done annually. For this purpose, the resources, both
financial and manpower, are required. In this connection an annual budget for
recurring expenditure is prepared, which is approved by the Government of Punjab.
This chapter describes the process and procedures to inform the personnel which
would be involved in preparing O&M budget for the irrigation department.
1.2. O&M Budget
Annual O&M budget contains two types of expenditures: (i) M&R costs; and (ii)
Supervision and administration costs. Normally a budget includes figures for receipts
(income) beside the expenditure but traditionally it includes only the amounts of the
proposed expenditure under heads and sub-heads. Thus, O&M budget is a statuary
allocation for incurring recurrent expenditure of the Irrigation Department.
1.2.1. M&R Costs
M&R costs are costs for procuring the works, goods and services associated with the
aforementioned three activities which are performed on regular basis. Ideally, M&R
costs can be determined after carrying out the condition surveys of the infrastructure
to ascertain their M&R needs, annually. But this exercise will be too costly and time
consuming to repeat every year. As an alternative M&R yardsticks unit costs for
elements of the infrastructure can be figured in order to expeditiously prepare the
annual M&R costs. The unit costs for elements of the infrastructure as contained in
the M&R yardsticks are multiplied by the inventoried number of the respective
elements in order to compute annual M&R costs. These costs are met using
610
maintenance funds allocated, as mentioned above, for each component based on

approved yardsticks which are mainly based on general parameters for yearly
maintenance and operational features.
1.2.2. Supervision and Administration Costs
The supervision and administrative costs relate to the remuneration and allowances
paid to the operational staff, secretariat staff and other related offices of PID such as
Irrigation Research Institute, Punjab Engineering Academy, and Directorate of Land
Reclamation, etc.
1.3. M&R Yardsticks
1.3.1. Introduction
M&R yardsticks are prepared in order to expeditiously formulate the annual M&R
budget. The yardsticks are based on the experience of operating the system, items of
M&R works required for various types of facilities to repair the deterioration that occurs
during a year, estimating the needed quantities and applying unit rates. The system of
yardsticks provides equitable distribution of funds for different components of irrigation
network. The use of yardsticks greatly simplifies and facilitates preparation of the non-
development budget expeditiously. Maintenance yardsticks are readily understood by
non-engineers, which are in use for more than 68 years.
The system of yardsticks was first introduced in 1937. The yardsticks were developed
considering the requirements of the then latest LBDC system. In 1982, an exercise
was carried out to update the unit costs in the yardsticks. Comprehensive and detailed
yardsticks for M&R of the Irrigation system were prepared, which were discussed with
the Finance Department for approval. The Finance Department did not fully agree with
the yardsticks prepared by PID. The M&R yardsticks were updated again in 1992 and
2004. In the updating process on both occasions, the unit quantities in the yardsticks
were generally considered adequate for proper M&R. The higher unit rates were used
on both occasions to revise the yardstick in order to deal with inflation. M&R yardsticks
updated in 1992 and 2004 were not exactly realist due to the fact unit quantities used
in computing the yardstick unit costs were not compatible with the changed
environments specific to new systems or administrative zones created after expansion
of PID.
In October 2004, the Government of Punjab adopted Market Rate System (MRS) for
preparing project cost estimates, which are updated quarterly and are posted on the
web.
In 2007 M&R yardsticks were revised on the basis of the zone-specific criteria
pertaining to unit quantities required to keep the infrastructure in good working
condition taking care of general wear and tear. The unit costs for various types of the
facilities were computed using 2007 MRS. These yardsticks were prepared using
interlinked MS Excel spread sheets. These spread sheets are available in Strategic
Planning/Reform Unit (SPRU) located in the Irrigation Secretariat, Lahore, which can
conveniently be modified to revise/update the unit costs in the yardsticks any time
611
using the MRS rates in vogue and/or changing criteria pertaining to unit quantities, if
deemed necessary.
1.3.2. General Classifications of M&R yardsticks’ Items
The yardsticks for the purpose of annual grant No.9 for M&R of PID works, as
approved Finance Department of by Government of Punjab, includes the following
items:
(i). Small dams, including roads, channels and buildings;
(ii). Office Buildings;
(iii). Residential Buildings;
(iv). Other Buildings;
(v). Un-lined Main & Branch Canals, upto 6,000 cusecs discharge;
(vi). Un-lined Main & Branch Canals, more than 6,000 to 10,000 cusecs
discharge;
(vii). Un-lined Main & Branch Canals, more than 10,000 cusecs discharge;
(viii). Link Canals, upto 10,000 cusecs;
(ix). Link Canals, more than 10,000 cusecs;
(x). Lined Main & Branch Canals;
(xi). Tributary and other subsidiary Links, Distributaries, Minors & Sub-
minors etc.;
(xii). Barrages & Headworks (including all training and protection works) –
13 barrages & headworks and 2 siphons across rivers;
(xiii). Flood Embankments other than those connected with barrages or
headworks, without wetting channels;
(xiv). Flood Embankments other than those connected with barrages or
headworks, with wetting channels;
(xv). J-Head/T-Head Spurs (including shanks) other than those connected
with barrages or headworks– along River Ravi;
(xvi). J-Head/T-Head Spurs (including shanks) other than those connected
with barrages or headworks– along River Jhelum & Chenab;
(xvii). J-Head/T-Head Spurs (including shanks) other than those connected
with barrages or headworks– along River Indus;
(xviii). Mole Head Spurs & Sloping Spurs
(xix). Stone Studs along River Ravi;
(xx). Stone Stud along Rivers Jhelum & Chenab;
(xxi). Stone Studs along River Indus;
(xxii). Perennial Lift Irrigation Canals, including electricity charges;
(xxiii). Non-Perennial Lift Irrigation Canals (working for 125 days), including
electricity charges;
(xxiv). Non-Perennial Lift Irrigation Canals (working for 200 days), including
electricity charges;
(xxv). Gandas and cross regulators on Hill Torrents of Jampur Construction
Division;
612
(xxvi). Gandas and cross regulators on Hill Torrents of D.G. Khan

Construction Division;
(xxvii). Operation & Maintenance of Reclamation Research Station,
Reclamation Division, Research Laboratories and Farms etc.;
(xxviii). Drain with Bed width upto 10 ft.;
(xxix). Drain with Bed width 10 to 15 ft.; and
(xxx). Drain with Bed width more than 15 ft.
The above items relate to all the infrastructure for which PID is responsible to operate
and maintain in six (6) territorial zones; Lahore, Sargodha, Faisalabad, Multan,
Bahawalpur and D.G. Khan which were created after the infrastructure was divided for
operational reasons.
Table 1 gives the items specifically related to these six (6) territorial zones.
613
Table 1: Zone Specific Items Included in M&R Yardsticks

614
615
616
1.3.3. Criteria for M&R Yardsticks:

During 1982 exercise to update the yardsticks PID for the first time prepared,
comprehensive and detailed yardsticks for M&R of the irrigation system. PID prepared
the yardsticks using the unit quantities (the criteria) which were based on the
experience of operating the system. The items of M&R works were those required to
repair the deterioration which were expected to occur during a year. But Finance
Department (FD) only partially agreed with the yardsticks prepared by PID and did not
agree with the unit quantities in their entirety. The unit costs in the yardsticks agreed
by FD were accepted by PID with the intention to update the yardsticks later. During
the updating in 1992 and 2004, again the unit quantities in the yardsticks were not
changed but the higher unit price rates were used to revise the yardstick figures in
order to cope with inflation. Updating process carried out during 2007 revised the unit
quantities in the yardsticks to make them realistic to cope with changed environments
specific to new systems or administrative zones created after expansion of PID in
order to ensure proper M&R.
Table 2: gives the Maintenance Criteria of Irrigation and Drainage Infrastructure for six
(6) territorial zones.
1.3.4. Zone-Specific Criteria for M&R Yardsticks
Tabulated below are the zone-specific criteria for M&R yardsticks. These zone-specific
criteria were used in updating exercise for the yardsticks carried out in 2007 M&R.
These are based on the experience of operating the system to keep the irrigation
infrastructure in good working condition taking care of general wear and tear.
1.3.5. M&R Yardsticks for Barrages & Head Works
In the case of thirteen (13) barrages, the items of maintenance and repairs were
identified based on the design of each barrage and unit quantities were estimated in
2007. While estimating the unit quantities, the experience of operating each barrage
in good working condition taking care of general wear and tear was used. The unit
quantities were priced and a lump sum amount was established as an exclusive
yardstick number for each barrage.
1.3.6. M&R Yardsticks for Small Dams & Hill Torrents
Similar to the barrages, the items of maintenance and repairs were identified based
on the design of each small dam and hill torrent structure and unit quantities were
estimated. While estimating the unit quantities, the experience of operating each type
of small dams and facilities at each hill torrent to keep these in good working condition
after taking care of general wear and tear was used. The unit quantities were priced
and a lump sum amount was established as an exclusive yardstick number for each
small dam and hill torrent structure.
617
Table 2: Maintenance Criteria of Irrigation and Drainage Infrastructure

618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
1.4. Updating Yardsticks

1.4.1. M&R yardsticks spread sheets
As mentioned, in 2007 M&R yardsticks were revised on the basis of the zone specific
criteria pertaining to unit quantities required to keep the irrigation infrastructure in good
working condition taking care of general wear and tear. The unit costs for items relating
to various types of the facilities for the purpose of annual grant No.9 for M&R of PID
works, as approved by Finance Department of Government of Punjab, were computed
using 2007 MRS rates. The yardsticks were revised using interlinked MS Excel spread
sheets.
Figures 1, 2 and 3 show the images of MS Excel spread sheets containing some of
the computations to calculate unit costs for the yardstick, as samples.
Figure 1: Image of an interlinked MS Excel spread sheet showing calculations of earthwork

632
Figure 2: Image of an interlinked MS Excel spread sheet showing an M&R yardsticks unit cost
Figure 3: Image of an interlinked MS Excel spread sheet showing computations for

an M&R yardstick unit cost
Following factors were used in computing the yardstick unit costs in the updating
exercise of 2007, which can vary the yardsticks, if changed.
(i). Zone-specific maintenance criteria of irrigation and drainage
infrastructure given in Table 2;
633
(ii). Unit quantities for operating each of the thirteen barrages in good
working condition taking care of general wear and tear;
(iii). Unit quantities for operating each of small dams and facilities
constructed at locations each hill torrent in good working condition taking
care of general wear and tear, based on the design of each type of small
dam and appurtenant works, and hill torrent structures and appurtenant
works;
(iv). Unit quantities for maintaining miscellaneous facilities such as Ghazi
Ghat bridge, etc. in good working condition taking care of general wear
and tear, based on their respective design;
(v). MRS rates applicable to each zone taking the average of rates of all
districts located in the respective zone;
Figures 4, 5 and 6 show the images of MS Excel spread sheets containing some of
the above factors pertaining to a few items in the zone-specific criteria, MRS rates of
a few items and quantities pertaining to a barrage respectively, as samples. Any
change in these elements will automatically change unit costs in the yardsticks.
634
Figure 4: Image of one of the interlinked MS Excel spread sheets showing factors pertaining a
few items in the zone-specific criteria, which change unit costs, if varied
635
Figure 5: Image of one of the interlinked MS Excel spread sheets showing MRS rates of a few
items, which change unit costs, if varied
636
Figure 6: Image of one of the interlinked MS Excel spread sheets showing quantities pertaining
to a barrage, which change in unit costs, if varied
637
1.4.2. Approach for revising/updating M&R yardsticks

For revising/updating the yardsticks, the contents of MS Excel spread sheets prepared
during the previous revision/updating exercise, need be changed in accordance with
the information existing at the time of revision/updating. There can be changes in: (i)
the general classification of M&R yardstick items; (ii) the quantities for hill torrents; (vi)
unit quantities for miscellaneous structures; and (vii) MRS rates. There can be four (4)
cases which warrant the revision/updating exercise, as described below.
Case 1: There is no change in the general classification of M&R yardstick items, zone
specific criteria, unit quantities for barrages, unit quantities for small dams, unit
quantities for hill torrents; and unit quantities for miscellaneous structures. The only
change is in MRS rates. MS Excel spread sheets are interlinked in such a manner that
varying entries in the spread sheets containing MRS rates (Figure 4.5 showing rates
for a few items) will automatically change unit costs in the yardsticks.
Case 2: There is variation in only zone-specific criteria. and, there are changes in MRS
rates. There will be need to make new entries in the spread sheets (Figure 4.4 showing
factors pertaining a few items in the zone-specific criteria and Figure 4.5 showing rates
for a few items). Similar to Case 1, varying entries in spread sheets will automatically
change unit costs in the yardsticks.
Case 3: There is addition in the general classification of M&R yardstick items which
will in turn change list of items in zone specific criteria and, there are changes in MRS
rates. There will be need to prepare new spread sheets pertaining to zone specific
criteria in order to account for the effect due to addition/deletion in the general
classification of M&R yardstick items. There shall be need to prepare revised and
additional interlinked MS Excel spread sheets.
Case 4: The criteria for computing the unit quantities for barrages or unit quantities
for small dams or unit quantities for hill torrents or unit quantities for miscellaneous
structures or all/some of them change varying unit quantities and there are changes
in MRS rates. There will be need to prepare fresh spread sheets for each or some of
them as previous spread sheets are prepared separately for each structure computing
yardstick unit costs.
1.5. Inventory of Infrastructure
As per the inventory of irrigation systems, surface drains, flood protection
embankments, spurs and small dams prepared in 2005, there are 22 canal systems,
which have an aggregate length of about 35,560 Km which includes: 5,722 Km length
of main canals including about 850 Km length of link canals and 29,839 Km length of
distributary and minor canals. There is an aggregate length of 8,980 Km of surface
drains, 2,688 Km length of flood protection embankments, 697 spurs and 33 small
dams. In addition to the irrigation systems, surface drains, flood protection
embankments, spurs and small dams the are buildings with total covered area of
15,964,230sft, out of which 1,691,750sft, 8,482,740sft and 5,789,740sft areas of office
buildings, residential buildings and other buildings (rest houses, lodges, mosques,
dispensaries and education buildings) respectively.
638
The zone-wise inventory of the infrastructure was prepared using MS Excel spread
sheets containing particulars of the elements of the infrastructure. These spread
sheets are available in Strategic Planning/Reform Unit (SPRU) located in the Irrigation
Secretariat, Lahore. Figure 7 shows the image of one of the MS Excel spread sheets
showing the inventory of a branch canal subsystem in Faisalabad zone.
Figure 7: Image of one of the inventory MS Excel spread sheets

