Module 4
En route aids or airway aids
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE Drainage is provided in
highways for removing and controlling surface and
sub-surface water  Surface drainage: It is the
removal and diversion of surface water  Sub-
Surface drainage: It is the removal and diversion of
soil water from the subgrade
SURFACE DRAINAGE  In surface drainage water
from the surface of road is collected in longitudinal
drains (side drains)  These are then disposed at
nearest stream or river Collection of surface water 
Surface water is removed by providing camber along
the profile  These water collected at the side drains
 In rural areas open and covered drains are used 
Open side drains are provided with trapezoidal
section  Covered drains are provided which is filled
with layers of sand and gravel  In urban areas,
underground longitudinal drains are provided in
which water is collected in pits at suitable intervals
and are disposed through underground drainage
pipes Cross drainage  Cross drainages are provided
to cross stream across road, to take water from one
side to other side across road Cross drainage
commonly used are: Culvert and bridge Culvert 
Used for a small stream with water way less than 6
m Type of culvert used:  Slab culvert – RCC slab
provided over masonry wall  Box culvert: RCC box is
used  Arch culvert: Brick, stone masonry or PCC
arches are used  Pipe culvert: Pipe of steel or RCC of
minimum 75 cm diameter are used Small bridges 
Used for higher water ways  RCC or steel bridges
are commonly used SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE  Sub-
surface drainage keeps the variation of moisture
content a minimum Sub-surface drainage is done by:
Lowering of water table  Water table should be
kept atleast 1.2 m below subgrade  For permeable
soil, water table is lowered by providing longitudinal
drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter sand. 
For impermeable soil, along with longitudinal drains,
transverse drains are provided Control of seepage
flow  Seepage occur when ground level is sloping 
Longitudinal pipe drains are used to control seepage
flow Control of capillary rise  To control capillary
rise of water, capillary cut off are used  Layer of
granular material are used between water table and
subgrade soil which prevent capillarity 
Impermeable membrane are used which prevent
capillarity
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Road User Characteristics Road users: Pedestrian,
cyclist or driver The physical, mental and emotional
characteristics of human being affect the traffic
operation. The various factors which affect the road
user characteristics are a) Physical characteristics It
includes:  Vision – eye movement, day vision and
night vision and depth of judgment affect the traffic
operation  Hearing - Help to gather sound and
information. Useful for cyclist and pedestrian 
Strength - useful for heavy vehicles  Reaction time –
important in stopping distance b) Mental
characteristics It includes:  Skill – skilled driving
reduces traffic problems  Knowledge – knowledge
about vehicle, traffic behavior, rules of road 
Intelligence – to understand critical situation and act
in emergency situation  Experience – experienced
drivers can avoid traffic problems c) Psychological
characteristics It includes emotional factors such as
fear and anger, impatience and general attitude
toward traffic and regulations d) Environmental
characteristics It includes  Traffic stream – mixed
traffic or heavy traffic  Traffic facilities – overtaking
facility, parking facility etc  Atmospheric condition –
rain, darkness etc
Vehicular Characteristics
Static characteristics Vehicular dimensions  Height –
affects clearance of overhead structures like electric
line, over bridge etc  Width – affects width of traffic
lane, shoulder and parking lane  Length – affects
capacity, overtaking distance etc Weight and power
of vehicle  Affect design of pavement, thickness and
gradient  Govern the limiting gradient and affect
the speed and acceleration Turning angle  affects
the radius of curve
Dynamic characteristics It includes 1. Speed 2.
Acceleration 3. Braking characteristics  Speed of
vehicle – affects the stopping distance, super
elevation, length and radius of horizontal and
vertical curve, width of road, gradient etc  Braking
characteristics – affects the stopping distance,
capacity and overtaking distance
TRAFFIC STUDIES
Traffic volume study  Number of vehicles crossing a
station per unit time – vehicles per day or vehicles
per hour  It represents the flow of traffic  Traffic
volume vary hourly, daily or seasonally  Studied by
counting the vehicle by a. Mechanical counter –
automatically record the number b. Manual counting
Speed study  It studies the speed of vehicle in the
traffic – by enoscope method, graphic record
method or electronic meter method  It studies
delay of vehicles and its causes – by floating car
method, license plate method or by interview
method Origin and destination study  It studies the
number of vehicles and their origin and destination 
It gather information about number of passenger,
purpose of trip, intermediate stop and reason 
Studied by – road side interview method, license
letters or symbol  Example: public telephone, petrol
pumb, hospital Parking sign  Square shape with
blue background and white coloured letter „P‟
Traffic Signals  Signal assigns right of way to one or
more traffic streams  Most important and effective
methods of controlling traffic
Type of traffic signal Traffic control Signal  Traffic
control signals have 3 colours.  Red light: STOP 
Yellow or amber: clearance time for vehicles which
enter the intersection area by the end of green time
to clear off  Green: GO Fixed time signals or pre-
timed signals  Set to repeat a cycle of red, amber
and green lights.  Timing is predetermined using
traffic studies  Electrically operated Traffic actuated
signals  Signals in which the timing of the phase and
cycle are changed according to the traffic demand.
