BUILDING UTILITIES 3

MATERIALS

ADRIENNE V. SANIO
BS-ARCH 3

LIGHTING AND
ACOUSTICS
 LIGHTING

Incandescent Lamps

This lamp consists simply of a tungsten filament inside a gas-filled, sealed glass envelope.

Incandescent lamps are available in many

bulb and base types and special designs for
particular application.

Special Incandescent Lamps

LOW-VOLTAGE LAMPS
These lamps, in PAR shape and for 6-V operation, are available in extremely narrow beam spread (5-1 0 °}
for special precision control floodlighting. The low voltage makes their application to exterior work simplier.
INTERFERENCE (DICHROIC} FILTERS
Since filters had been previously used only in specialized applications such as projection lamps to remove heat
from the light beam, are now available in PAR lamps. The basic filter is a thin film that operates on the
interference principle rather than absorption. Thus the surface remains relatively cool.
In one design that is utilized to limit the heat in the light beam, the film is applied to the inside back of the
lamp. It acts by transmitting infrared heat out of the lamp back while reflecting light out the lamp front. (see
figure below). Typical applications are now window displays, over food counters, and in any location where
a "cool beam" is desirable. Of course, provision must be made for removal of the heat from fixture if the lamp
is housed.
REFLECTOR LAMPS
These are made in "R" and "PAR" shapes (see previous illustrations on bulb shapes) and contain a reflective
coating on the inside of the glass envelope; this gives the en· tire lamp accurate light beam control. Both types
are available in narrow or wide beam design, commonly called spot and flood, respectively. R lamps are
generally made in soft glass envelopes for indoor use, whereas PAR lamps are hard glass, suitable for exterior
application. Also available is a lamp with an elliptical reflector bulb shape. This causes the beam to focus a
few inches in front of the lamp, permitting high-efficiency application in pinhole downlights or deep baffle
units where use of ordinary R lamps causes trapping and loss of the most of the lamp's output.
KRYPTON GAS
This gas in lamps in place of the usual nitrogen-argon mixture conducts heat more slowly from the filament
and results in the approximately 1 0% higher efficacy, longer life, and a smaller envelope. The cost premium
for krypton lamps is approximately 50%. Applications are in long-life lamps to increase efficacy and in
exterior spots and floods to increase life and output.
 LIGHTING

Special Incandescent Lamps

ENERGY-SAVING LAMPS
These are basically long-life lamps that are filled with krypton to raise efficacy. These lamps can be
substituted for standard lamps for appreciable savings in energy costs and re-lamping costs. The use of
krypton-filled lamps increases initial cost and decreases energy cost.

TUNGSTEN-HALOGEN (QUARTZ) LAMP

This is a "gas filled tungsten incandescent lamp containing a certain proportion of halogens.'' The halogens
are iodine, chlorine, bromine, and fluorine. Thus the quartziodine-tungsten filament lamp is a member of
this class. The lamp is basically an incandescent lamp, producing light and heat from the incandescence of its
coiled filament. Unlike the normal inert gas-filled incandescent lamp. the lamp envelope, which Is quartz to
withstand high temperature, is filled with an iodine vapor that prevents the evaporation ·of the tungsten
filament.
This evaporation is what normally occurs n the incandescent lamp, resulting in the blackening of the bulb,
light output deterioration, and eventual burnout. The mechanism of the regenerative halogen cycle is shown
in the figure below, along with a graphic comparison of light loss between a normal incandescent and a
tungsten-halogen lamp. Although the lamp has approximately the same efficacy as an equivalent normal
incandescent, It has the advantages of longer life, low lumen depreciation (98% output at 90% life).

Fluorescent Lamps

preheat lamps
The original fluorescent lamp was of a preheat design. The circuit utilizes a separate starter, which is a small
cylindrical device that plugs into a preheat fixture. When the lamp circuit is closed, the starter energizes the
cathodes; after a 2- to 5- second delay, it initiates a high voltage arc across the lamp, causing it to start. Most
starters are automatic, although in desk lamps the preheating is accomplished by depressing the start button
tor a few seconds and then releasing it. This closes the circuit and allows the heating current to flow;
releasing the button causes the arc to strike.
COLD CATHODE TUBES
The true cold cathode tubes uses a large, thimble-shaped cathode and a high-voltage transformer that
literally tears the eleatrons out of the large cathode to strike the arc. These lamps have a very long life which,
in contradistinction to hot cathode lamps, is virtually unaffected by the number of starts. Cold cathode lamps
have a lower overall efficiency than the hot cathode types and are normally used where long continuous ·runs
are requi~edi as in architectural-type lighting rather than in lighting fixtures. Cold cathode lamps are
readily dimmed and also operate well at varying ambient temperatures.
RAPId START LAMPS
This lamp is used in applications where high output is required from a limited size source such as outdoor
sign lighting, street lighting, and merchandise displays. Because of the serious heat problems involved, VHO
lamps are frequently operate without enclosing fixtures.
INSTANT-START FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Slimline lamps are the best-known variety of instant-start fluorescent lamps. They use a high-voltage
transformer to strike the arc without any cathode preheating. These lamps have only a single pin at each end
that also acts as a switch to break the ballast circuit when the lamp is removed, thus lessening the shock
hazard.
 LIGHTING

Special Fluorescent Lamps

Reflector and Aperture lamps

These lamps contain an internal reflector that performs in the same fashion as the more common reflector in
the incandescent Rand PAR lamp. The reflector lamp is completely phosphor-coated, while the aperture lamp
has a clear "window" resulting in very high luminance of this slot. Both types have lower efficacy than a
normal tube and are generally applied where an enclosing fixture is uneconomical or impractical. as in
handrails or for sign illumination.