639
The summary of inventory prepared in 2005 using general classifications of M&R

yardstick Items of the yardsticks for the purpose of annual grant No.9 for M&R of PID
works, as approved Finance Department of by Government of Punjab, is given in
Table 3.
Table 3: Inventory of PID Infrastructure
Inventory of PID Infrastructure
BWP DG K FSD LHR MUL SGD MISC DEV
Canal Irrigation
Buildings
Office Buildings 165,450 87,590 356,160 173,350 292,280 226,370 178,070 212,480
Residential Buildings 1,439,100 298,560 1,432,410 711,170 1,585,950 1,632,730 534,200 848,620
Other Buildings 1,030,230 381,100 1,014,110 548,270 1,321,820 1,082,880 206,240 205,090
Main Canal
(a) Un Lined
1- Main Canals & Branches
Upto 6000 Cs discharge Canal Mile 606 316 408 197 577 307
6000 to 10,000 Cs discharge Canal Mile 24 110 56 59 128 135
More than 10,000 Cs discharge Canal Mile 2 - 28 27 15 - 1
2- Link Canal - 8
Upto 10,000 Cs discharge Canal Mile - 124 -
More than 10,000 Cs discharge Canal Mile - - 79 78 59 29 34
(b) Lined -
Link Canals, Main Canals and Branches Canal Mile 75 - - 61 43 166
Distributaries, Minors & Sub-minors etc.
Upto 50 Cs Canal Mile 1,780 979 1,332 1,187 1,805 2,050
50 to 250 Cs Canal Mile 1,548 1,059 791 1,006 1,728 1,513
More than 250 Cs Canal Mile 736 233 359 422 614 436
Barrages and Headworks Q (cusecs)
Tuansa Barrage 1,100,000
Punjnad Headworks 700,000
Mailsi Siphon Complete Lump Sum
Khanki Headworks 800,000
Qadirabad Barrage 900,000
Marala Barrage 1,100,000
Ravi Siphon Complete Lump Sum
Trimmu Barrage 650,000
Balloki Barrage 225,000
Sidhnai Barrage 150,000
Sulemanki Headworks 325,000
Islam Headworks 300,000
Jinnah Barrage 950,000
Rasul Barrage 850,000
Mangla Headworks & cross drainage works Complete Lump Sum
Flood Control
Main Embankment
Flood Embankment other than those connected
with Barrages
i) without wetting channels Canal Mile 205 745 76 236 367
ii) with wetting channels Canal Mile 25 3 28 -
Spurs -
Spurs other than those connected with Barrages,
Headworks and Ghazighat complex
(a) J-Head/T-Head (including shanks)
i) River Ravi / Sutlej No. 1 - 5 24 12
ii) River Jehlum / Chenab No. 8 32 27 25 13 27
iii) River Indus No. 5 50 - 16 20
b) Mole head Spurs & Sloping Spurs (including
shanks) No. - 1 20 82 11 6
640
BWP DG K FSD LHR MUL SGD MISC DEV

c) Stone Studs No. - -
i) River Ravi / Sutlej No. - - 6 - 18 -
ii) River Jehlum / Chenab No. - 12 1 15 16
iii) River Indus No. 21 8 - 135 2
Ghandas & X-regulators on hill torrents. No. 78
Others
Lift Irrigation schemes including electricity
charges complete in all respects
a) Perennial canals Cs x ft of - 9,507 4,101
b) Non Perennial canals (working for 125 days)
a) Non Perennial canals (working for 200 days) 6,875
Drainage
Drains
i) Bed width upto 10ft Canal Mile 161 197 884 433 174 1,086 84
ii) Bed width upto 10-15ft Canal Mile 12 23 161 267 51 167 -
iii) Bed width more than 15ft Canal Mile 44 192 496 606 190 665 -
Note Canal Mile = 5,000 ft.
In the 33 existing small dams in 2005, 22 more dams have been constructed and more
dams are under construction. There has been reduction in covered area of buildings,
as a number of buildings are being abandoned such as rest houses in remote places
since the time the above inventory was prepared. There has also been reduction in
CCA of 8.41 Mha since the time the above inventory was prepared due to urbanization
of agriculture land in the proximity of towns and cities.
1.6. Preparation of O&M Budget
Annual O&M budget contains two types of expenditures: (i) M&R costs; and (ii)
Supervision and administration costs.
1.6.1. Approach for estimating M&R costs
As mentioned above, realistic M&R costs could be estimated after carrying out the
condition surveys of the infrastructure to ascertain their M&R needs, annually. But this
exercise would be too costly and time consuming to repeat every year. As an
alternative, PID framed M&R yardsticks providing unit costs for M&R in order to
expeditiously compute the annual M&R costs, In order to compute M&R costs,
therefore, updating/revising of the M&R yardsticks and verification of inventory of
elements of the infrastructure need be done every year. The most important data
required for updating/revising unit costs for the yardstick are MRS rates of the
applicable quarter.
Section 4 describes the methodology for updating/revising of the M&R yardsticks. The
inventory, contained in Section 5, can be easily verified by the respective field
operators with the help of the MS Excel spread sheets which include particulars of
various elements of the infrastructure in all zones, which are available in Strategic
Planning/Reform Unit (SPRU) located in the Irrigation Secretariat, Lahore. The
supervision and administrative costs relate to the remuneration and allowances paid
to the operational staff, staff in the secretariat and other related offices of PID such as
Irrigation Research Institute, Punjab Engineering Academy, and Directorate of Land
Reclamation etc. It is reflected in the annual budget of recurring expenditure and is
based on the sanctioned positions of the staff and the operating costs of PID offices
and other related institutions.
641
Figure 6.1 presents image of sheet showing O&M budget of 2006-07 - part related
with the Establishment. As prevailing ‘Heads’ can be different from those contained in
Figure 8, it should be used as a guidance only for preparing the estimate of supervision
and administrative costs.
GOVERNMNET OF THE PUNJAB
IRRIGATION AND POWER DEPARTMENT
O&M BUDGET 2006-07 PC21009 (009)
BUDGET ESTIMATES 2006-07
HEAD
ESTABLISHMENT REMARKS
9.150 Grant in Aid to Engineering. Academy, Lahore
014110 OTHERS 1.402 Grant in Aid to D.G. Khan (Hill Torrents)
0.304 Grant in Aid to Rajanpur (Hill Torrents)
106.596 Chief Engineers
9.631 Chief Engineer (Water Treaty Implementation Cell)
042201 ADMINISTRATION
20.983 Chief Engineer (Planning & Review)
112.229 Superintending Engineers
042202 IRRIGATION DAMS 41.694
4.392 CRB Irr. Proj. 67&68 - Canal Div.Taunsa Sharif
- Establishment of (PMIU)
1.284 CRB Irr. Proj. 67&68 - Canal Div.Taunsa Sharif
042203 CANAL IRRIGATION 1,617.506 Canal Irrigation (Executive)
624.236 Canal Irrigation (SR)
2.208 CRB D.G Khan (SR)
5.321 CRB D.G Khan (Executive)
16.527 Greater Thal canal (SR)
042204 TUBE WELLS 536.046
042205 EQUIPMENT 52.446 Excavator & Store Div.
MACHINERY 42.144 MIW
WORKSHOPS 23.407 BIW
042206 IRRIGATION RESEARCH 63.543 Research Institute
& DESIGN 7.684 Director Design
042250 OTHERS - Director Land Reclalmation
042301 ADMINISTRATION 24.920
WATER LOGGING AND
042302 67.168
SALINITY CONTROL
6.146 CE (Flood Cell)
107105 FLOOD CONTROL 6.162 Director Hydrology
246.621 Flood Control & Drainage
Total:- 3,649.750
Figure 8: Image of sheet showing O&M budget of 2006-07
1.7. Timeline for preparation of the annual O&M Budget
Several offices starting from the divisional offices, circle offices, zonal chief engineers’
offices to the PID Secretariat are involved in preparing the annual O&M budget.
Therefore, a well-coordinated effort is required. As such a Standard Operating
Procedure (SOP) for preparing annual O&M budget should be devised. The timeline
should match the date by which PID is required to submit the annual O&M budget to
Finance Department for further inclusion in the annual provincial budget for approval
by the provincial assembly.
It is imperative that the updating/revising unit costs in the yardsticks on the basis of
the most recent MRS rates is done. As a first step, before preparing the annual O&M
642
budget, which activity should logically be carried out by zonal offices. MRS rates for
the quarter ending September will be available for using in updating/revising the
yardsticks. The consent of the PID secretariat is essential before using
updated/revised zonal yardsticks. Therefore, the updating/revising unit costs is a
critical activity in the exercise of preparing O&M budget.
643
1.8. References
1. Report of Assets Inventory, IPD, January 2006
2. Microsoft Excel work sheets for computing M&R Yardsticks, prepared
under World Bank’s Irrigation Sector Development Policy Loans (DPLs
I&II) in 2006 and 2007
3. IPD Revised Criteria for Computing M&R Yardstick of Bahawalpur Zone,
March 2007
4. IPD, Revised Criteria for Computing M&R Yardstick of D.G Khan Zone,
March 2007
5. IPD, Revised Criteria for Computing M&R Yardstick of Multan Zone,
March 2007
6. IPD, Revised Criteria for Computing M&R Yardstick of Faisalabad Zone,
March 2007
7. IPD, Revised Criteria for Computing M&R Yardstick of Lahore Zone,
March 2007
8. IPD, Revised Criteria for Computing M&R Yardstick of Sargodha Zone,
March 2007
9. IPD files and procedures
644
i
PREPARING ANNUAL M&R WORK PLANS AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION
PREPARING ANNUAL M&R WORK PLANS AND THEIR

IMPLEMENTATION
Table of Contents
1 PREPARING ANNUAL M&R WORK PLANS AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION ......... 645
1.1 Introduction: ........................................................................................................ 645
1.1.1 Staff responsible .......................................................................................... 645
1.2 PREPARATION OF ANNUAL WORK PLANS .................................................... 646
1.2.1 General ........................................................................................................ 646
1.2.2 Preparation of Annual Work Plans ............................................................... 646
1.2.3 Consultation with beneficiaries (Farmers) .................................................... 647
1.2.4 Criteria for selecting modes of execution ..................................................... 648
1.3 Implementation of annual M&R Work Plans ........................................................ 648
1.3.1 Types of schemes ........................................................................................ 649
1.3.2 Preparation of schemes ............................................................................... 649
1.3.3 Drawings, Sketches and Cross-sections ...................................................... 650
1.3.4 Bill of Quantities (BOQ) and Engineer’s Estimate ........................................ 650
1.3.5 Specifications............................................................................................... 650
1.3.6 Bidding Documents ...................................................................................... 650
1.3.7 Technical Sanction of Engineer’s Estimate .................................................. 651
1.3.8 Checking of Engineer’s Estimate ................................................................. 651
1.3.9 Time for Technical Sanction......................................................................... 651
1.3.10 Bidding Process ........................................................................................... 651
1.3.11 Emergent M&R works .................................................................................. 652
1.3.12 Desilting in drains by FA .............................................................................. 653
1.4 Monitoring of M&R Work Plans ........................................................................... 653
1.4.1 Monitoring of M&R Work Plans .................................................................... 653
1.4.2 Progress Monitoring Reports ....................................................................... 653
1.4.3 Performance evaluation of field offices ........................................................ 654
1.5 Supervision of the M&R Schemes....................................................................... 654
1.5.1 Implementation supervision of M&R works .................................................. 654
1.5.2 Staff responsible .......................................................................................... 654
1.5.3 Payments..................................................................................................... 655
1.6 Documentation.................................................................................................... 655
1.7 References ......................................................................................................... 658
ii
645
1 PREPARING ANNUAL M&R WORK PLANS AND THEIR