Manually operated signals  In countries like India
traffic police are assigned to watch and regulate the
traffic during the peak hours
ROAD MARKING  Markings made of lines, patterns,
words, symbols or reflectors  It is used to control,
warn, guide or regulate the traffic  Markings are
made using paints in contrast with the pavement
Types of marking Pavement marking  White or
yellow paints are used  Some common types are
center line, lane line, walk line, parking space, bus
stop etc Kerb marking  parking regulation or any
other Object marking  physical obstruction which
are hazardous should be marked Reflector marking 
marking for safe driving during night
Design of traffic signal by Webster’s method
Optimum signal cycle (The duration of signal) Co is
given by
AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Advantages of air Transport  Accessibility – reach
inaccessible area with other modes  Continuous
journey – can fly over both land and water – do not
require any track  Demand for technical skill –
manufacture, maintenance and operation have
opened up opportunities for technical man power 
Emergency use – serving flood, war affected areas 
Save time – save time due to high speed
Disadvantages  Flight rules – rules should be strictly
followed  Operating expense – most expensive
mode and high fare  Safety – psychological fear
among passengers about the safety  Weather
condition – can operate only under favourable
conditions
AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS
1. Aircraft capacity  Number of passengers,
baggage, cargo and fuel that can be accommodated
in the aircraft  Terminal facilities should be planned
to receive aircraft of highest capacity 2. Aircraft
speed  Speed of aircraft  Air speed – speed of
aircraft relative to the speed of air  Ground speed –
speed relative to the ground 3. Aircraft weight 
Governs length and thickness of runway  Maximum
gross take off weight – maximum load the aircraft is
certified to carry during take off – pavements are
designed for this  Maximum structural landing
weight – difference between gross take off weight
and weight of fuel consumed during the trip 
Operating empty weight – weight of an aircraft
including crew. It does not include pay load and fuel
 Pay load – revenue producing load. Includes
passengers, baggage, mail and cargo  Zero fuel
weight – weight other than fuel 4. Fuel spilling 
Spilling of fuel and lubricant  Affect the bituminous
pavement 5. Jet blast  Ejecting of hot exhaust gas at
high velocity  Affect the pavement 6. Minimum
circling radius  Minimum radius in space required
for smooth turn in space before landing  Affect the
distance between two adjacent airport 7. Minimum
turning radius  Minimum turning radius of aircraft in
ground  Affect radius of taxiways 8. Noise  Noise
due to machinery and jet  During Take off – noise
due to jet  During landing – Noise due to machinery
9. Range  The distance that fly without refueling
10. Size of aircraft  Fuselage length – affects the
widening of curves, size of apron and hangars  Gear
tread – distance between main gears-govern
minimum turning radius  Height – Affect the height
of hangar gate  Tail width – affect the size of
parking and apron  Wheel base – affect the
minimum radius of taxiway  Wing span – govern the
width of taxiway, size of apron and hangar, etc. 11.
Take off and landing distances  Distance required
for take off and landing  Affect the minimum
1.
2. Landing aid or Terminal aid
En route aids or airway aids
During flight from one airport to another
1. Air route surveillance radar
2. Air to ground communication
3. Airway beacon
4. Direction finder
5. Distance measuring equipment
3. Correction for gradient  The runway length after
being corrected for elevation and temperature Landing aids or Terminal aids
should further be increased at the rate of 20% for
During the process of landing
every 1% of the effective gradient  Effective 1. Airport service detection equipment
gradient – Difference in elevation between highest 2. Airport surveillance radar
and lowest point of runway divided by the basic
3. Approach light
length of runway 4. Instrument landing system
Geometric design of runways Geometric design of
5. Precision approach radar
runway includes: 1. Length Basic runway length will
depend on the category in which the airport falls as
per ICAO classification 2. Gradient 3. Rate of change
of gradient Sudden changes in longitudinal gradient
affect the lifting of aircraft, performance of aircraft
and develop structural defects in the aircraft. The
rate of change of gradient is limited to the following
per 30m length 4. Safety area It is an area provided
on either side of runway. It includes shoulders,
structural pavement and addition width The
minimum width of safety area should be as follows
5. Sight distance The sight distance
recommendations as per ICAO are as follows  For A,
B and C type airport: any two points 3 m above the
runway should be mutually visible from a distance
equal to half the runway length  For D and E type
airport: Any point 3 m above the runway should be
visible to all other points 2 m above runway within a
distance of at least one – half the runway length 6.