INSTANT-START FLUORESCENT LAMPS

Slimline lamps are the best-known variety of instant-start fluorescent lamps. They use a high-voltage
transformer to strike the arc without any cathode preheating. These lamps have only a single pin at each end
that also acts as a switch to break the ballast circuit when the lamp is removed, thus lessening the shock
hazard.
"U"-SHAPED LAMPS
This were developed to answer the need for a high-efficiency fluorescent source that could be utilized in a
square fixture, since the normal fluorescent lamp shape is frequently not architecturally suitable.
Energy-Conserving lamps
These lamps are produced by all three major manufacturers and have trademark names.
WATT-miser by General Electric
Econo-watt by Westinghouse
Super-saver by Sylvania
These lamps are intended as lower-wattage replacements for standard lamps.

Neon Lamps

Neon vapor lamps consist of exhausted glass tubes filled with neon gas that is ionized and conducts an
electric current through the tube. A high voltage is required because of the large voltage·drop at the cathode;
consequently, a transformer is a necessary part of the equipment. A step up from 115 to 6000 or 10,000 V
may be required. Neon light has a pink to dark red color, depending on the gas pressure. The tubes are
commonly used in street, window and indoor signs.
Different colors may be obtained by using mixtures of the two, or by using colored glass tubing.

Mercury Lamps

These lamps operate by passing an arc through a high-pressure mercury vapor contained in an arc tube
made of quartz or glass.
 ACOUSTICS

Pre-fabricated Units
These include acoustical tile, which is the principal type of material available for acoustical treatment;
mechanically perforated units backed with absorbent material; and certain wall boards, tile boards and
absorbent sheets.

Type I
Cast Units having a pined or granular - appearing surface

Class A. All - mineral units composed of small granular of finely divided

particles with portland cement bider
The masonry like surface appearance of the units makes them particularly suited for installation in buildings
of the monumental types and in some churches. These tiles are rated as incombustible. Paints normally
reduces their sound absorptive properties, but decoration is seldom required. The surfaces of materials in this
class are reasonably smooth.

Class B. All - mineral units composed of small granules or finely divided

parodes. with lime or gypsum binder

Class B. All - mineral units composed of small granules or finely divided

parOdes. with lime or gypsum binder

Type Ii
Units having perforated surface; the perforations to be arranged in a regular pattern

Class A. Units having a perforated surface which acts as a covering and sup.
port for the sound absorbent material to be strong and durable and
substantially rigid
In this type of unit an absorptive pad, blanket, or rigid element (frequently consisting of compressed mineral
wool) is covered by perforated sheet metal or board. The perforated covering does not reduce the absorption .
to the area covered.

Class B. Units having circular perforations extending into the sound

absorbent material
Prefabricated units of this class usually have large perforations and therefore are especially serviceable in
installations that require frequent redecoration. Laboratory and field tests show that these tiles may be
painted repeatedly without noticeable reduction of their . soundabsorptive properties.

Class C. Units having slots or grooves extending into the sound absorbent
material
The action of the slots or grooves is similar to that of the holes in the tiles of the preceding classification.
 ACOUSTICS

Acoustical Plaster and Sprayed - on Materials

The use of selected types of acoustical plastic materials has proved highly satisfactory for the treatment of
offices, school rooms, corridors, and many public building. They can be used in most places where ordinary
lime or gypsum plaster can be used without altering the architectural effects. Two coats of acoustical plaster
may be apllied instead of the finish coat in the ordinary plaster treatment for an added little cost per square
meter.

Type I
Acoustic plaster

Type Ii
Acoustic materials other than acoustic plaster which are applied with a trowel

Type Iii
Fibrous materials combined with a binder agent and which are applied by being sprayed on with an air gun
or blower

Acoustical Blankets
The material used most commonly in the fabrication of acoustical blankets are mineral wood, hair felt, wood
fiber. and glass fiber. Although, the thickness of these blankets is generally between 112 and 4 inches, blankets
of greater thickness are sometimes used in special applications. These materials are more absorptive in the
low - frequency range, principally because of their greater thickness, than are most other types. Hence,
blankets sometimes are useful for controlling the acoustical characteristics. of studios and auditoriums that
require "Balanced absoprtion. Including a considerable amount at low frequencies

Perforated Facings

A perforated facing such as plywood, metal, or fiberboard

cons1jtutes a very pntctical covering for an 8COUIIicll belnket.
The figure shows how a perfor· atad J.wenit board can be used
for this purpose. except for the small holes, the appearance of the
plywood COI*ing the patches of absorptive material does not
differ from other ponions of the wd. This type of facing has the
advantage that it can be-easiy cleaned and·deconlted, and
repeatedly painting does not reduce its absorptivity if the holes
are not bridged witl'l paint. In tl'tis respect and also in the
mechanism by whicl't it absorbs sound, it is similar to type II-A
prefabricated units.
 ACOUSTICS