IMPLEMENTATION
1.1 Introduction:
In order to carry out durable Maintenance and Repair (M&R) works of required quality,
following activities need to be carried out;
(i). Periodic inspections to determine M&R needs for major elements of the
infrastructure, such as barrages: large hydraulic structures, main canals,
branch canals and flood control infrastructure. The applicable yardstick
criteria for preventive maintenance need be kept in view during these
inspections;
(ii). Preparation of annual work plans which are prepared to address M&R
needs of the PID infrastructure;
(iii). Procurement of works planned to be carried out during a fiscal year;
(iv). Supervision and monitoring implementation progress of individual works,
which in turn will monitor the annual work plans; and
(v). Reporting and documentation of works accomplished, to be used as
bench mark/starting point for preparing next annual work plan.
1.1.1 Staff responsible
The Executive Engineer (XEN) is the controlling officer responsible for operation and
maintenance of the irrigation, drainage and flood control system supported by Sub-
Divisional Officers (SDOs) and Sub-Engineers. During the course of operation of the
irrigation, drainage and flood control system he makes periodic inspections of the
infrastructure under his jurisdiction to assess the general condition of the facilities and
their M&R needs other than the routine maintenance, and document them. The
documentation of inspections is to be prepared on regular basis and record maintained
so that upon transfer of the XEN, SDO(s) or a Sub-Engineer(s) the M&R the needs
may not lose track. Senior officers: Chief Engineers (CEs) or Superintending
Engineers (SEs) would make periodic inspections of major elements of the
infrastructure as a regular feature of their activities, specifically for
establishing/advising the M&R needs. The periodic inspections by independent third
party should be sought in case of the need arising due to special circumstances.
The annual work plans for M&R of a Division are prepared by the XEN using the
information gathered during the periodic inspections of the system under his control.
The XEN will forward the annual work plan of his Division to his SE who recommends
it to the respective CE of the Zone. The CE approves the annual work plans prioritizing
the proposed M&R works keeping in view the available budget.
Similarly, XEN is the key official responsible for: (i) procurement of M&R works
intended to be carried out during a fiscal year in the Division; (ii) supervision and
monitoring of implementation of progress on M&R schemes and the annual work plan
in the Division; and (iii) reporting and documenting the M&R works/schemes
implemented in the Division. The services of consultants can also be retained to assist
646
the PID for checking of schemes, third party validation of the quality of work performed
by contractors and using force account (direct labour), and measurements and
payments. In case the services of consultants are acquired, their terms of reference
(TOR) may include providing assistance in procurement processes, as well.
1.2 PREPARATION OF ANNUAL WORK PLANS
1.2.1 General
As mentioned above, the annual work plans for M&R are prepared by the XEN with
the help of SDOs and Sub-Engineers of his Division. The XEN submits the annual
work plans of his Division to the SE who recommends it to the respective CE of the
Zone. The CE approves the annual work plans prioritizing the proposed M&R works
keeping in view the available budget. This process is carried out before the advent of
a fiscal year (FY) and is completed immediately after the annual grant/budget
allocation is approved for the FY. The work plans are based on the applicable criteria
of the yardstick. The work plans approved in the beginning of the fiscal year may be
revised for the following reasons;
(i). Directives during inspection of senior officers;
(ii). Complaints by the water users;
(iii). Emergent repairs; and
(iv). Curtailment of budgets and release of lesser funds for M&R activities.
1.2.2 Preparation of Annual Work Plans
The work plans should not only be in the form of lists of works but should also indicate
timeline for design, preparing bidding documents, procurement method, seasonal
constraints such as rainy season and arrangements of supervision needed. The
timeline for implementation of schemes should be set apart so that supervision of the
implementation schemes with available staff becomes doable.
The annual work plans should aim at execution of activities as per the unit quantities
included in the approved yardstick. This will avoid accumulation of M&R works in case
the funds are not adequately provided. The mode of execution i.e. whether to procure
requisite works through contactors (out sourcing) or force account (direct labour) or
Machinery Circle (in-house) should be planned in advance. For works to be procured
through contractors, the work plans should also take into account time required to
prepare bidding documents, bidding process and seasonal constraints such as rainy
season for establishing completion dates. The execution of works should be planned
in such a manner so as to ensure execution of the works throughout the fiscal year
without allowing a large number of works going on simultaneously towards the end of
a fiscal year.
It is important that the works are divided into following categories;
(i). Preventive Maintenance;
(ii). Repair-works;
(iii). Replacement of parts of and/complete facility; and
(iv). Works that can be carried out only in the annual closure period.
647
Since the yardstick includes nominal earthwork for canals and drains that is expected
to erode in a year, it is impracticable to recoup this small earthwork along the entire
length of a canal or drain each year. The earthwork (filling and compaction/tamping)
can be carried out in the reach of a drain or canal, where the required earthwork is in
an appreciable quantity to a sizeable depth. Therefore, the earthwork on canals and
drains should be carried out in a manner that the entire length of a canal or drain is
restored to its designed parameters in a cyclic manner, say in 5 years. This will
determine the sizes of contract packages of M&R works.
Divisional offices shall commence preparation of annual M&R Work Plans from the
first day of May each year. By end of May these work plans shall be submitted to the
respective SE offices. The concerned SE shall be the authorized officer to
recommend/approve the Divisional work plans. The SE shall modify/amend/approve
these work plans latest by third week of June. After approving the work plans the SE
shall collate the information for the entire Circle and send it to the concerned CE. The
CE shall modify/amend/approve these work plans latest by end the first week of July
after the receipt of approved budget from the Punjab Irrigation Department (PID). The
CEs shall send the approved work plans for information to the PID after compiling
those on Zonal basis.
Table below shows the time frame for preparing M&R work plans:
Commencement of work plans preparation by XENs 1stMay
Submission to the Circle Office. 31stMay
Approval Divisional work plans by SEs. Submission of 22ndJune
collated Circle work plans to Zonal Office.
Approval of Circle work plans by CEs. Submission of 7th July
collated Zonal work plans to PID.
1.2.3 Consultation with beneficiaries (Farmers)

PID has formed Farmer Organizations (FOs) in some canal commands. These FOs
are assisting in regulation, distribution of irrigation water at each outlet head, resolving
minor mutual disputes and maintaining the channel. Prior to granting approval to
Divisional annual work plans, by end of the third week of June, the concerned SE will
hold a meeting with representatives of these FOs (at least one water user from upper,
middle and tail reaches of each Distributary command). During this meeting the work
plans of M&R, especially related to main canals, Branch canals, distributaries and
minors will be informed to these water users who are the stakeholders and seek their
views. Based on the views expressed by these representatives the work plans will be
revised /amended, if needed.
Each division will prepare the work plan for M&R activities using the Performa shown
in Annexure 1. The contracts and repair packages will be numbered (column 2) with
coding system indicating Zone, Circle, Division and category of work. The system of
numbering should be uniform in all Zones, simple and easily understood to identify the
648
contracts and repair packages. Column 4 should indicate approximate cost estimate,
which may be based on yardsticks or inquiries made and/or experience. This cost
estimate will of course be refined as the bidding documents and/or other procurement
documents are prepared. Mode of execution to be indicated in column 5 will be either
of the following:
(i). Local Purchase (LP) through quotations.
(ii). Small Work Orders (WOs) to get repair work done expeditiously from the
market.
(iii). Out Sourcing (OS) through Competitive Bidding.
(iv). Force Account (FA) by engaging temporary labour.
(v). Force Account (FA) by utilizing departmental machinery.
It is important that realistic completion periods should be indicated in column 6 of the
proforma included as Annexure 1. These completion periods should also guide
establishing dates in columns 7 to 10. It is also important that between bidding date
and award, there should be provided adequate time for preparation of bids, after
invitation of bids at least 30 days may be allowed for evaluation of bids.
1.2.4 Criteria for selecting modes of execution
Out sourcing (OS) through competitive bidding (using the contractors) would be the
mode of procurement of works in following cases;
(i) Planned earthwork (routine maintenance) to make up eroded banks of
main canals, branch canals, distributaries, minors, flood embankments
and small dams;
(ii) Planned repairs (routine maintenance) or special repairs
(modifications/improvements) of structures related to main canals,
branch canals, distributaries, minors, flood embankments and small
dams; and
(iii) Planned repairs (routine maintenance) or special repairs
(modifications/improvements) of offices, residential buildings and Rest
Houses.
Force Account’ would be the mode of procurement of maintenance work in following
cases only;
(i) Desilting of drains, using the equipment of Machinery Circle;
(ii) Emergency repairs of eroded/under attack/breached flood
embankments during the flood season; and
(iii) Emergency repairs of breached canal banks, by employing temporary
labour or using the equipment of Machinery Circle or combination of
both.
1.3 Implementation of annual M&R Work Plans
The implementation of annual M&R work plans is done through execution of schemes
included in the annual M&R work plans. The size of schemes should be such that it is
convenient to prepare documentation and achieve implementation involving contract
649
packaging, design of works, bidding documents, carrying out of bidding processes to

award contracts through competitive bids, and execution of works during a maximum
period of one year.
1.3.1 Types of schemes
It is not possible to list here all types of the schemes, which shall be involved in
procuring M&R works. However, the main types of schemes broadly fall into the
following categories:
(i). Routine/preventive maintenance schemes: the works required to avoid
unnecessary deterioration of an asset other than normal wear and tear
such as, painting of gates in an irrigation and drainage system, oiling of
moving parts in gates and gearing, cleaning and painting of walls of the
buildings, repairing of general wear and tear in the earthen embankment
of a canal or a drain or a flood embankment etc.
(ii). Scheme involving repair-works: the works involving removal of defects
that may occur due to improper use or by accident or otherwise, which if
not repaired may endanger safe use of the asset and can become cause
of its complete destruction. This may include making up of worn out
earthen embankments to the designed dimensions, and desilting of the
channels as well as the repairing embayment with bamboo bushing etc.
(iii). Schemes involving replacement of parts of and/complete facility: these
types of works may involve replacement of a spare part that might have
worn out, replacement/reconstruction of a facility that might have spent
its useful life or damaged to an extent that it cannot be beneficially used
(iv). Schemes involving works that can be carried out only in the annual
closure period
(v). Unforeseen emergent works: emergent works for canal breaches and
flood fighting for safety of flood embankments and spurs.
1.3.2 Preparation of schemes
As stated above, the scope of work for the schemes under M&R is kept such that it is
convenient to prepare documentation and execute the works during a maximum period
of one year. The scheme is basically a document to inform as to what is being
envisaged in order to execute a portion of work. It would essentially consists of; (i) a
narrative i.e. “Report”; (ii) mode of execution;(iii) drawings, sketches and cross-
sections; (iv) Bill of Quantities (BOQ)– i.e. “Abstract of Quantities”;and (v) a cost
estimate. For procurement of M&R works by using OS mode, there is a need for
preparation of bidding documents, like any other procurement involving works and
goods, which consist of the following;
(i) Drawings, sketches and cross-sections;
(ii) Bill of Quantities (BOQ);
(iii) Specifications;
(iv) Conditions of Contract (General and Special);
(v) Form of Tender;
650
(vi) Form of agreement; and

(vii) Instructions to Bidders.
1.3.3 Drawings, Sketches and Cross-sections
The drawings, sketches and cross-sections in fact indicate the design of works
intended to be done under the scheme. In order to prepare drawings, sketches and
cross-sections, there is a need to carry out engineering of the M&R works which
requires surveys (topographic as well as levelling). The existing codal procedures
(cross-sections interval, etc.) about carrying out the surveys should be complied in
letter and spirit. The documentation (level books and field notes) for the surveys
carried out, duly authenticated by signatures of all concerned staff should be
catalogued and retained in the archives at least for five years after the execution of
the respective M&R work.
For carrying out, state of the art survey equipment (total stations, distomat, etc.) should
be used.
1.3.4 Bill of Quantities (BOQ) and Engineer’s Estimate
Based on the surveys sketches, drawings and cross-sections, quantities will be
computed to prepare the “Engineer’s Estimate”. BOQ and the Engineer’s Estimate will
generally be prepared using the typical items and rates as included in the Market Rates
System (MRS) published on web site of the Finance Department, Government of the
Punjab (http://finance.punjab.gov.pk/market_rates) every quarter/bi-annualiy. The
Engineer’s estimate will be prepared using the latest MRS. Should there be a
requirement, a ‘non-schedule’ item of work may be derived for which specifications
and method of measurement must be specifically included in the bidding documents.
Simultaneously, the analysis of rates should be carried out to establish estimated unit
rate of the ‘non-schedule’ item of work for use in preparing the Engineer’s Estimate.
1.3.5 Specifications
The rates published under Market Rate System (MRS) are for the typical ‘Bill of
Quantities’ along with the specifications. These are OK and can continued to be used.
Should there be need a ‘non-schedule’ item of work for which specifications and
method of measurement should be prepared for specifically inclusion in the bidding
documents. Simultaneously, the analyses of rates should be carried out to establish
the unit rates of ‘non-schedule’ items of work for use in preparation of the Engineer’s
Estimate.
1.3.6 Bidding Documents
PID has standard bidding documents, which are used in conjunction with published
schedule of rates that in actual fact are typical ‘Bill of Quantities’ along with the
specifications. However, there may be a need to specifically prepare ‘Instructions to
Bidders’ and Conditions of Special Application, in some cases.
651
1.3.7 Technical Sanction of Engineer’s Estimate