Transverse gradient Transverse gradient is provided
for the drainage of surface water. ICAO
recommendation  Maximum gradient of 1.5 % for A,
B and C type airport  Maximum gradient of 2% for D
and E type airport 7. Width The width of runway for
different airport are as follows
Runway Pattern or configuration Pattern of runway
is governed by the volume of air traffic and
prevailing wind (Wind direction, intensity and
duration). Following are the basic patterns or
configurations of the runway.
1. Single runway  Adopted when wind blows in one
direction for most of the time and air traffic is not
much  Under the condition of visual flight rules
(VFR), single runway can handle 45 to 60 operations
per hour  For instrument flight rules (IFR), single
runway can handle 20 to 40 operations per hour  In
this type, only one operation i.e. landing or take off
can be done at a time.  Most desirable runway with
regard to capacity and air traffic control  Routing of
aircraft is less complex 2. Parallel runway  Runways
in parallel. The two and four parallel runways are
common  Adopted when traffic is high 3.
Intersecting runway  Runways cross each other 
Adopted when wind in one direction does not
provide required wind coverage  Cross wind
component on each runway will decide whether
runway can be used for operation  Intersection
should be placed as close as possible to their
threshold  Operation should be away from
intersection 4. Divergent or open- v runway 
Runway diverges in direction without intersecting
each other.  Adopted based on the wind direction
and its cross component
DESIGN OF TAXIWAY  Taxiway – Provide access
from the runway to the terminal area and hangar 
Apron taxiway – taxiway located on the periphery of
an apron  Dual parallel taxiway – Two taxiways
parallel to each other on which airplane can taxi in
the opposite direction  Terminal Taxilane – Taxiway
on an apron used for the access to the gate position
Layout of taxiway 1. Arrangement – Taxiway should
be arranged such that the aircraft just landed should
not interfere with the aircraft taxiing to take off 2.
Busy airports – Locate taxiway at various points
along the runway. It will then be possible for the
landing aircraft to leave the runway as early as
possible for making it clear for use by other aircrafts
3. Crossing – crossing or intersection of taxiway and
runway should be avoided 4. Higher turn off speed –
If the speed of aircraft is high, it decrease the
occupancy of aircraft in runway and increase the
capacity of runway 5. Route – Shortest route from
terminal to runway should be selected for taxiway
Geometric Standards 1. Length of taxiway 2.
Gradient 3. Rate of change of gradient 4. Safety area
5. Sight distance 6. Transverse gradient 7. Width 8.
Turning radius
EXIT TAXIWAY  Exit taxiway should be located such
that there is highest possible rate of acceptance
Design of exit taxiway Angle of turn  Angle of turn
of exit taxiway should be 30o to 45o Compound
curve  Exit taxiway composed of two curve,
entrance curve with radius R1 and central curve with
radius R2 Exit speed  The exit speed in taxiway will
be 60 km/hr to 85 km/hr Length of curve  The
length of entrance curve and central curve Length of
 FAA indicated that 7.43 to 11.15 m2 per 1000
passenger
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AIDS
Two category

The approximate % of space for various purposes in
terminal building
 Airline operation – 38%
 Airport administration – 17%
 Public space – 30% Factors which affect the location of airport are 1. practice, parking pattern and parking problem 
 Utilities and shops – 15% Atmospheric and metrological conditions  Study of Parking space – location and space required for
2. Passenger flow weather records  Presence of fog, haze and smoke parking Accident study It studies  Causes of accident
 Terminal building should be such that an reduces visibility  Wind data should be studied and  Zone of accident  Report of each accident – it
uninterrupted flow is formed without should have minimum blowing of smoke  Airport includes  Location of accident  Details of vehicle 
disturbing each other should be located on the windward direction 2. Nature of accident  Road and traffic condition 
The sequence of activities involving passenger flow Availability of land for expansion  Field of aviation is Causes of accident  And accident costs
are as follows expanding day by day  Acquire more land in
 Arrival through automatic door advance  As volume increases, runway length Module 5
 Check in for ticket and luggage should be increases and expand the terminal ROAD INTERSECTION
 Waiting before screening facilities 3. Availabilities of utilities  Utilities like Type of intersections Intersection at grade  Road
 Security screening and metal detector electric power, water, telephone, sewer, etc. should meet at same level  Merging, diverging and crossing
 Departure be available 4. Development of surrounding area  involved Types of intersection at grade
 Deplaning after the journey is over Proximity to residential area, schools and hospital Unchannalised  Lanes are not separated by channel
3. Parking of vehicle should be avoided as it cause noise 5. Economy of divider  Vehicles have no restriction to use any part
 Short term: Near to the terminal building for construction  Site which is more economic to of intersection  One of the crossing vehicle have to
loading and unloading luggage and construct should be selected  Waterlogged areas stop while other proceeds  More conflicts
passenger and uneven terrains are very costly to construct 6.