Acoustical Blankets

Mounting Acoustical Materials

The manner of mounting acoustical materials can influence markedly their absorptive properties. Certain
materials that are unsatisiactory when applied directly against a rigid wall may be satisfactory when they
are mounted some other way; for example, with an air space behind them. The effect is an increase in the
absorption at low frequencies, due partly to the flexural vibration of panels of two material. Within certain
limits, increasing the spacing from the wall increases the average absorption and alters the frequency at
which maximum absorption occurs - the lowest resonant frequency of the panel. Since the size of a panel is a
factor that determines this resonant frequency, the frequency region in which increased absorption takes
place, owing to flexural vibration, depends on the separation between furring strips.
Panel Absorbers
Thin panels, if made sufficiently durable and flexible materials like pressed wood fiber or paper boards,
plywood, or plastic boards, can be employed for ceilings, wainscoting, or even for the entire walls of rooms
where low-frequencies absorption is required. Such materials, if used for walls or ceilings of small rooms,
such as music studios, classrooms, and offices, reduce the amount of additional absorption required for
optimum.
Absorption by Patches of Materials
The location and distribution of absorptive material in rooms affects ( 1 l the absorption due to the material
and (2) the distribution of sound in the room. For example, twenty five small areas - "Patches" -of material,
each 1.20 square, will absorb more sound than will one large patch having an area of 100 sq. ft. (9 to sq. m.}
this dependence of absorption on the size of patch is frequently referred to as the "area effect". Although the
application of absorptive material in the form of small patches or narrow strips is more efficient than a
uniform treatment, it is usually not the cheaper method of obtaining a specified amount of absorption with a
given material since the cost of installation of patches on a per square meter basis is generally much higher
than is the cost for uniform coverage.
Special Sound-Absorptive Construction
Many absorptive materials and constructions that are not described earlier above are useful or even
indeipensable for certain types of acoustical installations. Often these special treatments, when used with
understanding and imagination, provide not only better acoustics that can be obtained by the use of the
standards or "classified" materials, but also a more artistic appearance, sometimes at a considerable reduction
in cost.
Variable Absorbers
Certain rooms, especially some broadcast studios and music rooms make use of variable absorbers such as
hinged panels, rotatable cylinders or movable draperies. The hinged panels generally are absorptive on one
side and reflective on the other; the cylinders incorporate various combinations of absorbers and reflectors.
These special devices are utilized for varying and controlling the acoustical conditions in the room. In
general, the control of the following three factors is desirable: ( 1) the magnitude of the average absorption
over the greater part of the audible frequency range (2) the shape of the absorption is frequency characteristic,
and (3} the scattering or dispersion of sound in the room. Scattering influences, the uniformity of the sound-
pressure distribution within the room.
Rotatable Panels
This changes the total absorption of a room they differ from the cylinders in that their rotation generally
changes the shape of the walls or ceiling. Hence, the rotation of panels has a pronounced influence on the
diffusion as well as on the absorption of sound in the room. One side of the panel is flat and is covered with
acoustical tile; the other side of the panel is convex and is "treated hardboard". This panels control diffusion.
They can be bucked by an air space and an absorptive blanket. This can be controlled by push button.
 ACOUSTICS

Acoustical Blankets
Rotatable Cylinders
The convex surface of each cylinder is made up of three different materials each extending the full length of
the cylinder and 1 20° around it. The cylinders are fitted into openings of such size that 120° of each projects
through a suspended plaster ceiling.
Material (a) is a 2 inch layer of fiberglass, having a density of 6 pounds per cubic foot, covered with ~ inch
perforated plywood (There are 1 024 circular holes are 1/8 inch in diameter and are arranged 3/8" on
centers, Material (a} il~ moderately absorptive at low frequencies and is increasingly absorptive at higher
frequencies;
.Material (b) is 1/8" unperforated plywood backed with a 2 Inch layer of fiberglass. It is most absorptive at
low· frequencies and is decreasingly absorptive at higher frequencies.
Material (c) is %inch unperforated plywood. It is slightly (but uniformly) absorptive at all frequencies.
Suspended Absorbers
In certain types of enclosed spaces (for example, in large machine shops having extremely high ceilings) it is
difficult to apply the conventional type of acoustical treatment so that absorptive surfaces will be located near
the source of noise. In such cases, recourse may be had to relativity small prefabricated units of absorptive
material hung from the ceiling. The use of such suspended absorbers is especially adaptable to locations where
there are no extended surfaces on which to apply acoustical tile, or similar materials, and where it would be
difficult or expensive to install a false ceiling because of pipes or other obstructions. Such treatment need not
interfere with existing lighting or ventilating systems. Owing to diffraction, the effective absorption per unit
area or per unit weight of small absorbers can be very high. Sound waves impinge on both sides of the
absorbers, thus enhancing their absorption.