The Engineer’s Estimate will be approved by the competent authority - the XEN, SE
or CE. The approval is termed as “Technical Sanction” (TS). The BOQ to be included
in the bidding documents will be those provided in the TS cost estimate.
The Sub-Engineer will prepare the cost estimate. SDOs and XENs will perform the
codal check on the estimates and will recommend/approve those on the basis of the
prescribed spot-checks.“Technical Sanction” shall be accorded prior to the
commencing of bidding process.
1.3.8 Checking of Engineer’s Estimate
All “Engineer’s Estimates” prepared by the Sub-Engineers shall be checked for errors
and omissions by the SDO/XEN as per codal provisions before submittal to the
Divisional Office (XEN)/higher office for according TS or further processing. Before
according TS, the competent authority should ensure correctness of each content of
the estimate through site inspection and the fact should be recorded on the estimate
in the shape of a certificate regarding the site inspection.
1.3.9 Time for Technical Sanction
The TS will not take more than 7 days after submittal to the authorized officer for
according TS. If the TS is to be granted by office higher than that of XEN i.e. SE/CE,
the estimate shall be submitted to the concerned office within 7 days after is
preparation. TS will be accorded within a maximum period of 15 days by the highest
ranked authority.
1.3.10 Bidding Process
The bidding process involving invitation and evaluation of bids for award of contract
by the competent authority is to be done by the XEN in accordance with Punjab
Procurement Rules (PPRA). Bids are opened by Tender Opening Committees, which
are constituted to make the process of awarding of contract as transparent.
Generally, the time given for submitting bids should not be less than a month (for
allowing the bidders to compute site specific rates and preparing responsive bids).
Should there arise an urgent need for an emergent repair work, under special
conditions after due approval of the concerned Superintending Engineer, the bidding
process with a shorter duration for bidding period may be adopted sparingly. The
bidding documents for M&R works shall be sold to pre-registered contractors.
For evaluation of bids the following needs to be done;
(i) Checking documentation of all bids to ascertain if those are responsive
i.e. tender bond (Earnest Money) is attached in the requisite form, all
blanks in the various bidding documents are duly filled and all the
submittals are duly authenticated by the bidders, etc.;
(ii) Checking the arithmetical computations and correction of bid amounts,
if any;
(iii) Preparing the comparative statement; and
652
(iv) Preparing bid evaluation report (BER) in a standard form, giving

information about the number of tender documents sold, number of bids
received, number responsive and the evaluated as most favourable, etc.
The contracts would be awarded on the basis of technically responsive and lowest
evaluated bid. In case the lowest responsive bid exceeds the amount of TS, all bids
shall be cancelled and re-invited. The received bids should be evaluated expeditiously,
forwarded to the competent authority for approval and the contracts awarded in order
to get the works completed in due course of time. The bid evaluation and award of the
contracts should be made in the timeframe, as follows;
Time frame (days) for Bid Evaluation and Award of M&R Contracts
Days
Bid Forwarding/ Forwarding/
Office Approval
Evaluation Approval by Approval by Total
by CE
Report XEN SE
Executive
3 4 - - 7
Engineer
Superintending
4 - 10
Engineer
Chief Engineer - 4 14
1.3.11 Emergent M&R works

The emergent works may be needed for closing canal breaches and flood fighting:
Most of the canals, distributaries and minors constructed in Punjab are earthen.
Breaches in canals may occur due to weather action, rains or due to ill motives of
water users to get benefit during the keen demand period. To avoid damages to crops,
infrastructure and abadies (inhabited localities) in the vicinity of the breach, immediate
closure of the breaches should be done. Similar situation may arise when flood
protection infrastructure is under the river attack and immediate flood fighting is
necessary.
For such situations, the government has allowed initiating repairs under para 2.89 of
P.W.D. Code to safeguard the government and public assets. As per standing
instructions, the Chief Engineer is competent to allow emergent repair work after
informing the PID, D.G. (Works), Punjab and Finance Department intimating the
probable liability being under taken. The requisite funds the emergent work should be
demanded in the same financial year based on actual work done. The procedures of
preparation of estimate, it’s TS and preparation of B.O.Q. cannot be adhered to in this
case.
653
For the allotment of work of such emergent nature either of the following three
procedures may be used depending upon the nature and estimated cost of emergency
work:
(i). Short notice /gallop tenders are invited from the approved list of
contractors for a certain probable amount and then after completion of
work, the estimate is prepared on actual work done basis and submitted
to the competent authority for sanction;
(ii). Work is allotted to a contractor registered with PID by the Superintending
Engineer at prevailing MRS under para 6.17 of P.W.D. code to avoid
wastage of time in bidding;.and
(iii). Executing work by “Force Account”, by employing temporary labour or
using the equipment/Machinery Circle or combination of both.
1.3.12 Desilting in drains by FA
Prior to implementation of desilting work in drains under ‘Force Account’, the
Engineer’s estimate will be prepared, checked and sanctioned in the same manner as
that of OS, described in the sections above. The rates for the BOQ items shall be
those prevalent in the Machinery Circle and/or as approved by the competent
authority.
1.4 Monitoring of M&R Work Plans
1.4.1 Monitoring of M&R Work Plans
The implementation of M&R Work Plans will be monitored regularly by concerned
officers/ officials of the Sub Division/Division/Circle.The SEs shall send the monitoring
report of the Circle to the concerned CE at the end of third week of every month, who
will prepare a summary of the monitored information and forward to the Punjab
Irrigation Department (PID) Secretariat by end of each month.
1.4.2 Progress Monitoring Reports
Monthly Progress Report for each contract shall be prepared by the SDO and
submitted to his XEN by end of the first week of every month. The report should be
brief giving particulars of the contracts, progress achieved against the scheduled
progress, quality test results, status of payments, issues, if any, and actions taken/to
be taken to resolve the issues. This progress report should remain as permanent
record. It must include a suitable number of digital photographs that can demonstrate
the nature and quality of work carried out.
The XEN will prepare completion report for each work, which shall be attached with
the final bill. In addition, the XEN will collate the information provided by SDOs and
prepare Quarterly Progress Reports as per the following time frame.
1st Quarterly Progress Report By end of

October.
2nd Quarterly Progress Report including Report of By end of
Closure Works. January
654
3rd Quarterly Progress Report By end of April.

4th Quarterly Progress Report (Annual Progress By end of July
Report)
1.4.3 Performance evaluation of field offices

A permanent cell located in the PID would carry out performance evaluation of field
offices in respect of implementation of the annual M&R work plans. It will have suitable
number of core staff of PID responsible for: i) carrying out independent periodic
inspections of works of canals/drains, barrages, large hydraulic structures, flood
control facilities, Small Dams and other infrastructures in order to assess the special
needs of M&R of these structures other than routine M&R; (ii) supporting the exercise
of control on the preparation of work plans; and iii) supervising the arrangements of
independent inspections of the randomly selected schemes of M&R works
implemented by field offices in order to evaluate the M&R activities. Evaluation Report
for each Division will be prepared by the Performance Evaluation Cell after periodic
inspections. These special reports will be provided to the concerned Division to
respond to the deficiencies and shortcomings before collating the evaluation reports
on Circle basis and Zonal basis. The finalized collated Zonal report will be provided to
the PID Secretariat for; (i) taking disciplinary action against the defaulting field officers;
and (ii) rewarding and/or issuing commendation letters to field officers found to have
performed satisfactorily as required by the prescribed procedures.
In order to carry out independent check and carry out third party monitoring, services
of consultants will be retained by PID. The Consultants shall randomly select schemes
of M&R works (at least 2 schemes of each category from each Division), implemented
by the divisions every year, and these will be checked with respect to all the
procedures which were required to be followed i.e. (i) criteria of its inclusion in the work
plan; (ii) surveying and preparation; (iii) bidding, evaluation of bids and award; (iv)
implementation, qualitatively and quantitatively; and (v) documentation; etc. The
random sampling of schemes should be carried out from each Circle using statistical
procedures and techniques so that the random sample is representative of the works
carried out during the year (cost and quantum-wise).
1.5 Supervision of the M&R Schemes
1.5.1 Implementation supervision of M&R works
The XEN is the “Engineer Incharge” responsible to administer the contracts for M&R
works undertaken by the Division.
1.5.2 Staff responsible
The key player inspecting M&R works during execution by the contractors is the
concerned Sub-Engineer. Therefore, in order to enable the Sub-Engineer to frequently
inspect several M&R works ongoing simultaneously, official transport should be
available. Testing of materials and works is the responsibility of contractors, and
provision in this regard should also be made in the bidding documents. Frequency of
655
testing should also be prescribed in the bidding documents. There should always be
adequate/suitable work-charged staff (such as: foremen, work mistaries, helpers and
unskilled labour) available to the Sub-Engineer to assist him in collecting samples for
testing, testing at site if required, supervision of on-going works for compliance with
specifications, measurements and documentation.
As per codal procedure, SDOs and XENs should check the implementation of
M&R works. If the items of work are under water, the SDO is required to check 100%
work. In other cases where the items of work are not under water after completion, the
mandatory check by SDO is of the order of at least 35%. The underwater works are
also supposed to be verified to an extent of at least 15% by the XEN. In order to attain
the codal level of checks and to assure the proper quality of work, SDOs should visit
the site at appropriate occasions to ensure that it shall be possible to perform the
requisite quantum of checks without any difficulty. SDO should make at least three
visits; one as soon as the work commences, second during the middle of the contract
period and third at the time of completion. If the construction period is large then the
construction supervision visits should be more than three and frequent. All visits by
SDOs should be documented by writing ‘Inspection Notes’ for the guidance of the Sub-
Engineer and for information of higher officers.
The XENs should also visit site of works at appropriate occasions. In the case
of the M&R works with large construction period, XENs should make frequent visits to
the site. All visits by XENs should be documented by writing ‘Inspection Notes’ for the
guidance of SDO and the Sub-Engineer. The Superintending Engineer during
inspection of the barrages, main canals & branches and other small channels in the
Division must call for the list of works in progress and exercise random inspection and
check the quality of works. The instructions issued by the PID vide letter No. SOB
(I&P)7-40/2006-07 dated 2.3.20061 must be strictly followed.
1.5.3 Payments
Interim payments of works executed should be made in accordance with the conditions
of contract. The bill for interim payment shall be submitted by the Contractor and the
Sub-Engineer shall enter it in his Measurement Book (MB) after verification of quality
and quantity. The codal checks must be performed by the SDOs and XENs prior to
processing disbursement of payments. Before submission of final bill by the contractor
a joint inspection by the concerned staff (SDO and Sub-Engineer) and the contractor’s
representative should be made to prepare a ‘punch list’ of outstanding items of works
that must be completed before processing of the final payment. This ‘Punch List’ must
be signed by all parties and retained in the permanent record of the Division. The
Payment should be released as soon as defects, if any, are removed.
1.6 Documentation
For performance monitoring of M&R works, following documentation shall be
prepared;
1 Or revised instructions changing the contents letter No. SOB (I&P)7-40/2006-07 dated 2.3.2006
656
(i). Annual Work Plans (Annexure 1) for M&R works;

(ii). Data of monitoring Divisional performance on the Annual Work Plans, to
be provided by XENs to SEs at the end of first week of every month;
(iii). Circle-wise Monitoring Report of Annual Work Plans to be prepared by
SEs, and submitted to CE at the end of third week of every month;
(iv). Summary of Monitoring of Annual Work Plans, to be prepared by CEs
and submitted to PID at the end of the following month;
(v). Permanent record of surveying carried out by Sub-Engineer, and checks
performed by SDOs and XENs;
(vi). Pre-construction digital photographs of the canals, drains and other
structures to be maintained or repaired;
(vii). Inspection Notes by SDOs and XENs;
(viii). Permanent record of testing materials and works, as specified in the
bidding documents;
(ix). Permanent record of measurement in MB;
(x). “Punch Lists” of agreed outstanding items of work, to be prepared before
processing of final bill;
(xi). Completion Report of each contract to be attached with the final bill;
(xii). Contract-wise Monthly Progress Report to be prepared by the
SDOs/XENs; and
A register in respect of each canal, drain, barrage, and other infrastructure shall be
maintained in which all the M&R works carried out in a year shall be described.
657
658
1.7 References
1. IPD files and procedures
i
PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS

Table of Contents
1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF PROJECTS ..................... 659
1.1 General ............................................................................................................... 659
1.2 Institutions Associated with Processing and approval of projects ........................ 659
1.2.1 Divisional Development Working Party ........................................................ 659
1.2.2 Departmental Development Sub Committee ................................................ 660
1.2.3 Planning and Development Board................................................................ 660
1.2.4 Provincial Development Working Party ........................................................ 660
1.2.5 Planning Commission .................................................................................. 660
1.2.6 Central Development Working Party ............................................................ 661
1.2.7 Executive Committee of the National Economic Council .............................. 661
1.2.8 National Economic Council .......................................................................... 661
1.3 Implementation Cycle of Projects ........................................................................ 661
1.4 Conceiving a Project ........................................................................................... 662
1.5 Development plans ............................................................................................. 662
1.6 Documentation for Public sector Projects in Pakistan ......................................... 664
1.6.1 Project Identification..................................................................................... 664
1.6.2 PC-II Proforma ............................................................................................. 664
1.6.3 PC-III Proforma ............................................................................................ 665
1.6.4 PC-IV Proforma ........................................................................................... 665
1.6.5 PC-V Proforma ............................................................................................ 665
1.7 Foreign Financed Projects .................................................................................. 665
1.7.1 Anticipatory Approval ................................................................................... 666
1.8 Preparation of projects ........................................................................................ 666
1.8.1 Feasibility studies ........................................................................................ 667
1.8.2 Surveys and Studies .................................................................................... 667
1.8.3 Technical Solutions/Options......................................................................... 667
1.8.4 Environmental Aspects ................................................................................ 668
1.8.5 Social Impact Assessment ........................................................................... 673
1.8.6 Cost Estimates............................................................................................. 673
1.8.7 Economic and Financial Aspects ................................................................. 674
1.9 Preparation of Detailed Design Fora Project ....................................................... 676
1.9.1 General ........................................................................................................ 676
ii
1.9.2 Types of Works in PID Projects.................................................................... 676

1.9.3 Civil Works ................................................................................................... 676
1.9.4 Electrical and Mechanical Works ................................................................. 677
1.9.5 Design Criteria ............................................................................................. 677
1.9.6 Design Mehods ............................................................................................ 678
1.9.7 Bidding Documents ...................................................................................... 679
1.10 Construction of the project Works ....................................................................... 680
1.10.1 Pre-Construction Activities ........................................................................... 680
1.10.2 Contract Packaging...................................................................................... 681
1.10.3 Modes of Construction Activites ................................................................... 681
1.10.4 Key Players in the construction Contract...................................................... 682
1.10.5 The Contractor’s Organization ..................................................................... 686
1.10.6 The Engineer’s Organization........................................................................ 686
List of Figures
FIGURE 1: TYPICAL SITE ORGANIZATION OF THE CONTRACTOR ............................................................... 683