 Long term: Away from terminal building
Ground accessibility  Airport should be accessible
 Remote: For parking vehicles that carry cargo and
for passengers, employees and it should be located
luggages
at a considerable distance from the center of
Type of parking
population 7. Presence of other airports  Airports
 Parallel parking
should be located at a sufficient distance apart.  To
 Angle parking
prevent the interfering of aircraft movement for
3. Apron
landing 8. Soil Characteristics  Soil should be
Size of apron depends on
sufficiently strong  Soil should be self-drained 9. Channalised  Lanes are separated by channel
 Gate position and its number
Surrounding obstructions  Airport site should be divider  Vehicles have restriction to use any part of
 Size of aircraft
clear of the obstructions which interfere the landing intersection  One of the crossing vehicle have to
 System and type of parking
and take off  Obstructions like tall trees, sloping stop while other proceeds  Less conflicts than
System of aircraft parking
ground, man-made structures, towers, etc. should be unchannalised
1. The different system of aircraft parking is:
2. Frontal or linear system cleared 10. Topography  Topographical features like
3. Open apron or transporter system contours, hills, streams, etc. should be studied 
4. Pier or finger system Raised ground like a hill top is an ideal site 11. Use of
5. Satellite system airport  Site selection depends on the purpose of
Frontal or linear system airport. That is civil or military
Module 6 Rotary  All converging vehicle are forced to move
Aircraft parked along the front of the terminal
DESIGN OF RUNWAY around a large central island in clockwise direction
building
Runway orientation and they can move out of flow into their respective
Open apron or transporter system
Runway orientation is affected by direction  Eliminate stopping of vehicle  Reduce
Aircrafts are remotely located in rows from the
1. Wind  Head wind – wind from opposite direction conflict
terminal building
Pier or finger system of head of aircraft during landing or take off Runway
Aircrafts are parked along the pier in T shape, along head wind grants the following advantages 1.
Straight or in Y shape provide breaking effect during landing 2. provde
Satellite system uplift on wings during take off  Cross wind
Aircrafts are parked around the small building known component – component of inclined wind
as satellites perpendicular to the runway. It should be minimum.
4. Hangar It should not exceed 25 kmph  Wind coverage – Grade separated intersection  Intersecting roads are
 Provide enclosure for housing and repairing of percentage of time in which the cross wind separated by over pass or under pass  Overpass –
aircraft component remains within the limit Orientation of when highway is taken above ground level by an
 It also includes machine shops and spare store runway should be such that the wind coverage of over bridge  underpass – when highway is taken
 They are constructed of steel framework with about 95 % is obtained  Wind rose – wind data of below ground level by an under bridge
galvanized iron sheets about 5 to 10 years required. These wind data are
 Size of hangar depends on size of aircraft and represented graphically in the form a chart known as TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
turning radius wind rose. Based on these, orientation of runway is Traffic control devices includes 1. Traffic signs 2.
Types of hangar determined. Wind rose diagram can be plot in the Traffic signals 3. Markings
Nose hangar: For large aircraft. Enclose only forward following two ways:  Type I: Showing direction and Traffic signs Regulatory signs  These are mandatory
portion of aircraft duration of wind  Type II: Showing direction and signs  It inform certain laws, regulations and
5. Protection for jet blast duration and intensity of wind 2. Excessive grading – prohibitions  Violation of regulatory sign is an legal
 To prevent the deterioration of pavement, apron excessive grading and earthwork should be avoided offence Regulatory signs are classified as 1. Stop and
and other structures from jet blast if possible 3. Noise nuisance – The location of give way signs  Stop sign – to stop the vehicle.