FIGURE 2: TYPICAL SITE ORGANIZATION OF THE ENGINEER ..................................................................... 684
FIGURE 3: TYPICAL ORGANOGRAM OF AN IPD PMO (EMPLOYER)............................................................ 685
659
1 PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF

PROJECTS
1.1 General
Service provider like Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) is often required to undertake
projects in order to enhance the quality of its services. In general term, a project is
usually a scheme with a well-defined set of desired end results. It has a starting point
with specified ending point. It involves conceiving, planning, financing, implementing,
monitoring and controlling. It may need coordination of multitude of activities or tasks.
Each project is unique as it targets achievement of the specified objectives and end
results. The projects can be solely related to procuring works or goods or services and
combination of all or any of the two.
Project Management involves application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to
project activities to meet project requirements. Project Management concerns getting
the implementation of the project on time and within budget.
For providing its services, PID has in place an extensive infrastructure, which includes:
i) Water Diversion Works such as barrages etc. built across the river Sutlej, the river
Ravi, the river Chenab, the river Jhelum and the river Indus; ii) Link Canals; (iii) Canal
Systems and Sub-systems; (iv) Drainage Systems; (v) Flood Protection Works; and
vi) Small Dams. As such new project are seldom required to be implemented. Most
often the projects executed by PID relate to rehabilitation, revamping and remodelling
of the existing infrastructure are needed. Nevertheless, the both types of projects need
to be implemented following the technical solutions for achievement of intended
outcome of the projects as well as administrative procedures of by Provincial
Government and Federal Government of Pakistan.
In case a new project or a large rehabilitation/remodelling project is to be executed, a
Project Management Office (PMO), headed by Project Director (PD), is usually set up
for the implementation. The Project Director is responsible to coordinate all activities
to be performed.
This chapter mainly describes the process and procedures to inform the personnel
who would be involved in managing and implementing the projects for PID. These
procedures are based established methodologies for project management and
implementation taking into account latest known instructions of Punjab Planning &
Development Board and Planning Commission of Pakistan. These instructions and
directives of Punjab Planning & Development Board and Planning Commission of
Pakistan may be changed from time to time in future.
1.2 Institutions Associated with Processing and approval of projects
1.2.1 Divisional Development Working Party
Divisional Development Working Party (DDWP) is chaired by Commissioner of the
Division with following members: (i) DCOs of the Division; (ii) SE (Irrigation &
Power);(iii) SE (Communication &Works); (iv) Divisional Head of the sponsoring
department; and (v) Director (Dev/ Finance) (Member/Secretary).
660
Divisional Development Working Party (DDWP) is authorized to approve projects

costing upto Rs. 100 million1.
1.2.2 Departmental Development Sub Committee
Departmental Development Sub-committees (DDSC) is chaired by Secretary of the
Department (Irrigation Department) with following members: (i) Representative of
Finance Department (not below the rank of Deputy Secretary); (ii) Representative of
P&D Department (not below the rank of Chief of Section); and (iii) Representative of
the concerned Engineering Department (not below the rank of Chief Engineer). DDSC
may co-opt additional Member(s).
Departmental Development Sub-committees (DDSC) is authorized to approve
projects costing upto Rs. 400 million2.
1.2.3 Planning and Development Board
The Planning and Development Board (P&D Board) is the principal planning
organization in the Punjab province. It is headed by the Chairman, Planning and
Development Board, Punjab. It coordinates the programmes prepared by the
provincial departments concerned with development and prepares the overall Annual
Development Plans (ADP). All development projects follow a process of approval that
ensures a degree of coordination between various arms of provincial and federal
governments. The projects are sent by the administrative departments, including PID,
for granting administrative approval of the P&D Board.
1.2.4 Provincial Development Working Party
Provincial Development Working Party (PDWP) is located in the Planning &
Development Department/Board in Punjab. The P&D Board acts as secretariat of
PDWP and clearing house of development projects sponsored by various line
departments costing specified maximum amount, limit of which is changed from time
to time. In case this limit is exceeded then the project is sent to the Federal
Government for approval. It means that all projects need be approved by PDWP.
Membership of the PDWP varies but it always includes the Secretary Finance as
Member and the concerned Secretary from the project-sponsoring department.
Provincial Development Working Party (PDWP) is authorized to approve projects
costing above Rs. 200 million up to Rs. 10,000 million3. However, in case of foreign
funded or federally funded project, PDWP only recommends projects to CDWP.
1.2.5 Planning Commission
Planning Commission is the principal planning organization in the Federal
Government, located in Islamabad. It is headed by the Deputy Chairman Planning
Commission. It coordinates the programmes prepared by the federal departments
concerned with development and prepares the overall Federal Annual Development
1This authorized amount may change from time to time.

2This authorized amount may change from time to time.
3 This authorized amount may change from time to time.
661
Plans (ADP).In addition, it processes those projects prepared by the provincial

departments which are forwarded for administrative approval for the reason it exceeds
the limit of cost permitted to the provincial governments for granting administrative
approval.
1.2.6 Central Development Working Party
Central Development Working Party (CDWP), located in the Planning and
Development Division, Planning Commission, Islamabad, is headed by the Deputy
Chairman Planning Commission. The provincial governments are represented at the
level of the Additional Chief Secretary Development (Chairman P&D in case of Punjab)
and concerned federal ministries are represented at secretary level. Planning
Commission, which works as its secretariat and clearing house of development
projects sponsored by various federal sponsoring departments costing certain
maximum amount, limit of which is changed from time to time. In case this limit is
exceeded then the project is sent to the Executive Committee of the National
Economic Council (ECNEC).CDWP also scrutinizes those projects which are sent by
the provinces before forwarding those to ECNEC.
Central Development Working Party (CDWP) approves projects with individual costs
upto Rs.40,000 million, which are recommended by PDWP.
1.2.7 Executive Committee of the National Economic Council
Both provincial and federal projects costing specified maximum amount, limit of which
is changed from time to time, are approved by the Executive Committee of the National
Economic Council (ECNEC) chaired by the Finance Minister. In ECNEC the
concerned federal ministries and all the provincial governments are represented at
ministerial level. Projects which have more than 25% of the total cost in foreign
exchange or involve foreign assistance, are approved by CDWP/ECNEC irrespective
of cost of the Project.
1.2.8 National Economic Council
The National Economic Council (NEC) is the supreme policy-making body in the
economic field. It is headed by the Chief Executive of the country, President/Prime
Minister. Its members include Federal Ministers in-charge of economic ministries, the
Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission and the Governors/Chief Ministers of
the provinces. The NEC is in overall control of planning machinery and approves all
plans and policies relating to development.
1.3 Implementation Cycle of Projects
As stated in paragraph 1 above, a project is usually a scheme with a well-defined set
of desired end results to be executed in a specified time. The public-sector projects
are undertaken for economic growth and development of social sector. Additionally,
PID projects are undertaken in order to provide improved services to the beneficiaries
of PID infrastructure. Project life cycle is the series of stages that a project passes
through from its initiation to its closure.
662
Like all projects of the government of Punjab implementation of PID projects, small or
big, has to follow a process involving: (i) conceive the aim and objectives ofthe project;
(ii) establish its feasibility by carrying out feasibility studies; (iii) design it in practical
detail; (iv) construct it; and (v) operate and maintain (O&M) it for getting benefit of the
completed project. Duration of the first four items, which is factually the project
implementation period, may last from less than a year to five years or even more while
fifth item is recurrent activity.
1.4 Conceiving a Project
Conceiving a project involves defining the function(s) the project envisages to perform.
The conceived projects are planned to correspond with the government’s policy and
are included in long term plans or short-term plans described in the section which
follows hereunder. The conceived projects are building blocks the plans formulated in
order to achieve the envisaged goals. A plan is a general statement of objectives and
targets relating to the economy as a whole and its various component sectors. It is not
an authorizing document in the sense that it does not authorize expenditure to the
relevant operating agencies. It provides a broad framework for formulation of
ADP/PSDP. In some cases, the projects, though not included in a plan, are executed
due to special directives of the government and/or to address complaints of
stakeholders.
1.5 Development plans
Perspective Plan: Its main purpose is to provide a long-term (15-25 years) economic
and social policy framework so that the objectives to be achieved over a much longer
period can be incorporated in a medium-term framework. Presently Vision 2025 is the
Perspective Plan.
The period is necessarily arbitrary and there is no profound reason for its
determination but it seems to be, on the one hand, long enough to permit a meaningful
structural change in the economy and, on the other, not so long as to be without direct
interest to the present working generation,
Five Year Plan: A single year is too short a period to accomplish anything. A five-year
plan is a general statement of objectives and targets relating to the economy as a
whole and its various component sectors. It is not an authorizing document in the
sense that it does not authorize expenditure to the relevant operating agencies. It
provides a broad framework for formulation of ADP.
Role-on Plan: In order to bring flexibility into the five-year plan and to relate the
sectorial and project-wise allocation with (a) the financial position, and (b) project
implementation, a roll-on plan of medium term is designed in which the sectorial and
project-wise position is adjusted according to the foregoing year.
Annual Development Plan: The principal instrument for adjusting the five year plan
to current realities is ADP, which has proved a dependable method for translating plan
objectives into an operational programme. In other words, it is regarded as the
implementation side of the five-year plan. ADP includes an evaluation of past
663
performance, a presentation of the main targets, an assessment of the resource

availability for the year, an outline of the investment programme in the public and
private sectors and a broad outline of the economic policies that may be necessary to
achieve the targets.
Public Sector Development Programme (PSDP) is an annual document, prepared
by Federal government, which lists all the public sector projects/ programmes with
specific allocations made for each one of them in that particular financial year. It is the
operational side of the Five Year and Annual Development Plans. In other words, it is
that part of the country's annual budget which deals with development expenditure,
that is, it indicates the total cost of the project, foreign exchange component of the total
cost, expenditure incurred upto the end of last financial year, PSDP allocation for the
current financial year together with its foreign aid component.
The PSDP procedure differs from the project approval procedure. Due to the general
constraint, which exists on government funds, projects are competing for a limited
amount of funds available for development. An essential part of the procedure,
therefore, is a shift from the examination of a project in isolation to the selection of a
limited number of projects out of a much larger portfolio. After 18th amendment in
constitution, there is likelihood of gradually closing this Plan.
The preparation of the PSDP is coordinated by the Programming Section of the
Planning and Development Division. The procedure is laid down in detail in a PSDP
call letter sent annually to all Government Ministries/Divisions, Provincial
Governments and Chiefs/Heads of Technical Sections of the Planning and
Development Division. The call letter includes a time schedule and a standard
proforma along with guidelines on the preparation of the PSDP and selection of
projects. The procedure starts in October/November each year.
The PSDP is formulated by the respective Planning body, in consultation with all the
Ministries, and is considered by the Inter-Ministerial Priorities Committee and the
Annual Plan Coordination Committee (APCC). On its clearance by the APCC, the
Planning and Development Division prepares a detailed summary for consideration of
the National Economic Council (NEC), the highest decision-making body, chaired by
the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Thereafter, the PSDP is integrated with the national
budget for consideration by the National Assembly.
Transformation of Plan into viable Projects: Without projects, it is unlikely that
general development plan is realized, which in turn actualize economic growth and
consequently a range of social objectives are fulfilled. Projects provide important
means by which investment and other development expenditure foreseen in plans is
incurred. Sound planning requires good projects. Projects are a part of an overall
development strategy in broader planning process.
Project Identification: Project identification is the first step of the project cycle.
Projects in various sectors are proposed and prepared by the departments. The
following sources are used for project identification.
664
1.6 Documentation for Public sector Projects in Pakistan

Project Control Documentation: Five (5) proformae are used for controlling preparation
and implementation of public sector projects. Two of these namely, PC-I and PC-II
deal commencement requisite surveys and studies to prepare the projects submission
of the same to the concerned approving authority. PC-III is used for the progress
reporting of the ongoing projects, while PC-IV and PC-V relate to completion of the
projects. The format of all five of Project Control Documents may be revised from time
to time.
1.6.1 Project Identification
PC-I is the basic form on which all projects/schemes are required to be drawn up. It
was introduced in its simple form in 1952 and substantially revised. The latest version
of PC-I contains fourteen (14) questions which are generally common to all type of
infrastructure sectorial PC-I forms, which are followed by a certificate “[...]” Certified
that the project proposal has been prepared on the basis of instructions provided by
the Planning Commission for the preparation of PC-1 for Infrastructure Sector
(Irrigation and drainage) projects“[...]” to be signed by three officials: (i) one who
prepared it; (ii) second who checked it; and (iii) third who recommended it. Instructions
as to how to fill in PC-I Proforma are described in the proforma. The latest version of
PC-I proforma can be down loaded from Ministry of Planning, Development & Reforms
website-www.pc.gov.pk.
Umbrella PC-I: Sometimes a Federal Ministry is required to prepare a PC-I having
provincial components to be financed through a joint loan by a donor agency. Such a
PC-I is called an Umbrella PC-I and could fall in any one sector of the economy.
Low Cost PC-I Proforma: A separate PC-I form for the small development projects
costing up to Rs 1.00 million (non-recurring) should be used in respect of all the
sectors, instead of comprehensive PC-I form for each sector.
1.6.2 PC-II Proforma
PC-II is required for conducting surveys and feasibility studies for large scale projects,
intended to get full justification for undertaking the project before large resources are
allocated them. Before commencing activity relating to any survey work, pre-feasibility
studies and feasibility studies establish its feasibility by retaining services of any
consulting firm a PC-II proforma need be filled. For retaining services of the design
consultants in order to prepare of detailed design and bidding documents, PC-II is also
required before retaining the services of consultants. PC-II contains four (4) questions
which are generally common to all sectorial PC-II proforma, At the end, PC-II forms
contain a certificate to be signed by three officials: (i) one who prepared it; (ii) second
who checked it; and (iii) third who approved it. Instructions as to how to fill in PC-II
Proforma are described in the proforma. The latest version of PC-II proforma can be
down loaded from Ministry of Planning, Development & Reforms website-
www.pc.gov.pk.
665
1.6.3 PC-III Proforma

PC-III form is designed to furnish information on the progress of on-going projects.
The PC-III is of two types: (i) PC-III (a), which is to be prepared on yearly basis and is
required to be submitted by the executing agencies/departments within 30 days i.e. by
1st July of each year; and (ii)PC-III (b), which is to be prepared by the executing
agencies/departments be furnished by 5th day of each month reflecting the progress
of the project during the last reporting month. This form gives financial as well as
physical progress of the schemes with information on any bottlenecks experienced
during the execution of a project.
PC-III (a) isin eight (8) parts while PC-III (b) is in five (5) parts, which are generally
common to all type of infrastructure sectorial PC-III proforma. Instructions as to how
to fill in PC-III (a) and PC-III (b) proformae are described at the end of the two
proformae. Their latest versions of PC-III proformae can be down loaded from Ministry
of Planning, Development & Reforms website-www.pc.gov.pk.
1.6.4 PC-IV Proforma
PC-IV form is designed to furnish information in respect of the project immediately
after completion of the project regardless the project accounts have been closed or
not. PC-IV contains twenty five (25) parts, which are generally common to all type of
infrastructure sectorial PC-IV proforma. Instructions as to how to fill in PC-IV Proforma
are described at the end of the proforma. The latest version of PC-IV proforma can be
down loaded from Ministry of Planning, Development & Reforms website-
www.pc.gov.pk.
1.6.5 PC-V Proforma
PC-V form is to be furnished by 31st July of each years for 5 years after completion of
Project indicating Projects operational results during the last financial year. It contains
fifteen (15) parts. Instructions as to how to fill in PC-V Proforma are described at the
end of the proforma. The latest version of PC-II proforma can be down loaded from
Ministry of Planning, Development & Reforms website-www.pc.gov.pk.
1.7 Foreign Financed Projects
Financing provided by foreign donors may contribute a sizeable share towards
financing development programme/projects of PID. This financing is provided by
various donors to meet: (i) the foreign exchange requirements of the projects
undertaken by Government of Pakistan either through Federal PSDP or through
provincial ADPs; (ii) non-availability adequate funds in order to finance implementation
of development plans; and (iii) asset management programme such as
rehabilitation/refurbishment of existing infrastructure. Therefore, is pertinent to
generally describe usual procedures associated with foreign financing.
Sponsoring agencies (including PID) usually prepares the proposed project, feasibility
report, economic benefits, etc., by retaining services of a consulting firm (s). PID is
required to submit the project proposal requesting the Punjab Planning and
Development Board for onward transmission to the Aid Programming Section of
666
Planning & Development Division. In case the project proposal is acceptable

Economic Affair Division (EAD) and PID for aid negotiations with the donors.
In case the project proposal is not cleared by the CDWP/ECNEC, concept clearance
is required for the project. The project should, however, fit in with the priorities laid
down in the Five Year/Perspective Plans and the overall economic development
policies/priorities of the Government. After concept clearance has been accorded, the
donor agency generally arranges pre-appraisal/appraisal missions to discuss the
project with the EAD/other concerned agencies.
At this stage, sufficient data is available with the sponsoring agency to prepare the
PC-I. The sponsoring agency has to indicate the financial plan of the project in the
appropriate columns of the PC-I. In the event a foreign agency pledges to finance a
project, partly or fully, the name of the donor agency with the amount of foreign
exchange and local currency committed, is mentioned in the PC-I. Usually,
negotiations for foreign funding are undertaken after a project has been approved by
the competent authority or at least cleared by the Concept Clearance Committee
headed by the Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission. No aid agreement be
finalized and signed until the PC-I is approved or at least anticipatory approval of the
competent authority is obtained with respect to scope and size of the PC-I.
1.7.1 Anticipatory Approval
The Chairman, ECNEC, where he is satisfied, has powers to allow the execution of a
scheme in anticipation of its formal approval by ECNEC. The request for anticipatory
approval has to be submitted to the Cabinet Division for on-going and new schemes
in the proformae prescribed for each of them. The request for anticipatory approval
should be signed by the ACS (Dev). The Chairman, ECNEC may dispose of any
case/scheme in his discretion, provided the scheme is processed through the normal
channels and submitted to ECNEC after completing all the formalities.
1.8 Preparation of projects
Preparation of projects related to PID involves: (i) Conceiving the project; (ii) Carrying
out studies to prepare Feasibility Report; and (iii) Preparing the detailed design. The
topic of conceiving a project is discussed in Section 4. The other two topics are
discussed the section which follow.
It is intended to get full justification for undertaking the project before large resources
are allocated them. In case in-house capability is not available, the services of
consultants for conducting surveys and feasibility studies for large scale projects are
retained. However, before commencing any services by the consultants in order to
conduct surveys and feasibility studies and to prepare detailed design and bidding
documents a PC-II proforma need be filled and got approved by the competent
authority for retaining the services of any consulting firm (s).If pragmatic, only one PC-
II proforma may be filled for both assignments: (i) surveys and feasibility studies and
to prepare detailed design and bidding documents; and (ii) construction supervision.
667
A comprehensive project-oriented TOR should be prepared and the services qualified

professional consultants are retained. The instructions for filling a PC-II are described
in the end of proforma. The consultancy cost should not exceed 10% of the project
cost.
1.8.1 Feasibility studies
Feasibility studies are pre-requisite for preparation of a development project. Most
often the projects executed by PID relate to rehabilitation, revamping and remodelling
of the existing infrastructure are executed. All types, whether a development or
rehabilitation or revamping or remodelling of projects, need be implemented as per the
technical solutions for achieving intended outcome of the projects. The feasibility
studies involve technical evaluation, financial evaluation, social and environmental
considerations and economic viability of a project.
The feasibility studies, which provides basic information related to the project on the
basis of various surveys/investigations carried out in the field and desk studies, result
in preparation of Feasibility Report. These would include various technical solutions
considered, feasibility level design of works of technical solutions considered, social
and environmental impact aspects of the project, cost estimates of various technical
solutions including social and environmental plans in order to mitigate adverse impacts
of social and environmental due to the execution of the various options,
implementation plans, implementation arrangements, financial and economic
analyses, preferred technical solution and the reason for selecting preferred solution.
The outcome of studies is a definite conclusion about the feasibility of the project after
considering the various options.
1.8.2 Surveys and Studies
In order to determine the technical solutions/options for achieving intended outcome
of the projects the surveys and investigations relevant to the project are prerequisite.
The surveys may involve topographic surveys and surveys associated with social and
environmental aspects. PID projects may involve taking cross sections longitudinal
sections of canals and drains, and river surveys, etc. The investigations may involve
geotechnical studies, soil investigations, ground waters studies and hydrological
studies, etc. The one of the most important aspects of PID projects is hydrological
studies. The climate change should be considered in carrying out hydrological studies.
1.8.3 Technical Solutions/Options
The factors to be considered for carrying out technical solutions/options are project
specific. For example, the development of an irrigation scheme particular attention is
given to following aspects: source of water and its duration of availability, alignment of
main canal its type whether lined or unlined, secondary canals, tertiary canals, types
of structures etc. In case of small dams; type of dam –earth fill or concrete face rock-
fill dam (CFRD) or concrete gravity dam, foundation conditions, alternative locations
for spillway, type of intake structure etc.
668
Project layout and elements would be developed to the degree of detail necessary to
provide a fair comparison between the alternatives considered. Other important
aspects which will be considered: materials requirement/production including its
transport; foundation conditions, water handling problems if hydraulic structures are
involved, etc.
In order to support the conclusions of the comparative study the available physical
data (geological, topographical, geotechnical, and hydrological) shall be reviewed,
assessed and updated for rehabilitation projects. Available material on site
investigations, hydrological records, topographical surveys and mapping will be
utilized to the maximum extent.
A comparison of alternative project schemes: optimization studies for each alternative
considered, taking into account: present economic conditions shall be carried out
before establishing preferred solution/ option.
1.8.4 Environmental Aspects
Issued in 1983 the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance (PEPO) was
replaced by the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. The Act is directed to
provide a basic environmental policy and set up a management structure for pollution
control. Under the Act, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Council (PEPC) has
been established as the highest environmental body in the country to formulate policy
and ensure its implementation within the framework of the National Conservation
Strategy (NCS), which was adopted in 1992. The goal of the NCS is transforming
attitudes and practices and influencing consumption patterns and ensuring that the
development is not destructive to the natural resource base on which it rests.
The Environmental Protection Act, 1997requiresestablishing federal and provincial
Environmental Protection Agencies (EPAs). The provincial and federal EPAs are in
place, though in Punjab it is called the Environmental Protection Department (EPD).
The Act has placed pollution control as a priority issue and provides the framework for
the establishment of standards for the quality of air, water and land. Accordingly,
National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) have been instituted to regulate
municipal and industrial wastewater discharges as well as major air and car emissions.
It is possible to maintain a better quality of water in natural water bodies applying these
standards.
The Federal EPA has delegated its powers to provincial EPAs/EPD to carry out the
same functions in the provinces as the federal EPA performs at the federal level. This
includes the authority to inspect industrial establishments, obtain samples of their
effluents and take action against the violators of NEQS.
The “IEE and EIA Regulation – 2000” contains a more detailed environmental
regulation describing the contents of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and
IEEs, their submission process, approval modalities, fees, monitoring programmes,
time schedules, etc. The provincial EPAs are responsible to review and either accept
the EIAs and issue No-Objection Certificate (NOC) or recommend that the project be
modified or rejected in the interest of environmental objectives.
669
Table below shows the major environmental legislations in Pakistan, which are
required to be used or referred to while considering environmental aspects i.e. carrying
out environmental impact studies during preparing a project.
SECTOR LEGISLATION
Environmental Protection - The Pakistan Penal Code (1860)

- Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, No. XXXIV of
1997
Land Use - The Punjab Development of Damaged Areas Act

(1952)
- The Punjab Soil Reclamation Act (1852)
- The West Pakistan Agricultural Pests Ordinance
(1959) and Rules (1960)
- The Islamabad (Prevention of Landscape) Ordinance
(1966)
- The Punjab Development Cities Act (1976)
- The Balochistan, NWFP, Punjab and Sindh Local
Government Ordinance(s) (1979/80)
- The NWFP Salinity Control and Reclamation Act
(1988)
Water Quality and - The Pakistan Penal Code (1860)

Resources - The Canal and Drainage Act (1873)
Government
Ordinance(s) (1979/80)
- On Farm Water Management and Water Users’
Associations Ordinance (1981)
- Indus River Water Apportionment Accord (1991)
- Statutory Notification S.R.R. 742 (1993)
Air Quality - The Pakistan Penal Code (1860)

670
- The Motor Vehicles Ordinance (1965) and Rules

(1969)
Government
Ordinance(s) (1979/80)
Noise - The Motor Vehicles Ordinance (1965) and Rules

(1969)
Toxic or Hazardous - The Pakistan Penal Code (1860)
Substances - The Explosives Act (1884)

- The Agricultural Pesticides Ordinance (1971) and
Rules (1973)
Solid Waste and - The Balochistan, NWFP, Punjab and Sindh Local
Effluents Government Ordinance(s) (1979/80)
- Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, No. XXXIV of
1997
Marine and Fisheries - The West Pakistan Fisheries Ordinance (1961)

- The NWFP Fisheries Rules (1976)
Forest Conservation - The Punjab Forest (sale of timber) Act (1913)

- The Forests Act (1927).
- The NWFP Hazara Forest Act (1936)
- The West Pakistan Firewood and Charcoal
(Restrictions) Act 1964
- The Punjab Plantation and Maintenance of Trees Act
(1974)
- The Cutting of Trees (Prohibition) Act (1975)
671
- The NWFP Management of Protected Forests Rules

(1975)
- The NWFP (Conservation and Exploitation of Certain
Forests in Hazara Division) Ordinance (1980)
- The NWFP Forest Development Corporation
Ordinance (1980)
- The Protection of Trees and Brushwood Act of 1949
Parks and Wildlife - The West Pakistan Ordinance (1959)

Conservation Protection - The Punjab Wildlife (Protection, Preservation,
Conservation and Management) Act (1974) and
Rules (1974)
- The NWFP Wildlife (Protection, Preservation,
Conservation and Management) Act (1975) and
Rules (1976)
- Northern Areas Wildlife Preservation Act (1975)
- The Pakistan Plant Quarantine Act (1976)
- Islamabad Wildlife (Protection, Preservation,
Conservation and Management) Ordinance
(1979/80)
- Export and Control Order (1982)
Mineral Development - The Regulation of Mines and Oil-Fields and Mineral

Development (Government Control) Act (1948)
Cultural Environment - The Antiquities Act (1975)

- The Punjab Special Premises (Prevention)
Ordinance (1985)
Livestock - West Pakistan Goats (Restriction) Ordinance (1959)

672
- The Grazing of Cattle in the Protected Forests

(Range Lands) Rules (1978)
- Pakistan Animal Quarantine (Import and Export of
Animals and Animal Products) Ordinance (1979/80)
Resettlement - Land Acquisition Act 1894

- Project Implementation and Resettlement Ordinance
- The Telegraphy Act (1910)
- The West Pakistan Water & Power Act (1958)
- The Electricity Act IX (1910)
Public Health and Safety - The Pakistan Penal Code (1860)