Method of protection runway should not cause any nuisance to the Octagonal in shape and red in colour with a white
 Blast fences: A device to prevent jet blast surrounding 4. Obstruction – Runway direction border  Give way sign – control the vehicle on a
 Erosion control: By Bituminous surfacing, stone providing fewer obstructions is preferred road so as to assign right of way to other roadways.
pitching, etc. Basic runway length Triangle in shape with apex downward – white in
Basic runway length is the length based on the colour with red border 2. Prohibitory sign  To
AIRPORT VISUAL AIDS following conditions  No wind is blowing on runway prohibit certain traffic movement, use of horn or
• At a considerable height, the airfield looks like a  Aircraft loaded to its full capacity  Airport situated entry of certain vehicle  Circular in shape – white in
tiny spot at sea level  No wind blowing on the way to colour and red border 3. No parking – no stopping
• Runways, taxiways and other components should destination  Runway is leveled in the longitudinal sign  No parking – to prohibit parking at that place.
be marked properly so that they can be direction. That is the effective gradient is zero  The Circular in shape – blue background, red border and
easily interpreted by the pilot standard temperature along the runway is 15oC an oblique red bar at an angle of 45o  No stopping –
Visual aids are provided to: Basic runway length is given based on three cases prohibit stopping of vehicle at that place. Circular in
• To avoid accidents and the longest one among the three is selected as shape – blue background, red border and two
• To convey information to the pilot during landing basic runway length 1. Normal landing Aircraft oblique red bar at 45o and right angle to each other
• To give visual aids for take-off and taxiing should come to stop within 60% of the landing 4. Speed limit and vehicle control sign  To restrict
Visual aids generally used are distance assuming that the pilot makes an approach the speed of vehicle on a stretch of road  Circular in
• During day time – Aiport marking at proper speed and crosses the threshold of runway shape – white background, red border and black
• During night or bad weather – Airport lighting at a height of 15m 2. Normal take off The distance numerals indicating the speed limit  Vehicle control
8.13.1 Airport marking required to reach a height of 10.5 m is 115% of lift of signs – control load, length, height etc  Circular in
Airport marking includes: distance (LOD). Take of distance (TOD) including shape – white background, red border and black
1. Apron marking clear way is twice the distance of 115% of LOD 3. symbols 5. Restriction end sign  Indicate the point
2. Landing direction indicator Stopping in emergency In case of engine failure, at which all restrictions indicated by signs ends here
3. Runway marking sufficient distance should be available to stop the  Circular in shape with white background and a
4. Shoulder marking airplane. This distance is known as accelerate – stop black diagonal band at 45o 6. Compulsory direction
5. Taxiway marking distance control signs  To direct the vehicle in appropriate
6. Wind direction indicator Correction to runway length To get actual length of direction  Circular in shape with blue background
runway, the following corrections are to be applied and white direction arrows
Airport lighting 1. Correction for elevation 2. Correction for Warning signs  To warn about certain hazardous
Elements of airport lighting temperature 3. Correction for gradient  The conditions  Equilateral triangle in shape with apex
• Airport beacon correction for elevation should be applied first and
pointing upwards.  White background red border
• Approach lighting then correction for temperature and then correction
and black symbols  Example: curve, hair pin bend,
• Apron and hangar lighting for gradient  As per ICAO, the Total correction for
narrow bridge, pedestrian crossing, school zone
• Boundary lighting elevation plus temperature should not be greater
Informatory signs To guide the user along the roads,
• Landing direction indicator lighting than 35% 1. Correction for elevation  Basic runway inform about destination, distance and provide
• Wind direction indicator lighting length should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 information to make travel easier. The information
• Runway lighting m rise in elevation of airport above mean sea level 2. sign are grouped under the following heads
• Taxiway lighting Correction for temperature  After the basic length is Direction and place identification signs  Rectangle
• Threshold lighting corrected for elevation, it is further increases at the with white background, black border with black
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL rate of 1% for every 1oC rise in airport reference
• Guidance to be given to the aircraft from their time arrows and letters  Example: destination sign, place
temperature above standard atmospheric
of take off to the time of landing at identification sign Facility information sign 
temperature
the next destination Rectangle with blue background, white or black
plate method, tag on car method or home interview
Components of control network method Traffic flow characteristics  It studies the
1. Control center traffic manoeuver like diverging, merging, crossing
2. Control tower and weaving Traffic capacity study  It gives the
3. Flight service station maximum capacity of a road section  Capacity
runway length 12. Type of propulsion  Affect the depends on lane width, width of shoulder, presence
size, speed, weight carrying capacity, circling radius, of commercial vehicle etc Parking study It studies the
etc. 13. Tyre pressure and contact area  Affect the  Parking demand – number of vehicles accumulated
type and strength of pavement required over an area  Parking charectecteristics – parking
SITE SELECTION FOR AIRPORT