- The Public Health (Emergency Provisions)
Ordinance (1944)
- The West Pakistan Epidemic Diseases Act (1979/80)
Source: Pakistan Environmental Assessment Procedures, Pakistan EPA,
Islamabad
All projects, Punjab Irrigation Department (PID) undertakes, impact environments
adversely as well as positively. The adverse (negative) impacts can be such as:
submergence of agricultural land, fruit trees, residential properties and public
infrastructure. The negative impacts will have to be mitigated abiding by the above
mentioned major environmental legislations. In this regard, the environmental studies
are undertaken to formulate environment management plan (EMP).
Extensive consultations and disclosure should be carried out during the project
preparation. These consultations and disclosure exercises should be made with: (i)
political leaders; (ii) /local leaders;(iii) officials of the government and parastatals; and
(iv) other stake holders. Discussion should be held also be held with focus groups.
Initial consultations are held at the early stages of project preparation to share the
project objectives and terms of references of the proposed environmental and social
impact assessment (ESIA) study. The consultation workshops by independent
consultants can also be held, if need be. A second round of consultations is held to
disclose the results of ESIA.
673
While preparing bidding documents site-specific environmental management and

social action plans should be included as BOQ items. The site-specific plans may
include all or some of the following: (a) Erosion, Sediment and Drainage Control Plan;
(b) Pollution Prevention Plan; (c) Waste Disposal and Effluent Management Plan; (d)
Traffic Management Plan; (e) Borrow Area Management and Restoration Plan; (f)
Occupational Health and Safety Plan; (g)Landscape and Visual Impacts; (h) Drinking
Water Supply and Sanitation Plan; (i) Management Plan for Protection of Flora and
Fauna; (j) Construction Camp Management Plan; (k) Fuel and Hazardous Substances
Management Plan; (l) In-stream Construction Works Management Plan; (m)
Emergency Preparedness Plan; and (n) Communication Plan, to manage and
mitigate/reverse potential adverse environmental impacts.
The environmental aspects of the projects should be dealt with by expert
environmentalists while preparing projects.
1.8.5 Social Impact Assessment
Social analysis is undertaken to examine the impact of the project like resettlement of
the population impacted by the project, effect on gender, loss/reduction in income of
the population, loss/reduction in employment opportunities, loss of property, loss of
crops, etc. In this regard, the social analyst would examine the impact of the project to
get detailed information about the socioeconomic conditions and demographic data of
the local population. The following additional information would be obtained:
(i). the perceptions of the affectees about the Project;
(ii). their apprehensions about the possible negative impacts of the Project;
(iii). their views about the magnitude of the perceived losses incurred due to
the Project;
(iv). their proposals for the compensation of the perceived losses in the
Project area; and
(v). propose an institutional framework whereby the Project implementing
agency and the affectees could communicate and negotiate on various
issues of resettlement and compensation.
A social action plan (SAP) is prepared to mitigate negative impacts of the project.
Generally, an incentive plan is also included as part of SAP.
The social aspects of the projects should be dealt with by expert sociologists while
preparing projects.
1.8.6 Cost Estimates
The project components may include: (i) preparing the project, which may include
carrying to feasibility studies for preparing feasibility report; (ii) detailed designs and
preparation of bidding documents; (iii) civil works; (iv) electrical and mechanical works;
(v) environment management plan; (vi) social action plan; (vii) monitoring and
evaluation; and (viii) supervision and management. The applicable components would
be priced and the cost estimates prepared.
674
The cost estimates of a project need be prepared accurately as far as it possible in

order to avoid cost overrun. For works items, only MRS should be used for all BOQ
items except the items which are not included by MRS. The rates not included in MRS
list would be established using market rates of materials and labour. Appropriate mark
for overheads and profit should be used. The cost details have to be given according
to the requirements of the PC-I of each sector. However, the following guidelines
issued by the Planning Commission will generally apply to all: precisely.
The cost estimates should contain physical and price contingencies and interest during
construction (IDC). In case foreign funding, “upfront fee” should be considered while
preparing the cost estimate of the project.
1.8.7 Economic and Financial Aspects
While the economic and financial aspects of the projects should be dealt with by expert
economists while preparing projects, but it would be useful if the personnel preparing
the projects or supervising their preparation are cognizant of the topics given below.
Economic Evaluation: The conceived project should subsequently provide economic
and financial justification of its implementation to achieve the intended developmental
goals. Economic viability be examined using the recognized methodology. If the
project is funded by foreign donors, the methodology should be the one acceptable to
lending agencies. Approach in the evaluation should be based on comparing without
the Project situation with the Project situation. Economic Internal Rate of Return
(EIRR), Financial Rate of Return(FIRR) and Net Present Value (NPV) for the project
costs and stream of benefits over an economic life after commissioning of the
proposed project should be computed in order to gauge the value of investment on the
project.
Economic Analysis: Economic analysis is carried out as to whether or not the
investment support to the intended developmental objective of the project and whether
this investment is likely to be large enough to justify the use of scarce resources such
as capital, skilled labour, managerial talents etc. that would be needed to implement
and operate the project. In economic analysis, input and output prices are adjusted to
reflect true social or economic values. These adjusted prices are often termed as
shadow or accounting prices. The taxes and duties are treated as transfer payments
and are excluded from the capital and operating cost. The main steps in economic
analysis are, as follows:
(i) Pricing of Project Inputs and Outputs: In economic analysis, the
valuation of inputs and outputs can be made keeping in view the pricing
inputs and outputs at present, i.e. constant prices; and
Identifying Project Costs and Benefits: Proper identification of project costs and
benefits is an important step. Under and over pricing should be avoided to reach
predetermined results. Correct quantification of costs and benefits should be done
"with and without project" comparison of costs and benefits. Project analysis should
identify and value costs and benefits that arise with the proposed project and to
compare them with the situation as it would be without the project.
675
Economic Benefits: The benefits of the projects may include; enhanced production,
increase in employment, increase in the value of output due to quality improvement or
otherwise, etc.
Financial Analysis: The financial analysis of the Project is carried out to assess
Project funding requirements, compute financial internal rate of return (FIRR) of the
Project and estimate the cost benefits. Project outflows comprise Project investment
costs which correspond to the costs actually incurred i.e. capital costs including price
escalation and interest accrued on the amounts borrowed, both, local and foreign till
completion of the Project. The interest paid during the repayment period also forms
part of the cash out flows. The financial costs and revenues expressed as cash
outflows, cash inflows and net inflows over the analysis period have been computed.
Net Present Worth (NPW): It is simply the present worth of the incremental net benefit
or incremental cash flow. It is the difference between discounted benefits and
discounted costs of a project. NPW criterion suggests to us to accept all independent
projects with a zero or greater net present worth when discounted at opportunity cost.
No ranking of acceptable, alternative independent project is possible with the present
worth criterion because it is an absolute and not relative measure. A small, highly
attractive project may have a smaller net present worth than a larger marginally
acceptable project. If both have positive NPW then both projects should be
undertaken.
Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR): This ratio is obtained when the present worth of the
benefit-stream is divided by the present worth of the cost stream. Note that the
absolute value of BCR will vary depending on the interest rate chosen. The higher the
interest rate, the smaller the resultant benefit-cost ratio and, if a higher enough rate is
chosen, the benefit-cost ratio will be driven down to less than 1. The BCR criterion
suggests to us to accept all independent projects with a benefit-cost ratio of 1 or
greater, when the cost and benefit streams are discounted at the opportunity cost of
capital. The benefit-cost ratio discriminates against projects with relatively high gross
returns and operating costs, even though these may be shown to have a greater
wealth-generating capacity than that of alternatives with a higher benefit-cost ratio.
Internal Rate of Return (IRR): It is the discount rate that makes the NPW of the
incremental net benefit-stream or incremental cash flow equal to zero. It is the
maximum interest that a project could pay for the resources used if the project is to
recover its investment and operating costs and still break even. It is the rate of return
on capital outstanding per period while it is invested in the project. IRR criterion
suggests to us to accept all independent projects having an internal rate of return equal
to or greater than the opportunity cost of capital.
Sensitivity Analysis: Sensitivity analysis is done to test the sensitivity of various
assumptions made in the base case. It is carried out to confirm the robustness of the
result obtained from the assumptions made for assessing the effect on the computed
EIRR and FIRR with respect to changes in the key parameters used in the analysis.
The following parameters are varied:
676
- increase in capital cost of the Project

- decrease in stream of benefits/revenues
- increase in cost along with decrease in stream of benefits/revenues.
1.9 Preparation of Detailed Design Fora Project
1.9.1 General
Once the feasibility studies are completed and feasibility reports prepared, the detailed
designing follow, if the project is found feasible to be implemented. A project may be
sole in entirety or consists of components, such as civil works and electrical and
mechanical works. Alternatively, it may comprise sub-projects requiring be treated
separately. A project may be implemented through splitting up into various contract
packages.
The works included in each project or component or contract package require detail
designing for implementation. The detailed design should be done in sufficient detail
either employing in-house capability of PID or using services of a consultant, qualified
to do the requisite works, for procuring works through contract bidding. Later-on, the
shop/construction drawings can be prepared either by original designer or by the
contractor showing those details, which are necessary for construction.
Retaining services of a consultant would require preparation of Terms of Reference
(ToR) in order to define the works to be done by the consultant. The procedures
prescribed by Planning and Development Board should be followed for retaining
services of the consultants.
Complex works may require review of the project activities, such as carrying out
feasibility studies and preparing feasibility reports, detailed design, etc. Such
review/audit may be done through by third party (internal or external), may it be
independent consulting firm or Panel of Consultants (POE) or an individual consultant.
1.9.2 Types of Works in PID Projects
PID projects would involve construction/reconstruction/remodelling/rehabilitation of (i)
water diversion works such as barrages etc; (ii) flood protection works such as
embankments including ancillary works to the like of stone studs, spurs, etc.; (iii) water
conveying canals with appurtenant works such as foot, village and inter-city road
bridges, head regulators, fall structures outlets, etc.; (iv) link canals; (v) drainage
systems with appurtenant works such as foot, village and inter-city road bridges, inlet
structures, outfall structures etc.; and (vi) small dams for supplying irrigation water with
their command water works, diversion. which require detail designing. The project may
involve civil work or electrical and mechanical works or both. Additionally, the projects
may include procurement of goods and services. The procurement of services is
described elsewhere in this chapter.
1.9.3 Civil Works
The civil works in PID projects would comprise but not limited to earthwork (both
excavation and filling), compaction of embankments, killa bushing for berm formation
677
and checking erosion of the canal banks, brick masonry, brick lining, plain cement
concrete (PCC), reinforced cement concrete (RCC), stone pitching, spurs (groynes),
stone studs.
1.9.4 Electrical and Mechanical Works
The mechanical works are but not limited to steel gates for barrages, gates for head
regulators, gates for various other types such as fall structures, silt ejectors and small
off-take structures Minors, hoisting mechanisms of gates, superstructure for housing
hoisting mechanisms and handrails.
The electrical would include but not limited to: (i) Low Voltage Switch Gear and
Control Gear Assemblies; (ii) SCADA; (iv) Electrical Power Motors; (v) Transformers;
and (vi) Equipment in Control Rooms.
1.9.5 Design Criteria
Design criteria are standards to be followed in designing the works, which should be
project specifically compiled. Before the doing the detailed design of works
pertaining to any project the design criteria should be compiled. The criteria for the
parameters and performing the procedures generally used for designing the PID
works is but not limited to the following:
1). Design Criteria of Hydraulic Design
- Flow, Water Level and Discharge;
- Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipation;
- Seepage Analysis and Exit Gradient;
- Seepage Analysis and Exit Gradient;
- Allowable Exit Gradients;
- Floor Thickness and Uplift:
- Scour Depth;
- Froude Number;
- Coefficient of Discharge;
- Manning’s “n” Values;
- Lacey’s Silt Factor for Different Types of Soil; and
- Khosla's Safe Seepage Gradient.
2). River Training Works & Erosion Protection
- Spurs; and
- Revetment.
3). Structural Design Criteria
- Design Codes and Standards;
- Loading;
- Factors of Safety; and
- Units of loading to be used.
4). Structural Stability Analyses:
678
- Geotechnical Considerations;
- Overturning Stability;
- Sliding Stability; and
- Bearing Capacity.
5). Structural Strength Requirements:
6). Material, Properties & Permissible Stresses:
- (i) Concrete; and
- (ii) Reinforcing Steel.
7). Design Loads:
- Dead Loads;
- Live loads;
- Bridge Loading;
- Silt Pressures; and
- Earthquake Load.
8). Geotechnical Design Criteria:
- Seismicity; and
- Soils and their classifications.
9). General Mechanical Design Criteria:
- Gate Equipment;
- Design Loads;
- Hoists, Platforms and Walkways;
- Hoists;
- Head Regulator Gates; and
- Head Regulator Hoist Equipment.
10). Electrical Works
- Electrical Installation;
- Low Voltage Switch Gear and Control Gear Assemblies;
- SCADA; and
- Control Rooms.
1.9.6 Design Mehods
The detailed design of various elements is prepared using accepted procedures and
formulae relevant to respective element in accordance with adopted criteria. The
drawings produced should provide details sufficient to enable the bidders in preparing
the bids, if the adopted method of procurement of works is ‘out sourcing’ on the basis
of competitive bidding.
The completion of detailed design of works ends up in preparing, environment
management plan (EMP), social action plan (SAP), cost estimates and the bidding
documents. The purpose of preparing environment management plan (EMP) and
social action plan (SAP) are discussed in section 8.4 and section 8.5 respectively.
679
1.9.7 Bidding Documents

If PID has capability and capacity to do the project works small work orders (WOs),
force account (FA) by engaging temporary labour and force account (FA) by using
departmental machinery. Otherwise, the project works are procured by out sourcing
(OS) through competitive bidding. For OS bidding documents are prepared.
Bidding documents generally comprise the following:
1. Bidding Procedure contains.
- Instructions to Bidders; and
- Bidding Forms.
2. Drawings, sketches and cross-sections.
3. Bill of Quantities (BOQ)
4. Specifications.
5. Conditions of Contract.
- General Conditions (GC);
- Particular Conditions (PC); and
- Contract Forms.
6. Site Data
Drawings. The drawings, sketches and cross-sections show the design of works
intended to be done under the project. For preparing drawings, sketches and cross-
sections, surveys (topographic as well as levelling) are required. The drawings show
dimensions of the shapes of works. The drawings should give sufficient details for
computing bid pricesfor procuring the works through competitive contract bidding.
Later on, the shop/construction drawings can be prepared either by original designer
or by the contractor showing those details, which are necessary for construction.
Bill of Quantities. Based on the dimensions shown in the drawings, sketches, and
cross-sections, quantities are computed to prepare the “Engineer’s Estimate”. BOQ
and the Engineer’s Estimate are generally prepared using the schedule items and
rates as included in the Market Rates System (MRS) published on web site of the
Finance Department, Government of the Punjab
(http://finance.punjab.gov.pk/market_rates) every quarter/bi-annually. The Engineer’s
estimate will be prepared using the latest MRS. Should there be need of ‘non-
schedule’ items of work are computed for which specifications and method of
measurement must be specifically included in the bidding documents. Simultaneously,
the analysis of rates should be carried out to establish estimated unit rate of the ‘non-
schedule’ item of work for use in preparing the Engineer’s Estimate.
Specification. The rates published under Market Rate System (MRS) are for the
typical ‘Bill of Quantities’ along with the specifications. These are OK and can be used
in specifying items of work. Should there be need a ‘non-schedule’ item of work for
680
which specifications and method of measurement should be prepared for specifically

inclusion in the bidding documents. The purpose of the specifications is:
i). the extent of work to be carried out;
ii). the methods that may or may not be used in doing the works;
iii). the quality and types of materials to be used and the acceptable
workmanship; and
iv). method of measurement of items of work.
There are standard specifications codes, such as: British Codes of Practice, British
Standard Specifications, ASTM, etc. containing valuable information in them.
Accordingly, it is recommended that the information given in standard specifications
and referred to in writing the specifications.
Conditions of Contract. The Standard Bidding Documents are in use of the province,
which contain two types conditions of contract: (i)General Conditions (GC); and (ii)
Particular Conditions (PC). Also included the conditions of contract are Contract
Forms. GC define the liabilities, responsibilities, and powers of the employer,
contractor and engineer, and covers methods of payment, insurances, liability of
parties in respect of the contract, etc.
1.10 Construction of the project Works
1.10.1 Pre-Construction Activities
Before construction of the project works begins the following tasks must be performed:
i). Additional field investigations for confirmation of the detailed design, if
required;
ii). Model-testing of elements of the project, if required;
iii). Preparation of tender documents for all contract packages;
iv). Pre-qualification of contractors and manufacturers, if project works are
complicated and large in size;
v). Invitation of bids and evaluation of bids; and
vi). Award of contracts.
In addition to the above pre-construction activities directly related with construction of
the Project components, it is essential to ensure accessibility to the site to cater for the
heavy traffic that will result due to construction activities as well as to transport heavy
E&M equipment, if needed.
In case in-house capability and capacity is not available, the supervision of
construction by consulting firm or a joint venture (JV) of consulting firms would have
be procured. For this purpose, the procedures prescribed by P&D will be followed.
Generally, it takes at least 6-9 months. For projects funded by international donors for
which no short cuts are permitted due to need for following the procurement
procedures of the international donor agencies, require even much longer period (1 1//2
to 2 years) for awarding construction and/or consulting services contracts. This will
require much focused actions, as time will also be required for the preparation of
detailed budget estimates and for the arrangement of financing from internal, local and
681
international sources. Due to the substantial sums involved, this activity should begin
as early as possible.
After availability of the Feasibility Report, the PC-I Proforma will have to be prepared
and got approved from the concerned authorities. As soon as the detailed design is
substantially completed it will be appropriate to commence process of prequalification
of the contractors and manufacturers. Invitation bids will follow the preparation of
contract documents and prequalification of the contractors.
1.10.2 Contract Packaging
For a large size and complex project, it is desirable and usually necessary, to subdivide
the work into a number of contract packages for the following reasons:
i). The amount of risk, bonding capacity and financial strength required would
be excessive for many, otherwise qualified, contractors;
ii). Should the works be awarded on a single contract basis, competition would
necessarily be limited to a small number of very large firms, with a
consequent increase in bid prices; and
iii). Should any of the major contractors fail to perform adequately, it will be
possible to continue construction without excessive delays by assigning
work to other contractors.
However, in view of constraint of working space and approaches at the site on some
projects, it is considered more practicable to have as few contracts as possible. In
the case of splitting a project into more than one contract, an overall implementation
schedule should be prepared to establish completion period. The implementation
schedule should be preferably prepared by employing user friendly software
generating Gantt chart.
1.10.3 Modes of Construction Activites
PID may use different modes of executing project works. For construction activities,
PID may choose to employ capable to carry out the construction activities using ‘Force
Account’ and PID’s machinery. Generally, the use of this mode of execution is adopted
for preparing in-house design such as projects involving accumulated M&R works
(rehabilitation works) or M&R schemes. Alternatively, the execution works is done by
out sourcing (OS) through Competitive Bidding.
For using out sourcing (OS) through competitive bidding mode, the project works are
split into various contract packages in order to facilitate the construction activities, if
need. For each contract package, separate bidding documents are prepared. And,
each contract package is go through same rigmarole of; inviting expression of interest
(EoT), prequalifying and shortlisting the contractors, inviting bids, evaluation of bids
and award the contract by a competent authority4. Bids are evaluated as per procedure
mentioned in the bidding documents.
4 The authorized amounts of various competent authorities are defined and may vary from time to time.
682
Various types of contract documents are in use such as; prepared by PEPRA and
Engineering Council and approved P&D department for use in all departments
associated with projects involving, construction works, FIDIC, those desired by
international donor (WB, ADB, etc.) The compliance to provisions in the signed
contract is done personnel designated in the General Condition (GC) of contract.
1.10.4 Key Players in the construction Contract
The employer, the contractor and the engineer are key players for satisfactorily
completing the work under a construction contract.
The Contractor has the responsibility of delivering the completed in accordance with
requirements of the signed contract in that he is obliged to: abide by the general items
like insurance requirements, HSE obligations, etc., use the drawings diligently to
complete the works according to desired lines and grades, adhering to relevant
specifications, etc. Contractor’s Site Typical Staff are shown in the Figure 10.1. A wise
contractor tries to keep his site staff and plant and equipment to the minimum for
economic construction of the works.
The Engineer may one of the staff of the Employer or the designated staff of a
consulting firm and/or a JV having power of attorney to act on behalf of the consultants
whose services has been retained to provide supervision, management and contract
administration. He would act on basis of the provisions in the construction contract.
He would have generally no powers to vary the price of the construction contract
without the consensus of the Employer. He is responsible for testing materials for
suitability and compliance with specifications, checking workmanship to see it
complies with the specifications and checking line and grade of the work and see that
it conforms to the drawings. The Engineer’s Site Typical Staff are shown in the Figure
10.2.
The Employer is PID or special office/organization created in PID by a competent
authority. One of the staff of PID or the person specially hired from market for the
implementing a project, acts as the Project Director (PD). PD is responsible to provide
general supervision and management of the project. In case the foreign funded
project, PD liaises with donor agency. PD is responsible for arranging all approvals
pertaining to budgets, PC-Is, payments to the contractors and consultants. PD is also
responsible to monitor progress activities of projects. The Employer’s typical staffing
is shown in organogram contained in the Figure 10.3.
683
Figure 1: Typical Site Organization of the Contractor
684
Figure 2: Typical Site Organization of the Engineer
685
Figure 3: Typical Organogram of an IPD PMO (Employer)
686
1.10.5 The Contractor’s Organization

Obviously, on the small contracts those containing simple jobs the position of Site
Engineer shown in Figure 10.1 can take care duties of the Project Manager as well
besides taking care of more tasks such as those to be measurement engineer, etc.
On large contracts, the Project Manager controls all the construction activities. A
project manager is required to have wide powers to enable him to employ workers hire
any machinery and equipment without reference the head office of his firm. A good
Project Manager will prove an asset to produce works high quality, and source of
satisfaction for the Employer that the completed works will be constructed well.
Since execution of modern construction contracts demand high standards of Health
Safety and Environment (HSE) requirement, a good and knowledgeable HSE
specialist is required in the contractor’s organization.
1.10.6 The Engineer’s Organization
On a large construction the Engineer, with assistance of his staff, is normally expected
to carry out the activities, without relieving the contractor of his obligations under the
contract, but not limited to following:
i). check the detailed program of construction and agree to it;
ii). check that requisite materials are ordered for well in time;
iii). check and test materials for suitability and comply with specifications;
iv). check the requirement of workmanship and see it complies with the
specifications’
v). check line and grade of the work and see that it conforms to the drawings;
vi). measure the work done for certifying payments
vii). keep a record of all measurements;
viii). collect the levels of NSL etc. before the start of construction activities
ix). keep a record of all matters relating to claims and disputes; and
x). prepare monthly, quarterly and annual progress as required.
The Engineer may delegate powers to chief resident engineer/resident engineer(s) he
has in accordance with the contract.
The Engineer is required to maintain the following four types of records:
i). Historical – showing stage wise progress, as planned and as actually
achieved. This record should include information such as record of weather,
discussions, decisions, inspectors’ daily reports, site diary, etc.;
ii). Quantitative and financial– quantity surveying, measuring of all work was
done; variation orders issued, variation orders under pending, day work,
etc.;
iii). Qualitative – testing of materials at source and laboratory, testing for
parameters such as compressive strength of concrete, tensile strength of
steel reinforcing bars, density for compaction comparing with proctor
density, concrete mix design, quality of bricks, stone, etc.; and
iv). As built records – the as built drawings, pictorial view, videos, etc.

Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP) - Volume-II PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual of Irrigation Practice (MIP) - Volume-II PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MANUAL OF IRRIGATION

PUNJAB IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT

Irrigation Department Government of Punjab was originally a branch of the

After independence Irrigation Department Government of West Pakistan re-

A group of editors (GOE) including an international member was selected to

Authors’ draft contributions were circulated among the Chief Engineers/senior

A remarkable appreciation is due to Group of Editors, (Dr. M. Hanif Chaudhry, Syed

Relentless efforts of Syed Mahmood Ul Hassan as Coordinator for compiling, editing,

Mr. Saif Anjum

for his strategic initiation and continued active support,

Sr. Name of Editor/ Position/ Designation.

14 Mr. Shamshad Gohar, International Ground Water Specialist, Ex-General

Sr. No. Title of Chapter Author

Chapter 3: Hill Torrents Management Sajjad Hussain Nasim

Chapter 4: Groundwater – Optimal Use & Muhammad Shamshad

Chapter 5: Drainage & Salinity Control Ahmad Khan Bhatti

Chapter 6: Mechanical, Electrical Works & Qazi Anwar Ali,

Chapter 7: Hydaulic Modelling Muhammad Aslam

Chapter 8: Asset Management Plan Muhammad Ehsan

Chapter 9: Preparation of Annual O&M Budget Muhammad Ehsan

Chapter 10: Preparing Annual M&R Work Plans Muhammad Ehsan

Chapter 11 Project Management Muhammad Ehsan

5. Dam Safety Inspection, Operation and Maintenance (O&M) ........................................ 89

MEASUREMENTS AND CONVERSIONS

Figure 1-1: Typical conceptual layout plan of small dam project

SMALL DAMS FOR IRRIGATION

2. TYPE, SITE SELECTION AND HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES FOR

Figure 2-1 ICOLD Classification of small and large dams

classification, defines responsibilities and requirements. In Pakistan, however,

Figure 2-2 Components of zoned embankment

2.1.1. Selection of Site For a Small Dam

Figure 2-3 Typical dam site in the valley

Figure 2-4 Typical layout of dam and spillway

vii. Hydrological conditions of the stream and catchment area

xiii. Access to the site

7. The reservoir drainage area, includes rocks and overburden, should be

Figure 2-5 Proposed investigation area of gravity dam

v. Mode and direction of folding

Site Visit for inspection and appraisal

Figure 2-6 Minimum drilling for investigation

Water pressure test (WPT)

Figure 2-7 Single or double packer system

4. Investigations for construction materials and laboratory testing

Table 2-3 Engineering use chart for compacted soils

Figure 2-8 Material grading envelopes

Materials for riprap

Table 2-4 Amount of laboratory testing and selection parameters

Test description Standard Utility of Remarks

2.3.2. Sources of Data

Figure 2-9 Isohyetal map of the Pothohar region

Figure 2-10 Mean annual rainfall in the Pothohar region

2.3.4. Water Availability Assessment

Figure 2-11 Hydrological zoning of the Pothohar region

Figure 2-12 Rainfall (inches) V/S direct runoff (inches)

Methodology for Computation of Mean Annual Runoff

2.3.6. Flood Routing

1183.00 Normal Pool Level

Figure 2-16 Reservoir storage zones of a dam

3. DESIGN OF DAM AND SPILLWAY

Figure 3-1 Different forces acting on a concrete gravity dam

Sample stability calculations for design of gravity dams

Description Qty. Unit

Usual loading combination